A hypothesis is a statement that proposes a possible explanation or prediction for a phenomenon or

event. It is an essential part of the scientific method, used to guide and structure research and
experiments.

In order to formulate a hypothesis, one must first identify a problem or question to be investigated.
This could be based on observations, previous research, or a gap in current knowledge. The
hypothesis is then a proposed solution or answer to the problem or question.

For example, if we observe that plants grow taller in sunlight compared to in the shade, we may
formulate the hypothesis that sunlight is a necessary factor for plant growth.

Hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable, meaning that they can be proven true or false through
evidence and experimentation. This is what makes them different from opinions or beliefs.

At HelpWriting.net, we understand the importance of a well-defined hypothesis in academic and

scientific writing. Our team of experienced writers can assist you in formulating and refining your
hypothesis, ensuring that it meets all the necessary criteria and sets a strong foundation for your
research.

Order now on HelpWriting.net and let us help you achieve your academic goals with our professional
writing services. Our team is dedicated to providing high-quality, custom-written papers that meet
the highest standards of academic excellence.

Don't waste any more time struggling with your writing. Let HelpWriting.net be your trusted partner
in academic success.
Random
Experiment:
A
random
experiment
is
one
whereby
the
outcome
can’t
be
predicted
with
any
amount
of
certainty,
at
least
not
before
the
experiment
actually
takes
place.
57.
Hypothesis
Test
of
Difference
between
Means
In
salary
example,
the
null
hypothesis
is
Ho:
1-
2
=c
(=0)
Ha:
1-
2
c
Since
we
have
unrelated
samples
with
known
(for
large
samples,
we
can
use
sample
SD
as
pop
SD)
but
unequal
’s
the
standard
error
of
difference
in
means
is
A
directional
hypothesis
is
a
statement
that
predicts
the
direction
of
the
relationship
between
variables.
For
example,
a
researcher
might
predict
that
increasing
the
amount
of
exercise
will
result
in
a
decrease
in
body
weight.
When
our
P‐value
is
less
than
our
alpha
value,
we
reject
the
null
hypothesis.
Let
me
say
that
again
because
this
is
extremely
important.
When
our
P‐value
is
less
than
our
alpha
value,
we
reject
the
null
hypothesis.
And
when
our
P‐value
is
greater
than
our
alpha
value,
we
fail
to
reject
the
null
hypothesis.
Degree
of
freedom
:-
Now
imagine
you’re
not
into
hats.
You’re
into
data
analysis.You
have
a
data
set
with
10
values.
If
you’re
not
estimating
anything,
each
value
can
take
on
any
number,
right?
Each
value
is
completely
free
to
vary.But
suppose
you
want
to
test
the
population
mean
with
a
sample
of
10
values,
using
a
1-
sample
t
test.
You
now
have
a
constraint
—
the
estimation
of
the
mean.
What
is
that
constraint,
exactly?
By
definition
of
the
mean,
the
following
relationship
must
hold:
The
sum
of
all
values
in
the
data
must
equal
n
x
mean,
where
n
is
the
number
of
values
in
the
data
set.
Types
of
Hypothesis
Null
hypothesis
A
null
hypothesis
is
formulated
against
the
working
hypothesis;
opposes
the
statement
of
the
working
hypothesis
....it
is
contrary
to
the
positive
statement
made
in
the
working
hypothesis;
formulated
to
disprove
the
contrary
of
a
working
hypothesis
When
a
researcher
rejects
a
null
hypothesis,
he/
she
actually
proves
a
working
hypothesis
In
statistics,
to
mean
a
null
hypothesis
usually
Ho
is
used.
For
example,
Ho
Q
=
O
where
Q
is
the
property
of
the
population
under
investigation
O
is
hypothetical
The
experimenter
makes
a
special
effort
to
keep
other
factors
constant
so
that
they
will
not
effect
the
outcome.
21.
HYPOTHESIS
TESTING
(procedure)
•Stating
the
hypothesis
(Null
or
Research).
•Setting
the
criteria
for
a
decision.
•Data
collection.
•Evaluate
the
null
hypothesis(accept
or
reject
the
null
hypothesis,
based
on
the
results
on
analysis) An experimenter changes one factor and observes or measures what happens. One tailed
test
:-
A
test
of
a
statistical hypothesis , where the region of rejection is on only one side of the sampling distribution ,
is
called a one-tailed test. 17. Forms of Hypothesis Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on
the
question being asked and the type of study being conducted Some hypotheses may simply describe
how two things may be related. For example, correlational research In others the researcher might
hypothesize that one variable causes a change in the other variable (causal relationship In their
simplest forms, hypotheses are typically phrased as “if-then” statements We sometimes speak about
the
results
of
a
hypothesis
test
as
being statistically significant…meaning the result is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. 52.
Hypothesis
Testing About a Single Mean - Example 1(2 tailed) Ho: = 5000 (hypothesized value of
population) Ha: 5000 (alternative hypothesis) n = 100 = 4960 = 250 = 0.05 Rejection rule:
if |zcalc| > z /2 then reject Ho. 46. Significance Level Indicates the percentage of sample means that
is
outside the cut-off limits (critical value) The higher the significance level ( ) used for testing a
hypothesis,
the
higher the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true (Type I error) Accepting a null
hypothesis
when
it is false is called a Type II error and its probability is ( ) 27. The Initial Idea The initial idea is the
starting point Often vague or general, it requires refining before research hypotheses can be
generated Refinement of the initial idea is based on (1) a search of relevant research literature (2)
initial observations of the phenomenon Narrow and formalize the initial idea into a statement of the
problem 41. Critical Value Approach With a level of significance of = .05 The area in each tail
beyond the critical values is Using the table of of areas of standard normal distribution. 025.2/05.2
/ ==α 2. Hypothesis Prepared By:- Group 1 WagariRefu TeklewoinKassaye ZewduHakimu
MeseretYohannes HunbelewGebreTsadik Michael Gezae Some Limitations of the Hypothesis are as
follows: What is Hypothesis Testing? Hypothesis testing is a procedure, based on sample evidence
and probability theory, used to determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement and
should not be rejected, or is unreasonable and should be rejected. 43. Hypothesis Testing When you
want
to
make statements about a population, you usually draw samples How generalizable is the sample-
based
finding? Evidence has to be evaluated statistically before arriving at a conclusion regarding the
hypothesis
Depends on whether information is generated from the sample with fewer or larger observations 36.
Categorical vs. Continuous Variables Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific
values
only within a defined range of values like gender, marital status consisting of discrete, mutually
exclusive categories, such as “male/female,” “White/Black,” etc Continuous variables are variables
that
can
theoretically take on any value along a continuum like age, income weight, height etc.. When
compared with categorical variables, continuous variables can be measured with a greater degree of
precision. The choice of which statistical tests will be used to analyze the data is partially dependent
on
whether the researcher uses categorical or continuous variables. Certain statistical tests are
appropriate for categorical variables, while other statistical tests are appropriate for continuous
variables.
As with many decisions in the research-planning process, the choice of which type of variable to use
is
partially dependent on the question that the researcher is attempting to answer. 30. Operational
Definitions The procedures used to measure and/or manipulate a variable Most variables can be
operationally defined in many different ways, Thus creating many different research hypotheses
from a single statement of a problem Fundamentals of Hypothesis Testing: One-Sample Tests. Goals.
After completing this chapter, you should be able to: Formulate null and alternative hypotheses for
applications involving a single population mean or proportion Formulate a decision rule for testing a
hypothesis
36. Categorical vs. Continuous Variables Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific
values
only within a defined range of values like gender, marital status consisting of discrete, mutually
exclusive categories, such as “male/female,” “White/Black,” etc Continuous variables are variables
that
can
theoretically take on any value along a continuum like age, income weight, height etc.. When
compared with categorical variables, continuous variables can be measured with a greater degree of
precision. The choice of which statistical tests will be used to analyze the data is partially dependent
on
whether the researcher uses categorical or continuous variables. Certain statistical tests are
appropriate for categorical variables, while other statistical tests are appropriate for continuous
variables.
As with many decisions in the research-planning process, the choice of which type of variable to use
is
partially dependent on the question that the researcher is attempting to answer. 13. Hypothesis vs
Theory vs Fact A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some
aspect of the natural world. A theory arises from repeated observation and testing and incorporates
facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted. A hypothesis is a specific,
testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, a study designed to
look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states,
“This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that students with better study habits will suffer less
test
anxiety.” Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what
you expect to happen during the course of your experiment or research. While the terms are
sometimes used interchangeably in general practice, the difference between a theory and a
hypothesis
is
important when studying experimental design. Some important distinctions to note include: A theory
predicts
events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of
circumstances. A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis is a
speculative guess that has yet to be tested. 2. Meaning of Hypothesis Definition of Hypothesis
Characteristics of Hypothesis Categories of Hypothesis Forming a Hypothesis Testing of
Hypothesis
Thanks, Jason. Good to hear from you! I hope you’re well. 41. Hypothesis Testing (Cont..) 1. State
the
hypotheses. Every hypothesis test requires the analyst to state a null and an alternative hypothesis.
The
hypotheses are stated in such a way that they are mutually exclusive. That is, if one is true, the other
must
be
false; and vice versa. 2. Formulate an analysis plan. The analysis plan describes how to use sample
data
to
accept or reject the null hypothesis. It should specify the following elements. Significance level.
Often, researchers choose significance levels equal to 0.01, 0.05, or 0.10; but any value between 0
and 1 can be used. Test method. Typically, the test method involves a test statistic and a sampling
distribution. Computed from sample data, the test statistic might be a mean score, proportion,
difference
between
means, difference between proportions, z-score, t-score, chi-square, etc. Given a test statistic and its
sampling distribution, a researcher can assess probabilities associated with the test statistic. If the test
statistic probability is less than the significance level, the null hypothesis is rejected. 51. Hypothesis
Testing About a Single Mean Step-by-Step 1) Formulate Hypotheses 2) Select appropriate formula 3)
Select significance level 4) Calculate z or t statistic 5) Calculate degrees of freedom (for t-test) 6)
Obtain critical value from table 7) Make decision regarding the Null-hypothesis
2.
What
is
a
Hypothesis?
A
hypothesis
is
an
educated
guess
or
proposition
that
attempts
to
explain
a
set
of
facts
or
natural
phenomenon.
We
always
write
a
hypothesis
before
conducting
an
experiment.
17.
Forms
of
Hypothesis
Hypotheses
can
take
various
forms,
depending
on
the
question
being
asked
and
the
type
of
study
being
conducted
Some
hypotheses
may
simply
describe
how
two
things
may
be
related.
For
example,
correlational
research
In
others
the
researcher
might
hypothesize
that
one
variable
causes
a
change
in
the
other
variable
(causal
relationship
In
their
simplest
forms,
hypotheses
are
typically
phrased
as
“if-
then”
statements
56.
Hypothesis
Test
of
Difference
between
Means
The
appropriate
test
depends
on
-
whether
samples
are
from
related
or
unrelated
samples
-
whether
population
standard
deviations
are
known
or
not
-
if
not,
whether
they
can
be
assumed
to
be
equal
or
not
5.
How
to
write
a
hypothesis?
(cont.)
Example
Hypothesis:
If
the
amount
of
heat
is
decreased
then
germination
will
decrease.
In
the
example
the
independent
variable
is
amount
of
heat,
it
will
be
decreased,
then
the
dependent
variable
which
is
germination
will
decease.
58.
Hypothesis
Test
of
Difference
between
Means
The
calculated
value
of
z
is
For
=.01
and
a
two-
tailed
test,
the
Z-
table
value
is
2.58
Since
is
greater
than
,
the
null
hypothesis
is
rejected
T-
Test
:-
A
t-
test
is
a
type
of
inferential
statistic
which
is
used
to
determine
if
there
is
a
significant
difference
between
the
means
of
two
groups
which
may
be
related
in
certain
features.
It
is
mostly
used
when
the
data
sets,
like
the
set
of
data
recorded
as
outcome
from
flipping
a
coin
a
100
times,
would
follow
a
normal
distribution
and
may
have
unknown
variances.
T
test
is
used
as
a
hypothesis
testing
tool,
which
allows
testing
of
an
assumption
applicable
to
a
population.
15.
Purpose
Guides/
gives
direction
to
the
study/
investigation
Defines Facts that are relevant and not relevant Suggests which form of research design is likely to
be
the
most appropriate Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings Limits the
research
to
specific area Offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be empirically
tested Furnishes proof that the researcher has sufficient background knowledge to enable her/him to
make suggestions in order to extend existing knowledge Structures the next phase in the
investigation
and
therefore furnishes continuity to the examination of the problem 36. Categorical vs. Continuous
Variables Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within a defined
range of values like gender, marital status consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive categories, such
as
“male/female,” “White/Black,” etc Continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on
any value along a continuum like age, income weight, height etc.. When compared with categorical
variables, continuous variables can be measured with a greater degree of precision. The choice of
which
statistical tests will be used to analyze the data is partially dependent on whether the researcher uses
categorical or continuous variables. Certain statistical tests are appropriate for categorical variables,
while other statistical tests are appropriate for continuous variables. As with many decisions in the
research-planning process, the choice of which type of variable to use is partially dependent on the
question
that
the
researcher
is
attempting to answer. 44. Steps in Hypothesis Testing Problem Definition Clearly state the null and
alternate hypotheses. Choose the relevant test and the appropriate probability distribution Determine
the
degrees of freedom Determine the significance level Choose the critical value Compare test statistic
and
critical value Compute relevant test statistic Decide if one-or two-tailed test Does the test statistic
fall in the critical region? No Do not reject null Yes Reject null 29. Critical Value Approach The
critical value is the value of the test statistic that corresponds to the area of α = .01 in the lower tail
of
the
standard
normal
distribution. Using standard normal distribution table, we find that z = -2.33 provides an area of
.01 in the lower tail. 70. Relationship between C.I and Hypothesis Testing (Example 1) A direct mktr
knows that average no of purchases per month in entire database is 5.6 By sampling ‘loyals’ he finds
that
their
average is 6.1(i.e, =6.1) Is it merely a sampling accident? Ho: = 5.6 (hypothesized value of
population) Ha: 5.6 (alternative hypothesis) n = 35 = 2.5 Types of Hypothesis • Research
/Working hypothesis • Null hypothesis • Alternate hypothesis Working hypothesis The Research
/working or trail hypothesis is provisionally adopted to explain the relationship between some
observed facts for guiding a researcher in the investigation of a problem. A Statement constitutes a
trail or working hypothesis (which) is to be tested and conformed, modifies or even abandoned as
the
investigation
proceeds. 18. A Hypothesis must make a prediction must identify at least two variables should have
an
elucidating power should strive to furnish an acceptable explanation or accounting of a fact must be
falsifiable meaning hypotheses must be capable of being refuted based on the results of the study
must be formulated in simple, understandable terms should correspond with existing knowledge In
general, a hypothesis needs to be unambiguous, specific, quantifiable, testable and generalizable. 47.
Significance Level (Contd.) When choosing a level of significance, there is an inherent tradeoff
between
these two types of errors Power of hypothesis test (1 - ) A good test of hypothesis ought to reject a
null
hypothesis
when
it
is
false 1 - should be as high a value as possible 37. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables Qualitative
variables are variables that vary in kind, like “attractive” or “not attractive,” “helpful” or “not
helpful,” or “consistent” or “not consistent” Quantitative variables are those that vary in amount like
height, weight, salary etc 7 Different Types of Fractions (Plus Vital Facts) 6. CHARACTERISTICS
Clear & Precise Testable Amenable with time Related to problem State relation Specific & Simple 6.
Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and the Alternate Hypothesis (Hı) The first step is to state
the
hypothesis
being
tested. It is called the null hypothesis, designated (Ho). The capital H stands for hypothesis, and
the
subscript zero implies “no difference”. There is usually a “not” or a “no” term in the null
hypothesis, meaning that there is “no change”. 75. References http://www.experiment-resources.com
http://www.ehow.com http://stattrek.com http://www.methodspace.com http://www.aqr.org.uk–
Association of Qualitative Research The books supplied by our instructor 42. Analyze sample data.
Using sample data perform computations called for in the analysis plan.Test statistic. When the null
hypothesis
involves a mean or proportion, use either of the following equations to compute the test statistic. Test
statistic
= (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard deviation of statistic) Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter)
/ (Standard error of statistic) where Parameter is the value appearing in the null hypothesis,
and Statistic is the point estimate of Parameter. As part of the analysis, you may need to compute the
standard
deviation or standard error of the statistic. Previously, we presented common formulas for the
standard
deviation and standard error.When the parameter in the null hypothesis involves categorical data,
you may use a chi-square statistic as the test statistic. Instructions for computing a chi-square test
statistic
are
presented in the lesson on the chi-square goodness of fit test. P-value. The P-value is the probability
of
observing a sample statistic as extreme as the test statistic, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Hypothesis
Testing (Cont..) 22. Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…) 1. Null Hypotheses and Alternate Hypotheses
Null hypothesis always predicts that no differences between the groups being studied (e.g.,
experimental vs. control group) or no relationship between the variables being studied By contrast,
the
alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will be a difference between the groups being studied
(or a relationship between the variables being studied) 34. Types of Variables There are many
categories of variables Independent vs. Dependent vs. Controlled Variables Categorical vs.
Continuous Variables Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables The next step is to identify the variables
involved in the research question. A variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary or change.
There are two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent variable is the one
that
is
manipulated or changed by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured
or
observed as a result of the independent variable. 62. Hypothesis Testing of Difference between
Proportions Manager wants to see if John and Linda, two salespeople, have the same conversion He
picks samples and finds that 61. Hypothesis Testing of Proportion The limits of the acceptance region
are
Since
the
sample proportion of 0.87 does not fall within the acceptance region, the CEO should reject the
quality control department’s claim 2. Hypothesis Prepared By:- Group 1 WagariRefu
TeklewoinKassaye ZewduHakimu MeseretYohannes HunbelewGebreTsadik Michael Gezae 68. The
Probability Values (P-value) Approach to Hypothesis Testing: Example Ho: = 25 (hypothesized
value
of
population) Ha: 25 (alternative hypothesis) n = 50 = 25.2 = 0.7 SE( )= = 0.1; Z= =2 From Z-
table, prob Z >2 is 0.0228. As this is a 2-tailed test, the p-value is 2 0.228=.0456 37. Quantitative vs.
Qualitative Variables Qualitative variables are variables that vary in kind, like “attractive” or “not
attractive,” “helpful” or “not helpful,” or “consistent” or “not consistent” Quantitative variables are
those that vary in amount like height, weight, salary etc
17. Forms of Hypothesis Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on the question being asked
and the type of study being conducted Some hypotheses may simply describe how two things may
be related. For example, correlational research In others the researcher might hypothesize that one
variable causes a change in the other variable (causal relationship In their simplest forms, hypotheses
are typically phrased as “if-then” statements Outcome: The outcome is simply the result of a
particular experiment. If you consider a set of all of the possible outcomes, this is called the sample
space. The first step is to identify the research question that you want to answer through your study.
This question should be clear, specific, and focused. It should be something that can be investigated
empirically and that has some relevance or significance in the field. IE241: Introduction to
Hypothesis Testing. Topic Slide Hypothesis testing ……………………………………… ..3 Light
bulb example ……………………………………… ..4 Null and alternative hypotheses
……………… .. ……… .5 Two types of error ………………………………………… 8 5. “A
hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables”. (Kerlinger,
1956) “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in devising
theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible”. (Eric
Rogers, 1966) “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between
an independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994) 52. A study to assess the effectiveness of
structured teaching programme on knowledge regarding burping of newborns among primi-gravida
mothers at selected hospitals Bangalore OBJECTIVES : • To assess the existing knowledge score of
primi-gravida mothers regarding burping of newborns at selected hospitals. • To assess the post test
knowledge score of primi-gravida mothers regarding burping of newborns at selected hospitals. • To
compare the post test knowledge score with pre test knowledge score of primi-gravida mothers
regarding burping of newborns at selected hospitals. • To find association between the pre test
knowledge score with selected demographic variables of primi-gravida mother. 2. Hypothesis
Prepared By:- Group 1 WagariRefu TeklewoinKassaye ZewduHakimu MeseretYohannes
HunbelewGebreTsadik Michael Gezae 40. Hypothesis Testing All hypothesis tests are conducted the
same way. The researcher states a hypothesis to be tested, formulates an analysis plan, analyzes
sample data according to the plan, and accepts or rejects the null hypothesis, based on results of the
analysis. 40. • Research hypothesis can either be non-directional or directional. There exists a
hypothesis that is opposite of the positively stated as null hypothesis. • Thus to conclude it would be
fitting to say “hypothesis is perhaps the most powerful tool, man has invented to achieve dependable
knowledge”. • Research findings of the investigation will either support or fail to support the
hypothesis. This hypothesis consists of two variables, an independent variable or cause, and a
dependent variable or cause. Simple hypotheses contain a relationship between these two variables.
For example, the following are examples of simple hypotheses: 25. Categorizing Hypotheses
(Cont…) 3. Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses(Theory Building and Theory Testing) classified in
terms of how they were derived: - Inductive hypothesis - a generalization based on observation -
Deductive hypothesis - derived from theory 23. Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…) Alternate
Hypothesis can further be classified as 2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-directional Hypothesis 13.
FARTHER READING Ahuja.R (2014), Research Method, Rawat Publication, New Delhi 11.
The alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will be a relationship between the variables being
studied. It is denoted by Ha Non Directional Hypothesis Directional Hypothesis Download
Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and
may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author. 3.
CITERIA FOR HYPOTHESIS CONSTRUCTION 1. It should be empirically testable, whether it is
right or wrong. 2. It should be specific and precise. 3. The statement in the hypothesis should not be
contradictory and incongruous . 4. It should specify variables between which the relationship is to be
established. 5. It should describe one issue only. 6. There is no scope for ambiguity. Download Now
42. Analyze sample data. Using sample data perform computations called for in the analysis plan.Test
statistic. When the null hypothesis involves a mean or proportion, use either of the following
equations to compute the test statistic. Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard deviation of
statistic) Test statistic = (Statistic - Parameter) / (Standard error of statistic) where Parameter is the
value appearing in the null hypothesis, and Statistic is the point estimate of Parameter. As part of the
analysis, you may need to compute the standard deviation or standard error of the statistic.
Previously, we presented common formulas for the standard deviation and standard error.When the
parameter in the null hypothesis involves categorical data, you may use a chi-square statistic as the
test statistic. Instructions for computing a chi-square test statistic are presented in the lesson on
the chi-square goodness of fit test. P-value. The P-value is the probability of observing a sample
statistic as extreme as the test statistic, assuming the null hypothesis is true. Hypothesis Testing
(Cont..) One Sample Tests of Hypothesis. Chapter 10. GOALS. Define a hypothesis and hypothesis
testing. Describe the five-step hypothesis-testing procedure. Distinguish between a one-tailed and a
two-tailed test of hypothesis. Conduct a test of hypothesis about a population mean. We sometimes
speak about the results of a hypothesis test as being statistically significant…meaning the result is
unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. Introduction to Hypothesis Dr. RajaniRanjan Singh
Associate Professor in Education Additional Director (Research) VardhamanMahaveer Open
University Kota (Rajasthan) 66. The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to Hypothesis Testing
Difference Between Using and p-value Hypothesis testing with a pre-specified Researcher is
trying to determine, "is the probability of what has been observed less than ?“ Reject or fail to
reject Ho accordingly ページが表示されない原因として、次のような可能性があります。
Download Now 5. The scientific Method Is an overarching perspective On how scientific
investigations should proceed Consists of a set of research principles and methods that help
researchers obtain valid results from their research studies STAT 101 Dr. Kari Lock Morgan 9/25/12.
Hypothesis Testing: p-value. SECTION 4.2 Randomization distribution p-value. 51. Hypothesis
Testing About a Single Mean Step-by-Step 1) Formulate Hypotheses 2) Select appropriate formula
3) Select significance level 4) Calculate z or t statistic 5) Calculate degrees of freedom (for t-test) 6)
Obtain critical value from table 7) Make decision regarding the Null-hypothesis 27. ASSUMPTIONS
NEEDED TO CONDUCT A RESEARCH • Some of the common sense assumptions may be
developed to conduct a particular study. • Example : Prevalence of coronary artery disease is more
common among urban people as compared to rural people. Observational Study: Like the name
implies, these are studies that allow you to collect data through basic observation. Hypothesis testing
is a statistical method that is used in making statistical decisions using experimental data. Hypothesis
Testing is basically an assumption that we make about the population parameter.
Note:
This
post
may
contain
affiliate
links
which
will
take
you
to
online
retailers
that
sell
products
and
services.
If
you
click
on
one
and
buy
something,
I
may
earn
from
qualifying
purchases.
See
my
Affiliate
Disclosure
for
more
details.
13.
Hypothesis
vs
Theory
vs
Fact
A theory is
a
well-
established
principle
that
has
been
developed
to
explain
some
aspect
of
the
natural
world.
A
theory
arises
from
repeated
observation
and
testing
and
incorporates
facts,
laws,
predictions,
and
tested
hypotheses
that
are
widely
accepted.
A hypothesis is
a
specific,
testable
prediction
about
what
you
expect
to
happen
in
your
study.
For
example,
a
study
designed
to
look
at
the
relationship
between
study
habits
and
test
anxiety
might
have
a
hypothesis
that
states,
“This
study
is
designed
to
assess
the
hypothesis
that
students
with
better
study
habits
will
suffer
less
test
anxiety.”
Unless
your
study
is
exploratory
in
nature,
your
hypothesis
should
always
explain
what
you expect to
happen
during
the
course
of
your
experiment
or
research.
While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in general practice, the difference between a
theory
and
a
hypothesis
is
important when studying experimental design. Some important distinctions to note include: A theory
predicts events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set
of
circumstances. A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis is a
speculative guess that has yet to be tested. 69. The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to
Hypothesis
Testing Using the p-Value P-value is generally sensitive to sample size A large sample should yield a
low p-value P-value can report the impact of the sample size on the reliability of the results 74.
Relationship between C.I and Hypothesis Testing (Example 2) C.I. of list 1: (0.035)+/- 1.96*(SE1)
SE1 = Sqrt[(0.035*0.965)/1000]=0.006 C.I.1=(0.0232,0.0467) C.I. of list 2: (0.045)+/-1.96*(SE2)
SE2=Sqrt[(0.045*0.955)/1200]=0.006 C.I.2 =(0.033,0.0568) What can we infer based on these
confidence Intervals? Lack of sufficient evidence to infer that there is any difference between the
response rates in the two samples. 32. The Role of Theory In research planning, theory guides the
process Theory is often the primary source of research hypotheses Theory guides the selection of
variables as well as their operational definitions Most research is based on multiple, overlapping and
interacting theories Which are important parameter of hypothesis testing ? 44. Steps in Hypothesis
Testing Problem Definition Clearly state the null and alternate hypotheses. Choose the relevant test
and
the
appropriate probability distribution Determine the degrees of freedom Determine the significance
level Choose the critical value Compare test statistic and critical value Compute relevant test statistic
Decide if one-or two-tailed test Does the test statistic fall in the critical region? No Do not reject
null Yes Reject null 55. Hypothesis Test of Difference between Means Mayor of a city wants to see
if males and females earn the same A random sample of 400 males and 576 females was taken and
following was found 58. Hypothesis Test of Difference between Means The calculated value of z is
For
=.01 and a two-tailed test, the Z-table value is 2.58 Since is greater than , the null hypothesis is
rejected 7. Research Questions & Hypothesis Hypothesis is the fourth element of the scientific
method However, we may not use hypothesis for all types of research. In a qualitative study,
inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses
(i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). 44. Steps in Hypothesis Testing Problem
Definition Clearly state the null and alternate hypotheses. Choose the relevant test and the
appropriate probability distribution Determine the degrees of freedom Determine the significance
level Choose the critical value Compare test statistic and critical value Compute relevant test statistic
Decide if one-or two-tailed test Does the test statistic fall in the critical region? No Do not reject
null Yes Reject null Download to read offline 37. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables Qualitative
variables are variables that vary in kind, like “attractive” or “not attractive,” “helpful” or “not
helpful,” or “consistent” or “not consistent” Quantitative variables are those that vary in amount like
height, weight, salary etc The hypothesis is an idea or a premise used as a jumping off the ground for
further investigation. It’s essential to scientific research because it serves as a compass for scientists
or
researchers in carrying out their experiments or studies. 72. Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis
Testing Hypothesis testing and Confidence Intervals are two sides of the same coin. t = = Interval
estimate for Testing for the Population Mean: Population Standard Deviation Unknown - Example
The McFarland Insurance Company Claims Department reports the mean cost to process a claim is
$60. An industry comparison showed this amount to be larger than most other insurance companies,
so the company instituted cost-cutting measures. To evaluate the effect of the cost-cutting measures,
the
Supervisor of the Claims Department selected a random sample of 26 claims processed last month.
The sample information is reported below. At the .01 significance level is it reasonable a claim is now
less
than $60? 6. The scientific Method (Cont…) Researchers generally agree that the scientific method is
composed of the following key elements An empirical approach, Observations, Questions,
Hypotheses, Experiments, Analyses, Conclusions, and Replication 61. Hypothesis Testing of
Proportion The limits of the acceptance region are Since the sample proportion of 0.87 does not fall
within the acceptance region, the CEO should reject the quality control department’s claim 32. The
Role of Theory In research planning, theory guides the process Theory is often the primary source of
research hypotheses Theory guides the selection of variables as well as their operational definitions
Most research is based on multiple, overlapping and interacting theories Probability • Research and
quantitative tests produce results in probabilistic • Probability that the association found between an
IV and DV occurred due to chance • Can also be said that the association between the IV and DV
was statistically significant, and therefore not due to chance 28. Statement of the Problem In the
form of a question that clearly indicates an expected relationship The nature of the question will
dictate the required level of constraint of a study Causal questions will require experimental research
Questions about relationships can be answered with lower constraint research Convert into research
hypothesis
by operationally defining the variables Introduction to hypothesis testing. Idea. Formulate research
hypothesis
H 1 New theory, effect of a treatment etc. Formulate an opposite hypothesis H 0 Theory is wrong,
there is no effect, status quo This is often called “null hypothesis” 48. Degree of Freedom The
number or bits of "free" or unconstrained data used in calculating a sample statistic or test statistic A
sample mean (X) has `n' degree of freedom A sample variance (s2) has (n-1) degrees of freedom
Download to read offline H0 :- means difference between two sample is 0 4. Presentation Content
Brief summary on the Scientific Method Meaning of Hypothesis Meaning and Types of variables
Characteristics of Hypothesis Categories of Hypothesis Forming a Hypothesis Testing a Hypothesis
23. Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…) Alternate Hypothesis can further be classified as 2.
Directional Hypothesis and Non-directional Hypothesis 5. The scientific Method Is an overarching
perspective On how scientific investigations should proceed Consists of a set of research principles
and
methods that help researchers obtain valid results from their research studies 7. Types of hypothesis
There are mainly two types of hypothesis: 1) Crude hypothesis: A crude hypothesis is at the low level
of
abstraction. It indicates the kind of data to be collected and it does not lead to higher theoretical
research in the nature of a law or a theory. 2) Refined hypothesis. Refined hypothesis are a)
hypothesis
that
state the existence of empirical uniformities b)Hypothesis that are concerned with relation of
analytical variables. 24. Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…) 2. Directional Hypothesis and Non-
directional Hypothesis Simply based on the wording of the hypotheses we can tell the difference
between
directional and non-directional If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference
between
the
two groups, then it is a non-directional hypothesis. It is non-directional because it predicts that there
will
be a difference but does not specify how the groups will differ. If, however, the hypothesis uses so-
called comparison terms, such as “greater,”“less,”“better,” or “worse,” then it is a directional
hypothesis. It is directional because it predicts that there will be a difference between the two groups
and it specifies how the two groups will differ
Here the variables are bio-fertilizer ‘x’ (independent variable) and pea plant growth and fruit setting
(dependent variable) all those example we assume need some statistic way to prove those. we need
some mathematical conclusion what ever we are assuming is true. 66. The Probability Values (P-
value) Approach to Hypothesis Testing Difference Between Using and p-value Hypothesis testing
with a pre-specified Researcher is trying to determine, "is the probability of what has been
observed less than ?“ Reject or fail to reject Ho accordingly Introduction to Hypothesis Testing.
Everyday phenomenon. We ask ourselves questions everyday. Here are a few examples: Is it going to
rain today? Will the coin turn up Heads? Will this movie be good? Uh-oh! Is this exam going to
hard? 55. Hypothesis Test of Difference between Means Mayor of a city wants to see if males and
females earn the same A random sample of 400 males and 576 females was taken and following was
found 25. Categorizing Hypotheses (Cont…) 3. Inductive and Deductive Hypotheses(Theory
Building and Theory Testing) classified in terms of how they were derived: - Inductive hypothesis -
a generalization based on observation - Deductive hypothesis - derived from theory 58. Hypothesis
Test of Difference between Means The calculated value of z is For =.01 and a two-tailed test, the Z-
table value is 2.58 Since is greater than , the null hypothesis is rejected A scientist notices something
in their natural world 9. Guidelines for writing broad, qualitative research questions: Ask one or
two central questions followed by no more than five to seven sub-questions Relate the central
question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry (like ethnography , phenomenology, etc) Begin
the research questions with the words “what” or “how” to convey an open and emerging design
Examples: How do women in a psychology doctoral program describe their decision to return to
school? “What is it like for a mother to live with a teenage child who is dying of cancer?” Focus on
a single phenomenon or concept 4. Presentation Content Brief summary on the Scientific Method
Meaning of Hypothesis Meaning and Types of variables Characteristics of Hypothesis Categories of
Hypothesis Forming a Hypothesis Testing a Hypothesis 27. The Initial Idea The initial idea is the
starting point Often vague or general, it requires refining before research hypotheses can be
generated Refinement of the initial idea is based on (1) a search of relevant research literature (2)
initial observations of the phenomenon Narrow and formalize the initial idea into a statement of the
problem 52. Hypothesis Testing About a Single Mean - Example 1(2 tailed) Ho: = 5000
(hypothesized value of population) Ha: 5000 (alternative hypothesis) n = 100 = 4960 = 250
= 0.05 Rejection rule: if |zcalc| > z /2 then reject Ho. 32. The Role of Theory In research
planning, theory guides the process Theory is often the primary source of research hypotheses
Theory guides the selection of variables as well as their operational definitions Most research is
based on multiple, overlapping and interacting theories FC2ホームページのトップページへ戻る
HYPOTHESIS A statement about the value of a population parameter developed for the purpose of
testing. Hypothesis and Hypothesis Testing. HYPOTHESIS TESTING A procedure based on sample
evidence and probability theory to determine whether the hypothesis is a reasonable statement. 5.
The scientific Method Is an overarching perspective On how scientific investigations should proceed
Consists of a set of research principles and methods that help researchers obtain valid results from
their research studies Hypothesis Testing. Is It Significant?. Questions (1). What is a statistical
hypothesis? Why is the null hypothesis so important? What is a rejection region? What does it mean
to say that a finding is statistically significant ? 18. TESTING • It is defined as the formal
procedures that statiscians use to test whether a hypothesis can be accepted or not. • They are
procedure for making rational decisions about the reality of effects. 34. Types of Variables There are
many categories of variables Independent vs. Dependent vs. Controlled Variables Categorical vs.
Continuous Variables Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables Here are some common characteristics
of a hypothesis: 65. The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to Hypothesis Testing P-value
provides researcher with alternative method of testing hypothesis without pre-specifying Largest
level of significance at which we would not reject Ho 32. The Role of Theory In research planning,
theory guides the process Theory is often the primary source of research hypotheses Theory guides
the selection of variables as well as their operational definitions Most research is based on multiple,
overlapping and interacting theories Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next
time I comment. The next step is to identify the variables involved in the research question. A
variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary or change. There are two types of variables:
independent and dependent. The independent variable is the one that is manipulated or changed by
the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured or observed as a result of the
independent variable. Download Now Hypothesis Testing. LIR 832 Lecture #3 January 30, 2007.
Topics of the Day. A. Our Fundamental Problem Again: Learning About Populations from Samples
B. Basic Hypothesis Testing: One Tailed Tests Using a Z Statistic C. Probability and Critical Cutoff
Approaches: Really the Same Thing 38. The quality control team selected = .05 as the level of
significance for the test. Data from previous tests conducted when the process was known to be in
adjustment show that the population standard deviation can be assumed known with a value of = 12.
Thus, with a sample size of n = 50, the standard error of is x x 50n 7.112 ===σσx 72. Confidence
Intervals and Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis testing and Confidence Intervals are two sides of the
same coin. t = = Interval estimate for 34. Types of Variables There are many categories of variables
Independent vs. Dependent vs. Controlled Variables Categorical vs. Continuous Variables
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Variables As mentioned above, a theory is usually formulated from a
hypothesis. Once a hypothesis is tested and proven, it is accepted as a theory. Copernicus’
Heliocentric theory, Darwin’s theory of evolution, quantum theory, special relativity theory, are
examples of are some important scientific theories.
7. Research Questions & Hypothesis Hypothesis is the fourth element of the scientific method
However, we may not use hypothesis for all types of research. In a qualitative study, inquirers state
research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions
that involve variables and statistical tests). Statistical Significance • In order to determine if
something is statistically significant, you must establish a level of significance (represented by the
Greek letter α [alpha]). • α = the level of probability where the null hypothesis can be rejected with
confidence and the research hypothesis accepted with confidence • A common level of significance α
= .05 May 2, 2020 - 9:54 am 66. The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to Hypothesis Testing
Difference Between Using and p-value Hypothesis testing with a pre-specified Researcher is
trying to determine, "is the probability of what has been observed less than ?“ Reject or fail to
reject Ho accordingly Introduction to Hypothesis Testing. Chapter 11. Introduction . The purpose of
hypothesis testing is to determine whether there is enough statistical evidence supporting a certain
belief about a parameter. Examples An example of an observation might be noticing that many
salamanders near a pond have curved, not straight, tails An example of a dependent variable is
depression symptoms, which depend on the therapy type which is an independent variable. 46.
Significance Level Indicates the percentage of sample means that is outside the cut-off limits (critical
value) The higher the significance level ( ) used for testing a hypothesis, the higher the probability
of rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true (Type I error) Accepting a null hypothesis when it is
false is called a Type II error and its probability is ( ) 7. Research Questions & Hypothesis
Hypothesis is the fourth element of the scientific method However, we may not use hypothesis for
all types of research. In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e.,
specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical
tests). 47. Significance Level (Contd.) When choosing a level of significance, there is an inherent
tradeoff between these two types of errors Power of hypothesis test (1 - ) A good test of
hypothesis ought to reject a null hypothesis when it is false 1 - should be as high a value as
possible 52. Hypothesis Testing About a Single Mean - Example 1(2 tailed) Ho: = 5000
(hypothesized value of population) Ha: 5000 (alternative hypothesis) n = 100 = 4960 = 250
= 0.05 Rejection rule: if |zcalc| > z /2 then reject Ho. 36. Categorical vs. Continuous Variables
Categorical variables are variables that can take on specific values only within a defined range of
values like gender, marital status consisting of discrete, mutually exclusive categories, such as “male
/female,” “White/Black,” etc Continuous variables are variables that can theoretically take on any
value along a continuum like age, income weight, height etc.. When compared with categorical
variables, continuous variables can be measured with a greater degree of precision. The choice of
which statistical tests will be used to analyze the data is partially dependent on whether the researcher
uses categorical or continuous variables. Certain statistical tests are appropriate for categorical
variables, while other statistical tests are appropriate for continuous variables. As with many
decisions in the research-planning process, the choice of which type of variable to use is partially
dependent on the question that the researcher is attempting to answer. Hypothesis and theory are two
words that are often used in the field of science and research. Although these two words have
somewhat similar meanings, there is a fundamental difference between hypothesis and theory.
Hypothesis is a suggested explanation to explain some phenomenon, and is based on limited data.
Theory, on the other hand, is a set of ideas that is intended to explain facts or events; they are based
on concrete evidence. This is the main difference between hypothesis and theory. 10. Null
hypothesis always predicts that there is no relationship between the variables being studied. The
researcher wishes to disapprove this hypothesis. It is denoted by H0 For example: ◦ “There is no
relationship between learning and intelligence.” 27. ASSUMPTIONS NEEDED TO CONDUCT A
RESEARCH • Some of the common sense assumptions may be developed to conduct a particular
study. • Example : Prevalence of coronary artery disease is more common among urban people as
compared to rural people. 68. The Probability Values (P-value) Approach to Hypothesis Testing:
Example Ho: = 25 (hypothesized value of population) Ha: 25 (alternative hypothesis) n = 50
= 25.2 = 0.7 SE( )= = 0.1; Z= =2 From Z-table, prob Z >2 is 0.0228. As this is a 2-tailed test, the
p-value is 2 0.228=.0456 Simply, it is the opposite of the null hypothesis (H0) Features of Hypothesis
• Simple, specific, and contextually clear • Capable of verification • Related to the existing body of
knowledge • Must explain the proposed relationship between or among variables • Operationalisable
Example : you have a coin and you don’t know whether that is fair or tricky so let’s decide null and
alternate hypothesis One-Sample Tests of Hypothesis. Chapter 10. GOALS. Define a hypothesis and
hypothesis testing . Describe the five-step hypothesis-testing procedure. Distinguish between a one-
tailed and a two-tailed test of hypothesis . Conduct a test of hypothesis about a population mean. 36.
MaxFlights’s quality control program involves taking periodic samples of 50 golf balls to monitor
the manufacturing process. For each sample, a hypothesis test is conducted to determine whether
the process has fallen out of adjustment. Enroll Now! Introduction to Recombinant DNA
Technology In statistical hypothesis testing two hypotheses are compared, which are called the null
hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that states that there
is no relation between the phenomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least not of the
form given by the alternative hypothesis. • The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the
alternative to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of relation. The alternative
hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized relation; in
particular, it can be two-sided (for example: there is some effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one-
sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive or negative, is fixed in advance). 3. What is
the difference between Hypothesis and Theory? 59. Hypothesis Testing of Proportion Quality
control dept of a light bulb company claims 95% of its products are defect free The CEO checks 225
bulbs and finds only 87% to be defect free Is the claim of 95% true at .05 level of significance ? So
we have hypothesized values and sample values 32. The Role of Theory In research planning, theory
guides the process Theory is often the primary source of research hypotheses Theory guides the
selection of variables as well as their operational definitions Most research is based on multiple,
overlapping and interacting theories Empirical Probability: This refers to the likelihood of an
outcome happening, and it is determined by the repeat performance of a particular experiment. You
can do this by dividing the number of times that event took place by the number of times you
conducted the experiment. 7 Different Types of Fractions (Plus Vital Facts) 23. Categorizing
Hypotheses (Cont…) Alternate Hypothesis can further be classified as 2. Directional Hypothesis and
Non-directional Hypothesis