Formulation of the Research Problem and

Development of the Research Hypotheses.

Define a Research Problem:
A gap or uncertainty which hampers the process of efficient decision making in a given
body of knowledge is called research problem.

Problem Identification:
Problem identification process is action oriented and requires a narrowing down of a board
decision problem to the level if information-oriented problem in order to arrive at a
meaningful conclusion.
(note: companies can also outsource the problem identification process to a research agency
in case of lack of time and other difficulties)
Example
Decision Problem Research Problem
What should be done to increase the customer What is the awareness and purchase intention
base of organic products in the domestic of health conscious consumers for organic
market? products?
How to reduce turnover rates in the BPO What is the impact of the shift duties on work
sector? exhaustion and turnover intentions of the BPO
employees?
How to improve the delivery process of Widex How does Windex/industry leaders manage its
hearing aids in India? supply chain in India/Asia?
Should the company continue with the existing What is the satisfaction level of the company
security services vendor or look at an with the existing vendor? Are there any gaps?
alternative? Can they be effectively handled by the vendor
Unit of Analysis
Is that particular source from which the required information is obtained. It can be firm,
organisation or an industry.

Example: in organic food study:

• UOA- could be retailer has to be targeted for stocking the product or end consumer

Theoretical Foundation and model building:

Is a schema or network of the probable relationship between the identified variables. It is a
powerful deriving force behind the research process.

Theoretical framework can be explained verbally as verbal model, in a graphical form as a

graphical model and can be reproduced to mathematical equation and represented as a
mathematical model.
Statement of Research Objective
• Research objectives are to be formulated according to the basic, thrust area of the research
which are crucial to the study being conducted.

• Use of verbs such as “to find out”, “to determine”, “to establish”, and “to measure” used to
spell out the objectives of the study.

Example: In the organic food research, the objectives and sub-objectives of the study are
as follows:
1. To study the existing organic market: This would involve:
A. To categorize the organic product available in Jodhpur into grain, snacks, herbs, pickle,
squashes and fruits and vegetables.
B. To estimate the demand pattern of various products for each of the above categories.
C. To understand the marketing strategies adopted by different players for promoting and
propagating organic products
2. Consumer Diagnostic research:
A. To study the existing customer profile i.e. perception and attitude towards organic
products and purchase and consumption pattern.
B. To study the potential customers in terms of customer segmentation, level of awareness,
perception and attitude towards health and organic products.

3. Retail market: this would involve:

?
Hypotheses
❑ A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more
variables.
❑ A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen
in your study.
❑ To be complete the hypothesis must include three components –
❖ The variables;
❖ The population;
❖ The relationship between the variables.
• Examples
A research hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of a study. The prediction may be based
on an educated guess or a formal theory.
Example 1 is a hypothesis for a nonexperimental study.
Example 1: It is hypothesized that first grade girls will show better reading comprehension than
first grade boys.
In Example 1, the author is predicting that s/he will find higher comprehension among girls than
boys.
To test it, a nonexperimental study would be appropriate because nothing in the hypothesis
suggests that treatments will be given. A simple research hypothesis predicts a relationship
between two variables. From your study of variables, it should be clear that the two variables in
Example 1 are (1) gender and (2) reading comprehension.
The hypothesis states that reading comprehension is related to gender.
• Example 2 is a hypothesis for an experimental study.

• Example 2: It is hypothesized that children who arc shown a video with mild violence will
be more aggressive on the playground than those who are shown a similar video without the
violence.

• In Example 2, the independent variable is violence (mild vs. none), and the dependent
variable is aggressiveness on the playground. The hypotheses in Examples 1 and 2 are
examples of directional hypotheses. In a directional hypothesis, we predict which group will
be higher or have more of something
Research Hypotheses
• Hypothesis must be formulated in simple, clear and declarative form.
• A board hypotheses might no be empirically testable. Therefore, advisable to form
unidimensional.
Example:
H1:High organizational commitment will lead to lower turnover intention.
H2: Attitude towards organic products should have positive relationship with organic purchase
intentions.
H3: Consumer liking for the electronic advertisement for the new diet drink will have positive
impact on brand awareness of the drink.
Nature of the Hypotheses
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated. It should be specified
before research is conducted and openly stated in reporting the results. This allows to –
Identify…
1. the research objectives;
2. the key abstract concepts involved in the research; and
3. its relationship to both the problem statement and the literature review.

The following are the main features of a hypothesis – It…

Is conceptual in nature.
Is a verbal statement in a declarative form.
Has the empirical referent.
Indicates the tentative relationship between two or more variables.
Is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with existing knowledge and
conducive to further enquiry
Nature of the Hypotheses
Can be tested, verifiable or falsifiable.
Is not moral or ethical questions.
Is neither too specific nor to general.
Is a prediction of consequences.
Is considered valuable even if proven false.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
• A good hypothesis must possess the following characteristics – It…
• is never formulated in the form of a question.
• should be empirically testable, whether it is right or wrong.
• should be specific and precise.
• should not be contradictory.
• should specify variables between which the relationship is to be established.
• should describe one issue only. A hypothesis can be formed either in descriptive or relational
form.
• guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used for the purpose of
verification.
• must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.
• should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.
ORIGINS / SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
• Specialization of an educational field.
• Published studies, abstracts research journals, hand books, seminars on the issue, current
trends on the research area.
• Instructional programs persuaded.
• Analyze of the area studied.
• Considering existing practices and needs.
• Extension of the investigation.
• Offshoots of research studies in the field.
TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
• Simple Hypothesis: This predicts the relationship between a single independent variable
(IV) and a single dependent variable (DV).
• For example: Lower levels of exercise postpartum (IV) will be associated with greater
weight retention (DV).
• Complex Hypothesis: This predicts the relationship between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables.
Example of a complex multiple independent variable hypothesis - low risk pregnant women
(IV) who● value health highly; ●believe that engaging in health promoting behaviours will
result in positive outcomes;●perceive fewer barriers to health promoting activities; are more
likely than other women to attend pregnancy-related education programs (DV).
Directional Hypothesis:
This may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a particular outcome. They
specify the expected direction of the relationship between variables i.e. the researcher predicts
not only the existence of a relationship but also its nature. Scientific journal articles generally
use this form of hypothesis.
Example, a researcher may state the hypothesis as, ‘High school students who participate in
extracurricular activities have a lower GPA than those who do not participate in such
activities.’ Such hypotheses provide a definite direction to the prediction.

Nondirectional Hypothesis:
This form of hypothesis is used in studies where there is no sufficient past research on which to
base a prediction. Do not stipulate the direction of the relationship.
Continuing with the same example, a nondirectional hypothesis would read, ‘The academic
performance of high school students is related to their participation in extracurricular
activities.’
• Associative Hypothesis:
• Associative hypotheses propose relationships between variables, when one variable
changes, the other changes. Do not indicate cause and effect.
• Causal Hypothesis:
• Causal hypotheses propose a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables.
The independent variable is manipulated to cause effect on the dependent variable.
• The dependent variable is measured to examine the effect created by the independent
variable.
• For the example mentioned, the causal hypothesis will state, ‘High school students who
participate in extracurricular activities spend less time studying which leads to a low GPA.’
• When verifying such hypotheses, the researcher needs to use statistical techniques to
demonstrate the presence of a relationship between the cause and effect. Such hypotheses
also need the researcher to rule out the possibility that the effect is a result of a cause other
than what the study has examined.
• Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses: Inductive hypotheses are formed through
inductively reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations. Deductive
hypotheses are formed through deductively reasoning implications of theory.

• Application Question:
• The diet drink manufacturer in the study finds that young women are more health
consious and are looking at low calorie options. Thus, any communication or
advertisement for the product has to emphasize the health aspect. The purchase
probability is also influenced by their education level and the nature of their
profession. Other factors such as available brands, celebrity endorsement and
dieticians’ recommendations also have an impact on them.
• Identify your research problem and hypotheses.
• Identify and classify the variables under study.
• Is it possible to generate a theoretical framework for the study?
Quantitative Research Methods:
Correlation Research Methods:
• They are used to determine the extent to which two or more variables are related among a single group of people
(although sometimes each pair of score does not come from one person…the correlation between father’s and
son’s height would not).
• In correlational research we do not (or at least try not to) influence any variables but only measure them and look
for relations (correlations) between some set of variables, such as blood pressure and cholesterol level.
• Correlation research asks the question: What relationship exists?
• A correlation has direction and can be either positive or negative (note exceptions listed later). With a positive
correlation, individuals who score above (or below) the average (mean) on one measure tend to score similarly
above (or below) the average on the other measure.
• A correlation can differ in the degree or strength of the relationship (with the Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient that relationship is linear). Zero indicates no relationship between the two measures and r =
1.00 or r = -1.00 indicates a perfect relationship. The strength can be anywhere between 0 and + 1.00.

Correlations only describe the relationship, they do not prove cause and effect. Correlation
is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for determining causality.
Example
• You find a strong negative correlation between working hours and mental health: in countries
with lower average working hours, people report better mental health. However, this doesn’t
prove that lower working hours cause an improvement in mental health. There are many other
variables that may influence the relationship, such as average income, access to mental
healthcare, and cultural norms.
• Format for correlations research questions and hypotheses:
• Question: Is there a (statistically significant) relationship between height and arm span?
•
H: There is no (statistically significant) relationship between height and arm span
Cross- Sectional Studies:
1. Investigates specific chunk of the population under study. It is scientific in nature.
2. Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that analyze data from a population at a
single point in time.
3. In a cross-sectional study, investigators measure outcomes and exposures of the study
subjects at the same time.
4. There is no prospective or retrospective follow-up. Once the subjects are selected, the
investigators will collect the data and assess the associations between outcomes and
exposures.
Essential Characteristics of Cross-sectional studies:
1. These studies are carried out at a single moment in time and thus the applicability is most
relevant for a specific period.
2. Secondly, these studies are carried out on a section of respondents from the population
units under study (e.g. organisational employees, voters, consumers, industry sectors).
This sample is under consideration and under investigation only for the time coordinate of the
study.
What is an Experiment?
• An experiment is generally used to infer a causality.
• In Experiment, researcher actively manipulates one or more causal variables and measures
their effects on the dependent variables of interest.
• Any change in the dependent variable may be caused by a number of other variables, the
relationship between cause and effect tends to be probabilistic in nature.

• Example:
• The sales manager of a soft drink bottling company sends some of his sales personnel for a
new sales training programme. Three months after they return from the training programme,
the sales in the territory where this sales force was working increases by 20%. The sales
manger, therefore, the sales manager concludes that the training programme is very effective
and, therefore, the sales force from the other territories should also be sent for the same.
• What the sale manager is trying to infer is that the sales training is a causal variable and
increased in the sale is an effect variable. Do you agree with this.
• An experiment is a method of data collection designed to test hypotheses under controlled
conditions. Experiments are an excellent data collection strategy for social workers
wishing to observe the effects of a clinical intervention or social welfare program .

• Using strictly controlled environments, behaviorists were able to isolate a single stimulus
as the cause of measurable differences in behavior or physiological responses.

• Designs considered to be true experiments contain three key features: independent and
dependent variables, pretesting and posttesting, and experimental and control groups.

• In a true experiment, the effect of an intervention is tested by comparing two groups: one
that is exposed to the intervention (the experimental group, also known as the treatment
group) and another that does not receive the intervention (the control group).
Important Points to remember:
✔ In a true experiment need to be randomly assigned to either the control or experimental
groups.

✔ Random assignment is important in experimental research because it helps to ensure that the
experimental group and control group are comparable and that any differences between the
experimental and control groups are due to random chance.

✔ The dependent variable is usually the intended effect the researcher wants the intervention to
have.

Example: If the researcher is testing a new therapy for individuals with binge eating disorder,
their dependent variable may be the number of binge eating episodes a participant reports. The
researcher likely expects her intervention to decrease the number of binge eating episodes
reported by participants. Thus, she must measure the number of episodes that existed prior to
the intervention, which is the pretest, and after the intervention, which is the posttest.
Graphical Representation of Experiment

Sampling Assignment Pretest Intervention Posttest

There are two other ways of designing experiments
• The posttest-only control group design is almost the same as classic experimental design,
except it does not use a pretest. Researchers who use posttest-only designs want to
eliminate testing effects, in which a participant’s scores on a measure change because they
have already been exposed to it.

• Solomon four-group design, the researcher uses four groups. Two groups are treated as
they would be in a classic experiment—pretest, experimental group intervention, and
posttest. The other two groups do not receive the pretest, though one receives the
intervention. All groups are given the posttest.
Important Points
• True experimental designs require random assignment.
• Control groups do not receive an intervention, and experimental groups receive
an intervention.
• The basic components of a true experiment include a pretest, posttest, control
group, and experimental group.
• Testing effects may cause researchers to use variations on the classic
experimental design.
Glossary
• Classic experimental design- uses random assignment, an experimental and control
group, as well as pre- and post testing
• Comparison group- a group in quasi-experimental designs that receives “treatment as
usual” instead of no treatment
• Control group- the group in an experiment that does not receive the intervention
• Experiment- a method of data collection designed to test hypotheses under controlled
conditions
• Experimental group- the group in an experiment that receives the intervention
• Posttest- a measurement taken after the intervention
• Posttest-only control group design- a type of experimental design that uses random
assignment, and an experimental and control group, but does not use a pretest
• Pretest- a measurement taken prior to the intervention
• Random assignment-using a random process to assign people into experimental and
control groups
• Solomon four-group design- uses random assignment, two experimental and two control
groups, pretests for half of the groups, and posttests for all.

• Testing effects- when a participant’s scores on a measure change because they have already
been exposed to it.

• True experiments- a group of experimental designs that contain independent and dependent
variables, pretesting and post testing, and experimental and control groups
What are the advantages of quantitative research methods?

• Quantitative research methods provide an relatively conclusive answer to the

research questions.

• When the data is collected and analyzed in accordance with standardized,

reputable methodology, the results are usually trustworthy.

• With statistically significant sample sizes, the results can be generalized to an

entire target group.
What are the limitations of quantitative research methods?

• Does not account for people’s thoughts or perceptions about what you’re
evaluating.

• Does not explore the “why” and “how” behind a phenomenon.