DNA Structure and function:

The molecule that

encodes genetic
information
 DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid, which is a
molecule that carries genetic information in all living
organisms. It is a long, double-stranded helix made up of
repeating units called nucleotides.

 Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar molecule, a

phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

 There are four different nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine

(A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
 The sequence of these nitrogenous bases along the
DNA strand determines the genetic information that is
passed from one generation to the next.

 The specific arrangement of the nucleotides in DNA

creates a genetic code that directs the formation and
function of all living organisms.
 DNA is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and
in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.

 It plays a crucial role in processes such as DNA

replication, transcription, and translation, which are
important for cell growth, division, and protein
synthesis.
 DNA Crucial Roles:

 DNA contains the genetic instructions

1.Genetic information that determine the traits and
characteristics of all living organisms.

 These instructions are passed on from

parents to offspring, ensuring the
continuity of life.
 DNA Crucial Roles:

 DNA is the basis of evolution.

2. Evolution
 Mutations and changes in DNA
sequences lead to genetic variation,
which is the raw material for natural
selection and adaptation.
 DNA Crucial Roles:

 The study of DNA has led to many

3. Medical research breakthroughs in medical research,
including the identification of genes
linked to diseases, the development of
genetic testing, and the creation of
targeted therapies.
 DNA Crucial Roles:

4. Forensics  DNA analysis is used in forensic

investigations to identify suspects,
exonerate innocent individuals, and
solve crimes.
 DNA Crucial Roles:

5. Environmental monitoring:

 DNA-based technologies are increasingly being used to monitor

and assess environmental health, such as detecting pollutants
and monitoring biodiversity.
II.
 Early discoveries: In the late 1800s,
01 scientists discovered that the nucleus of a
cell contained a substance that was different
from the rest of the cell.

 This substance was named "nuclein" and

was later found to be a complex mixture of
DNA and proteins.
II. Historical Background

 Griffith's experiment: In 1928, British scientist

02 Frederick Griffith conducted an experiment
with bacteria that showed that genetic
information could be transferred from one
organism to another.

 This was a major breakthrough that laid the

foundation for future discoveries in genetics.
II. Historical Background

 Watson and Crick's model of DNA: In 1953,

03 James Watson and Francis Crick proposed a
double helix model of DNA, based on X-ray
crystallography data obtained by Rosalind
Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.

 This model provided a molecular explanation

for the way genetic information is stored and
transmitted.
II. Historical Background

 Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty's experiment:

04 In 1944, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and
Maclyn McCarty conducted an experiment
that showed that DNA was the substance
responsible for carrying genetic information
in bacteria
II. Historical Background
 Discovery of RNA: RNA was discovered
05 shortly after DNA, and it was found to play a
key role in the synthesis of proteins.

 In 1961, François Jacob and Jacques Monod

proposed the "central dogma" of molecular
biology, which states that DNA is transcribed
into RNA, which is then translated into
proteins.
 A. The structure of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate,
nitrogenous bases)

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, including DNA

and RNA. Each nucleotide is composed of three parts: a sugar molecule, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
 A. The structure of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate,
nitrogenous bases)

The sugar molecule in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA it is ribose.

Both of these sugars have five carbon atoms and are therefore referred to as
pentose sugars. The sugar molecule is connected to the phosphate group
through a bond between the 5' carbon of the sugar and the phosphate group.
This bond is called a phosphodiester bond and forms the backbone of the
DNA or RNA molecule.
 A. The structure of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate,
nitrogenous bases)

The phosphate group is composed of one phosphorus atom and four

oxygen atoms. It is negatively charged and provides a negative charge to the
backbone of the DNA or RNA molecule.
 A. The structure of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate,
nitrogenous bases)

The nitrogenous base is attached to the 1' carbon of the sugar

molecule. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, the nitrogenous base
uracil (U) replaces thymine. These bases are classified into two categories:
purines (A and G) and pyrimidines (C, T, and U). The nitrogenous bases are
the components that encode genetic information by forming base pairs with
complementary bases on the opposite strand, A with T (or U in RNA) and C
with G.
 A. The structure of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate,
nitrogenous bases)
The order of the nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA determines the
genetic information that is stored and transmitted from one generation to the
next. The arrangement of nucleotides in DNA and RNA, along with their
chemical properties, is essential to their function and plays a critical role in
many biological processes.
 B. The four nitrogenous bases in DNA (adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine)
Adenine and guanine are classified as purine bases, and they have a
double-ring structure. Cytosine and thymine, on the other hand, are classified
as pyrimidine bases and have a single-ring structure. The specific sequence
of these nitrogenous bases in DNA is what ultimately determines the genetic
information encoded in the molecule.
 B. The four nitrogenous bases in DNA (adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine)

• The four nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T). These bases are important components of
DNA, as they provide the information needed to code for the production of
proteins and other molecules necessary for life..
 B. The four nitrogenous bases in DNA (adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and thymine)

The base pairing rules dictate that adenine always pairs with
thymine, and guanine always pairs with cytosine. This complementary base
pairing ensures that the DNA molecule can replicate accurately and pass on
genetic information from one generation to the next.
 III.
DNA’S
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
 III.
DNA’S
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
A. The Structure of Nucleotides
Nucleotides
 Are the building blocks of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA.

 Each nucleotide is composed of three parts: a sugar molecule, a

phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
A. The Structure of Nucleotides
Nucleotides
 SUGAR MOLECULE (deoxyribose - DNA); (ribose – RNA)

 Both of these sugars have five carbon atoms and are therefore referred to as
pentose sugars.

 The sugar molecule is connected to the phosphate group through a bond

between the 5' carbon of the sugar and the phosphate group.

 This bond is called a phosphodiester bond and forms the backbone of the DNA
or RNA molecule.
A. The Structure of Nucleotides
Nucleotides
 PHOSPHATE GROUP

- is composed of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms.

- It is negatively charged and provides a negative charge to the

backbone of the DNA or RNA molecule.
 A. The Structure of Nucleotides

Nucleotides
 NITROGENOUS BASE is attached to the 1' carbon of the sugar molecule.

 There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine
(G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

 In RNA, the nitrogenous base uracil (U) replaces thymine.

A. The Structure of Nucleotides
Nucleotides

 These bases are classified into two categories: purines (A and G)

and pyrimidines (C, T, and U).

 The nitrogenous bases are the components that encode genetic

information by forming base pairs with complementary bases on the
opposite strand, A with T (or U in RNA) and C with G.
 B. The 4 Nitrogenous Bases

- Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and

thymine (T)
 These bases are important components of DNA, as they provide
the information needed to code for the production of proteins and
other molecules necessary for life.
C. Base pairing rules and complementary base pairing
 The base pairing rules refer to the specific pairing of the four nitrogenous bases
in DNA - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). These bases
are always paired in a specific way: adenine pairs with thymine (A-T), and
guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C).

 The base pairing rules dictate that adenine always pairs with thymine, and
guanine always pairs with cytosine.

 This complementary base pairing ensures that the DNA molecule can replicate
accurately and pass on genetic information from one generation to the next.
C. Base pairing rules and complementary base pairing

 This complementary base pairing is essential for DNA replication and

transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.

 During replication, the two strands of DNA separate and each serves as a
template for the synthesis of a new strand.

 The new strand is built by matching the base pairs according to the base pairing
rules, resulting in two identical copies of the original DNA molecule.
C. Base pairing rules and complementary base pairing
 In addition to the base pairing rules in DNA, complementary base pairing is also
important in other biological processes.

 For example, in RNA, uracil (U) replaces thymine as the complementary base for
adenine.

 RNA also forms complementary base pairs with DNA during transcription, a process
in which RNA copies genetic information from DNA to produce protein.

 Complementary base pairing is also important in many other biological molecules,

such as tRNA, which carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
 THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

 A fundamental principle that describes how genetic information is stored,

replicated, and expressed in living cells.

 It outlines the process by which DNA is copied into RNA, and then
translated into proteins, which are the building blocks of all living
organisms.

 The central dogma is a foundational concept in biology and has far-

reaching implications for fields such as genetics, biotechnology, and
medicine.
 Understanding the central dogma is essential for comprehending the
basic mechanisms of life and for developing new treatments for diseases.
 THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

DNA Replication
01

FLOW OF 02 Transcription

GENETIC
INFORMATION
03 Translation

04 Reverse Transcription
 A. DNA REPLICATION

DNA Replication is semi-conservative

 A. DNA REPLICATION

DNA Replication is semi-conservative

 A. DNA REPLICATION

DNA Replication is semi-conservative

● is the process by which DNA replicates, creating two new DNA

molecules that each contain one original strand and one newly
synthesized strand.

● In this type of replication, the two strands of the DNA molecule

separate, and each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a
new complementary strand.

● The end result is two DNA molecules, each containing one original
(parental) strand and one newly synthesized (daughter) strand.
 A. DNA REPLICATION

DNA Replication is semi-conservative

● is the process by which DNA replicates,

creating two new DNA molecules that each
contain one original strand and one newly
synthesized strand.

● In this type of replication, the two strands of

the DNA molecule separate, and each strand
serves as a template for the synthesis of a
new complementary strand.

● The end result is two DNA molecules, each

containing one original (parental) strand and
one newly synthesized (daughter) strand.
A. DNA REPLICATION
A. DNA REPLICATION

● TOPOISOMERASE - are enzymes that

relax the supercoiling in DNA strands.

● It utilises energy from the hydrolysis of

nucleoside triphosphates to translocate
through the DNA strands.
A. DNA REPLICATION

● HELICASE – unwound double-stranded

DNA molecule creating two single-stranded
templates. These templates then act as a
template for the synthesis of new
complementary strands.

● PRIMASE - synthesize RNA primers that

serve as a starting point for DNA polymerase
to initiate replication.
A. DNA REPLICATION

● RNA PRIMER – short nucleotide

sequences (5-10 nucleotides long) that
are complementary to the template
strand and provide the 3'-OH group
required for DNA polymerase to initiate
replication.
A. DNA REPLICATION

● DNA POLYMERASE – binds to the

primer and begins synthesizing a new
strand of DNA in the 5' to 3' direction,
using the RNA primer as a starting point.
The DNA polymerase then proceeds to
elongate the new strand by adding
nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction.

● The complementary strand is

synthesized in the opposite direction,
known as the LAGGING STRAND.
A. DNA REPLICATION

● OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS - are short, newly

synthesized DNA fragments that are formed
on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

● allows for the continuous synthesis of both

leading and lagging strands during DNA
replication.

● As the replication fork moves forward, DNA

polymerase continues to synthesize new
Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand until
the entire strand is synthesized.
 A. DNA REPLICATION

● LEADING STRAND - Synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction

towards the replication fork. It is replicated in a single piece as the
helicase unwinds the double-stranded DNA molecule, and DNA
polymerase moves continuously in the same direction.

● LAGGING STRAND - replicated discontinuously in the opposite

direction to the movement of the replication fork. This strand is
synthesized in short segments, each segment being synthesized in the
5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork. These short segments
are called Okazaki fragments.
B. TRANSCRIPTION

● TRANSCRIPTION - the process by

which the genetic information in DNA
is copied into RNA. RNA is a molecule
similar to DNA, but with some key
differences.

● RNA is single-stranded, whereas DNA

is double-stranded, and RNA contains
the base uracil (U) instead of thymine
(T).
 B. TRANSCRIPTION

● During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to a

specific region of the DNA molecule and separates the two strands.

● One strand of DNA then serves as a template for the formation of a

complementary RNA molecule.

● This process results in the formation of a single-stranded RNA molecule

that is complementary to the DNA template.
 C. TRANSLATION

● Translation is the process by which the genetic information in RNA is

used to create a protein.

● Proteins are the workhorses of the cell, carrying out many different
functions that are essential for life.

● During translation, the RNA molecule is read by a complex molecular

machine called the ribosome.
 C. TRANSLATION

● The ribosome reads the RNA molecule in groups of three nucleotides,

called codons. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid,
which is the building block of proteins.

● As the ribosome reads the RNA molecule, it brings in the appropriate

amino acids and links them together in the correct order to form a
protein.
C. TRANSLATION
 D. REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION

● Reverse transcription is a process in which RNA is converted into

DNA, using an enzyme called reverse transcriptase.

● This process is particularly important in molecular biology and

genetics research, as it allows researchers to create DNA copies of
RNA molecules, which can be more stable and easier to work with.

● Reverse transcription is a key step in the life cycle of retroviruses,

such as HIV.

● In these viruses, the RNA genome is reverse transcribed into DNA by

the viral reverse transcriptase enzyme, which then integrates into the
host genome, allowing the virus to persist and replicate.
END