Soil Mechnics 1

Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering
ER. SANTOSH ACHARYA

General Engineer
Government Of Nepal
4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 1

Soil Mechanics
5.1 Definition of soil mechanics:-
• Soil mechanics is a branch of geotechnical engineering that deals
with the behavior and properties of soils, particularly as they
relate to the design and construction of structures and
infrastructure.
• It involves the study of soil properties such as strength, stiffness,
permeability, compressibility, and consolidation under different
loading conditions.
• Soil mechanics is essential in civil engineering projects such as
foundation design, slope stability analysis, and embankment
design, as well as in the study of natural disasters such as
landslides and earthquakes.

Soil Mechanics
History of Soil mechanics:-
o The history of soil mechanics can be traced back to the 18th
century, when scientists and engineers began to study the behavior
of soils in relation to construction projects.
o Some of the key developments in the field are as follows:
(1) In 1727, the French engineer Pierre Varignon proposed a theory
of soil pressure based on the principle of virtual work.
(2) In 1773, the French mathematician Antoine Parent developed the
theory of earth pressure, which laid the foundation for modern
soil mechanics.
(3) In 1826, the French engineer Charles Dupin introduced the
concept of effective stress, which describes the stress that is
transmitted through the soil skeleton, as opposed to the pore
water.

Soil Mechanics
History of Soil mechanics:-
(4) In the 19th century, engineers such as Rankine, Coulomb, and
Mohr developed theories of soil behavior based on experimental
observations and mathematical analysis.
(5) In the early 20th century, the American engineer Arthur
Casagrande developed the standard penetration test (SPT) for
measuring soil strength.
(6) In the 1920s and 1930s, the Dutch engineer Terzaghi developed
the principle of effective stress and the theory of soil consolidation,
which formed the basis of modern soil mechanics.
(7) In the 1950s and 1960s, the British engineer Skempton developed
the concept of pore water pressure and the theory of effective stress
for saturated soils.
Since then, soil mechanics has continued to evolve, with new
theories and techniques being developed to better understand the
behavior
4/6/2023 of soils in different conditions and environments.
Er. Santosh Acharya 4
Soil Mechanics
Importance of soil mechanics in Civil Engineering:-
o Soil mechanics is an essential component of civil engineering, as
it provides crucial information and understanding of the behavior
of soils that is necessary for the design and construction of
infrastructure.
o Here are some of the key reasons why soil mechanics is important
in civil engineering:
(1) Foundation design:
 Soil mechanics plays a critical role in the design of foundations
for buildings, bridges, and other structures.
 It helps engineers to determine the bearing capacity of the soil,
which is the maximum load that the soil can support without
failure.
 This information is used to design appropriate foundations that
can safely support the structure.
Soil Mechanics
(2) Slope stability analysis:
 Soil mechanics is also important in the analysis of slope stability,
which is critical for infrastructure projects such as highways,
railways, and pipelines.
 Engineers use soil mechanics to determine the strength and
stability of soil slopes, and to design appropriate measures to
prevent landslides and other types of slope failures.
(3) Earthquake engineering:
 Soil mechanics is crucial in earthquake engineering, as it helps to
predict the behavior of soils during seismic events.
 This information is used to design structures that can withstand
earthquake forces, and to determine appropriate foundation
systems that can resist seismic loading.

Soil Mechanics
(4) Environmental engineering:
 Soil mechanics is important in environmental engineering, as it
helps to understand the behavior of soils in natural and
contaminated environments.
 It is used to design landfill liners, to evaluate the suitability of
soils for waste disposal, and to assess the potential for soil
contamination and remediation.
(5) Infrastructure development:
Soil mechanics is critical for the development of infrastructure such
as highways, airports, and ports.
It is used to evaluate the suitability of soils for construction, to
design embankments and retaining walls, and to determine
appropriate foundation systems for structures such as bridges and
tunnels.
Soil Mechanics
Overall, soil mechanics plays a fundamental role in civil engineering,
providing critical information and insights that are necessary for the
safe and efficient design and construction of infrastructure.

Soil Mechanics
5.1.1 Soil types and Classification:-
o Soil can be classified based on a variety of characteristics such as
texture, structure, mineralogy, and color.
o The most widely used soil classification system is the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS), which categorizes soil into groups
based on its grain size, plasticity, and compressibility.
o Here are some key points about soil types and classification:
(1) Soil texture:
 Soil texture refers to the size of the mineral particles in the soil,
and is determined by the percentages of sand, silt, and clay.
 Sandy soils have larger particles and feel gritty, while clay soils
have smaller particles and feel smooth and sticky.

Soil Mechanics
(2) Soil structure:
 Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles into
aggregates or clumps.
 It can be described as blocky, prismatic, columnar, platy, or
granular, depending on the shape and size of the soil aggregates.
(3) Mineralogy:
 Soil mineralogy refers to the types and proportions of minerals
present in the soil.
 Different minerals have different chemical and physical
properties, which can affect the behavior of the soil.

Soil Mechanics
(4) Color:
 Soil color can provide clues about its composition and history.
 Dark soils are generally rich in organic matter, while red and
yellow soils may indicate the presence of iron oxides.
(5) USCS classification:
 The USCS system categorizes soil into two main groups: coarse-
grained soils (including gravel and sand) and fine-grained soils
(including silt and clay).
 Within these groups, soils are further classified based on their
grain size, plasticity, and compressibility.

Soil Mechanics
(6) Other classification systems:
 There are many other soil classification systems used around the
world, including the AASHTO system, the World Reference Base
for Soil Resources, and the Canadian system.
Understanding soil types and classification is important in civil

engineering, as it can help engineers to select appropriate materials
for construction, to design appropriate foundation systems, and to
assess the stability and behavior of soil slopes and embankments.

Soil Mechanics
5.1.2 Three phase system of soil:-
 The three-phase system of soil refers to the three components that
make up soil: solid particles, water, and air.
 Each of these components has a unique role in determining the
behavior and properties of soil.
 Here is some more information about each component:
(1)Solid particles:
• The solid particles in soil are typically mineral particles such as
sand, silt, and clay.
• The size and shape of these particles affects the soil's texture,
structure, and strength.
• In addition, the mineralogy of the particles can affect their
chemical and physical properties, such as their ability to absorb
water or their susceptibility to erosion.
Soil Mechanics
(2) Water:
• Water is a critical component of soil, as it affects the soil's
strength, compressibility, and permeability.
• The amount of water in soil can vary depending on factors such as
precipitation, evaporation, and drainage.
• Water can also influence chemical and biological processes in
soil, such as nutrient availability and microbial activity.

Soil Mechanics
(3) Air:
• The air in soil is important for the survival of plant roots and soil
organisms, and also affects the soil's physical properties.
• Air helps to maintain pore spaces in soil, which can affect the
soil's permeability, compressibility, and shear strength.
Understanding the three-phase system of soil is important in civil

engineering, as it can help engineers to design appropriate
foundation systems, to evaluate the stability and behavior of soil
slopes and embankments, and to assess the potential for soil erosion
and other environmental impacts.

Soil Mechanics
5.1.3 Unit Weight of soil:-
 The unit weight of soil, also known as the bulk density, is the
weight of a unit volume of soil.
 It is typically expressed in units of pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft³)
or kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
 The unit weight of soil can vary depending on factors such as the
soil type, moisture content, and compaction level.
 Here is some more information about unit weight of soil:
Calculation:
The unit weight of soil can be calculated by dividing the weight of a
soil sample by its volume. The weight can be determined using a
scale, and the volume can be determined by measuring the
dimensions of the sample or by using a known volume container.

Soil Mechanics
Relationship to porosity:
The unit weight of soil is related to its porosity, or the volume of
pore space in the soil. A soil with high porosity will have a lower
unit weight than a soil with low porosity.
Effect of moisture content:
The unit weight of soil is affected by its moisture content, as water
has a lower density than soil particles. As the moisture content of soil
increases, the unit weight will decrease. However, if the soil
becomes saturated, the unit weight may increase due to the added
weight of the water.
Importance in geotechnical engineering:
The unit weight of soil is important in geotechnical engineering, as it
affects the soil's strength, compressibility, and bearing capacity. It is
used to calculate the weight of soil for design purposes, such as the
design of foundation systemsEr.for
4/6/2023 buildings
Santosh Acharya and other structures. 17
Soil Mechanics
Standard values:
Standard unit weights have been established for different soil types,
based on typical ranges of particle sizes and compaction levels. For
example, the standard unit weight for well-graded gravel may be
around 130 lb/ft³, while the standard unit weight for poorly graded
sand may be around 100 lb/ft³.
Understanding the unit weight of soil is important in civil and

geotechnical engineering, as it provides valuable information for the
design and analysis of infrastructure projects.

Soil Mechanics
Bulk Density:-
Bulk density is a measure of the mass of a bulk volume of material,
such as soil or rock, per unit volume. In geology and soil science, it
is typically expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³). Here is some more information
about bulk density:
Calculation:
The bulk density of a material can be calculated by dividing its mass
by its volume. The mass can be determined using a scale, and the
volume can be determined by measuring the dimensions of the
material or by using a known volume container.
Relationship to porosity:
Bulk density is inversely related to the porosity of a material. A
material with high porosity will have a lower bulk density than a
material
4/6/2023with low porosity. Er. Santosh Acharya 19
Soil Mechanics
Bulk Density:-
Effect of moisture content:
The bulk density of a material can be affected by its moisture
content, as water has a lower density than solid particles. As the
moisture content of a material increases, the bulk density will
decrease. However, if the material becomes saturated, the bulk
density may increase due to the added weight of the water.
Importance in geology and soil science:
Bulk density is an important parameter in geology and soil science,
as it is used to estimate the weight and volume of materials in the
Earth's crust, as well as to calculate the porosity and water-holding
capacity of soils.

Soil Mechanics
Bulk Density:-
Standard values:
Standard bulk densities have been established for different rock and
soil types, based on typical ranges of particle sizes and compaction
levels. For example, the bulk density of granite may be around 2.6
g/cm³, while the bulk density of sand may be around 1.5 g/cm³.
Understanding bulk density is important in geology and soil science,

as it provides valuable information for the analysis and interpretation
of geological and environmental data.

Soil Mechanics
Saturated Density:-
Saturated density is the density of a material when it is completely
saturated with water. In geology and soil science, it is typically
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per
cubic meter (kg/m³). Here is some more information about saturated
density:
Calculation:
The saturated density of a material can be calculated by dividing its
saturated mass by its volume. The saturated mass can be determined
by weighing the material after it has been fully saturated with water,
and the volume can be determined by measuring the dimensions of
the material or by using a known volume container.

Soil Mechanics
Saturated Density:-
Relationship to bulk density:
The saturated density of a material is typically higher than its bulk
density, as water has a higher density than air or solid particles. The
difference between the saturated density and the bulk density is a
measure of the porosity of the material.
Effect on engineering properties:
The saturated density of a material can have a significant effect on its
engineering properties, such as its shear strength, compressibility,
and permeability. For example, saturated soil with high density and
low porosity tends to have higher shear strength and lower
compressibility than saturated soil with low density and high
porosity.

Soil Mechanics
Saturated Density:-
Importance in geotechnical engineering:
Understanding the saturated density of soil is important in
geotechnical engineering, as it can affect the stability and
performance of foundations, retaining walls, embankments, and
other geotechnical structures. It is also important for estimating the
weight and volume of soil during construction and excavation
projects.

Soil Mechanics
Saturated Density:-
Standard values:
Standard saturated densities have been established for different soil
types, based on typical ranges of particle sizes and compaction
levels. For example, the saturated density of well-compacted clay
may be around 1.9 g/cm³, while the saturated density of loose sand
may be around 1.6 g/cm³.
Understanding the saturated density of soil is important in

geotechnical engineering, as it provides valuable information for the
design and analysis of infrastructure projects, and helps to ensure the
safety and stability of structures built on or in the ground.

Soil Mechanics
Submerged density:-
Submerged density is the density of a material when it is submerged
in a fluid, such as water. In geology and soil science, it is typically
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per
cubic meter (kg/m³). Here is some more information about
submerged density:
Calculation:
The submerged density of a material can be calculated by dividing its
submerged mass by its volume. The submerged mass can be
determined by weighing the material when it is submerged in water,
and the volume can be determined by measuring the dimensions of
the material or by using a known volume container.

Soil Mechanics
Submerged density:-
Relationship to bulk density:
The submerged density of a material is typically less than its bulk
density, as the buoyancy force of the fluid reduces the effective
weight of the material. The difference between the submerged
density and the bulk density is a measure of the buoyancy of the
material.
Effect on engineering properties:
The submerged density of a material can have a significant effect on
its engineering properties, such as its buoyancy, stability, and drag
force. For example, materials with low submerged density, such as
foam or air-filled cavities, can provide buoyancy for floating
structures or reduce the weight of underwater structures.

Soil Mechanics
Submerged density:-
Importance in marine engineering:
Understanding the submerged density of materials is important in
marine engineering, as it can affect the design and performance of
ships, submarines, offshore platforms, and other marine structures. It
is also important for estimating the weight and volume of materials
used in underwater construction and maintenance projects.

Soil Mechanics
Submerged density:-
Standard values:
Standard submerged densities have been established for different
materials and fluids, based on their density and viscosity. For
example, the submerged density of seawater may be around 1.03
g/cm³, while the submerged density of concrete may be around 2.2
g/cm³.
Understanding the submerged density of materials is important in

marine engineering and underwater construction, as it helps to ensure
the safety, efficiency, and durability of structures and equipment used
in marine environments.

Soil Mechanics
Dry Density:-
o Dry density of soil refers to the mass of dry soil per unit volume.
o It is often used to measure the compaction or degree of packing of
soil particles in a given area.
o To calculate the dry density of soil, the mass of the dry soil is
divided by the volume of the soil sample.
o The volume can be determined using various methods, including a
core cutter, sand replacement method, or water displacement
method.
o Dry density is an important parameter in geotechnical engineering
and is commonly used to determine the bearing capacity of soil, as
well as the permeability and shear strength of soil.

Soil Mechanics
Dry Density:-
o It is also used to estimate the settlement of soil under loads, which
is important in the design of structures such as buildings, bridges,
and roads.
o The unit of measurement for dry density is typically expressed in
grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m³).

Soil Mechanics
5.1.4 Interrelationship between specific gravity, void ratio,
porosity ,degree of saturation, percentage of air voids, air
content and density index:-
o The specific gravity, void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation,
percentage of air voids, air content, and density index are all
important soil parameters that can be related to each other in the
following ways:
Specific Gravity:
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of a reference substance. In soil, the specific gravity of solids
is often used to determine the void ratio, which is the ratio of the
volume of voids to the volume of solids. The higher the specific
gravity of the soil solids, the lower the void ratio.

Soil Mechanics
Void Ratio:
Void ratio is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids
in a soil sample. It is related to porosity, which is the ratio of the
volume of voids to the total volume of the soil sample. As the void
ratio increases, the porosity also increases.
Porosity:
Porosity is the percentage of the total soil volume that is occupied by
voids. It is related to the degree of saturation, which is the ratio of
the volume of water to the total volume of voids in a soil sample. As
the porosity increases, the degree of saturation also increases.

Soil Mechanics
Degree of Saturation:
Degree of saturation is the percentage of the total volume of voids in
a soil sample that is filled with water. It is related to the percentage
of air voids, which is the percentage of the total volume of voids that
is filled with air. As the degree of saturation increases, the percentage
of air voids decreases.
Percentage of Air Voids:
Percentage of air voids is the percentage of the total volume of voids
in a soil sample that is filled with air. It is related to the air content,
which is the volume of air in a soil sample expressed as a percentage
of the total volume of the sample. As the percentage of air voids
increases, the air content also increases.
Soil Mechanics
Air Content:
Air content is the volume of air in a soil sample expressed as a
percentage of the total volume of the sample. It is related to the
density index, which is a measure of the relative density of a soil
sample compared to its maximum density. As the air content
increases, the density index decreases.
Density Index:
Density index is a measure of the relative density of a soil sample
compared to its maximum density. It is related to the void ratio and
porosity of the soil. As the density index increases, the void ratio and
porosity decrease.

Soil Mechanics
Here are the interrelationships between specific gravity, void ratio,
porosity, degree of saturation, percentage of air voids, air content,
and density index:
Specific gravity:
It is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of a reference
substance (usually water). Specific gravity is related to the void ratio
and porosity of soil through the following equation:
Specific gravity = (1 + e) / (1 + (e / n))
where e is the void ratio and n is the porosity.

Soil Mechanics
Void ratio:
It is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids in a soil
mass. Void ratio is related to the porosity of soil through the
following equation:
Void ratio = Porosity / (1 - Porosity)
Void ratio and porosity are also related to the degree of saturation of
soil, as the degree of saturation increases, the void ratio and porosity
decrease.

Soil Mechanics
Porosity:
It is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil.
Porosity is related to the degree of saturation of soil through the
following equation:
Porosity = (Volume of Voids / Total Volume) x 100
Porosity and void ratio are also related to the percentage of air voids
in soil, as the percentage of air voids increases, the porosity and void
ratio also increase.

Soil Mechanics
Degree of saturation:
It is the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume of voids in a
soil mass. The degree of saturation is related to the porosity and void
ratio of soil, as mentioned above.
Percentage of air voids:
It is the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total volume of soil.
Percentage of air voids is related to the porosity and void ratio of
soil, as mentioned above.
Air content:
It is the volume of air voids in a soil mass, expressed as a percentage
of the total volume of soil. The air content is related to the
percentage of air voids, as mentioned above.
Soil Mechanics
Density index:
It is a measure of the relative compactness of soil. The density index
is related to the void ratio and porosity of soil through the following
equation:
Density index = (e - emax) / (emax - emin)
where e is the void ratio, emax is the maximum void ratio, and emin
is the minimum void ratio.
Overall, the specific gravity, void ratio, porosity, degree of
saturation, percentage of air voids, air content, and density index are
all interrelated parameters that describe the physical characteristics
of soil. The relationships between these parameters depend on the
specific properties of the soil being studied.
Soil Mechanics
5.2 Soil water relation:-
 Soil-water relation is a crucial aspect of geotechnical engineering
as it plays a significant role in the behavior and stability of soil.
 Here are some of the key points related to soil-water relation in
geotechnical engineering:
Soil water content:
Soil water content refers to the amount of water present in soil. It is
expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the soil.
Soil water potential:
Soil water potential is a measure of the energy status of water in soil.
It describes how tightly water is held by soil particles. It is expressed
in units of pressure, such as kilopascals (kPa) or bars.

Soil Mechanics
Permeability:
Permeability is the ability of soil to allow water to flow through it. It
is an important factor in the movement of water in soil and is
influenced by the soil type, porosity, and compaction.
Capillarity:
Capillarity is the ability of soil to draw water upward against the
force of gravity. It is caused by the surface tension of water and the
attractive forces between water molecules and soil particles.
Seepage:
Seepage is the movement of water through soil under the influence
of a hydraulic gradient. It is an important factor in the stability of
dams, levees, and other structures built on or near soil.

Soil Mechanics
Pore water pressure:
Pore water pressure is the pressure exerted by water in the voids
between soil particles. It is an important factor in the stability of soil
slopes and the liquefaction of soil during earthquakes.
Swelling and shrinkage:
Some soils have the ability to expand or contract due to changes in
water content. This can cause problems for structures built on or near
these soils, such as cracking or heaving.
Overall, understanding the soil-water relation is crucial in

geotechnical engineering, as it influences the behavior and stability
of soil and structures built on or near soil.

Soil Mechanics
5.2.1 Terzaghi's principle of effective stress:-
o Terzaghi's principle of effective stress is a fundamental concept in
geotechnical engineering that helps explain the behavior of soil
under various loading conditions.
o Here are some key points related to Terzaghi's principle of
effective stress:
Definition:
Terzaghi's principle of effective stress states that the total stress on a
soil particle is the sum of the effective stress and the pore water
pressure. The effective stress is the stress that is transmitted to the
soil skeleton and is responsible for soil deformation and strength,
while the pore water pressure is the pressure exerted by water in the
voids between soil particles.

Soil Mechanics
Equation:
The relationship between total stress, effective stress, and pore water
pressure is described by the following equation:
σ_total = σ_eff + u
where σ_total is the total stress, σ_eff is the effective stress, and u is
the pore water pressure.
Importance:
Terzaghi's principle of effective stress is important in understanding
the behavior of soil under various loading conditions, including static
and dynamic loads. It is used to analyze problems such as settlement,
stability of slopes and retaining walls, and the bearing capacity of
foundations.

Soil Mechanics
Factors affecting effective stress:
The effective stress in soil is affected by a number of factors,
including the weight of overlying soil and structures, changes in the
water table level, and changes in the soil structure due to excavation
or construction.
Role in soil strength:
The effective stress is responsible for the shear strength and
compressibility of soil. When soil is subjected to external loads, the
effective stress is transferred between soil particles, which causes
soil deformation and failure.
Overall, Terzaghi's principle of effective stress is a critical concept in
geotechnical engineering that helps explain the behavior of soil
under different loading conditions. It is an important factor in the
design of foundations, slopes, and other geotechnical structures.
Soil Mechanics
5.2.2 Darcy' law:-
Darcy's law is a fundamental concept in fluid mechanics that
describes the flow of fluids through a porous medium, such as soil or
rock. Here's an explanation of Darcy's law and the derivation of its
equation:
Definition:
Darcy's law states that the rate of flow of fluid through a porous
medium is proportional to the pressure gradient in the direction of
flow, and is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid and
the resistance of the medium to flow.

Soil Mechanics
5.2.2 Darcy' law:-
Equation:
The equation for Darcy's law is given by:
Q = -KA(dh/dL)
where Q is the flow rate of fluid, K is the hydraulic conductivity of
the porous medium, A is the cross-sectional area of the medium,
dh/dL is the hydraulic gradient or the change in hydraulic head per
unit length, and the negative sign indicates that flow occurs from
high to low pressure.
This equation can also be written in terms of flow velocity (v) and
porosity (n), as:
v = -K(n/μ)(dh/dL)
where μ is the viscosity of the fluid.

Soil Mechanics
5.2.2 Darcy' law:-
In summary, Darcy's law is a fundamental concept in fluid
mechanics that describes the flow of fluids through a porous
medium. Its equation relates the flow rate of fluid to the hydraulic
conductivity of the medium, the cross-sectional area of the medium,
and the hydraulic gradient. The law has important applications in
fields such as geology, hydrology, and environmental engineering.
Importance:
Darcy's law is important in understanding the movement of water
through soil and the behavior of groundwater. It is used to analyze
problems such as the seepage of water through dams, the movement
of contaminants through soil, and the flow of water into wells.

Soil Mechanics
5.2.2 Darcy' law:-
Factors affecting hydraulic conductivity:
The hydraulic conductivity of soil is affected by a number of factors,
including the soil type, porosity, and compaction. It is also affected
by the presence of fine particles, such as clay, which can block the
flow of water.
Limitations:
Darcy's law is based on certain assumptions, such as the soil being
homogeneous and isotropic, and the flow of water being steady-state
and laminar. In reality, soil is often heterogeneous and anisotropic,
and the flow of water can be turbulent and unsteady.
Overall, Darcy's law is a critical concept in soil mechanics that helps
explain the movement of water through soil and the behavior of
groundwater. It is used in a wide range of applications in
geotechnical engineering and hydrogeology.
Soil Mechanics
5.2.2 Darcy' law:-
Applications:-
Darcy's law is a fundamental concept in geotechnical engineering
that describes the flow of water through soil. Here are some key
applications of Darcy's law in geotechnical engineering:
Seepage analysis:
Darcy's law is used to analyze seepage through soil and to determine
the rate and direction of water flow. This is important in the design
of structures such as dams, levees, and retaining walls, where
seepage can cause erosion and instability.
Groundwater modeling:
Darcy's law is used to model groundwater flow and to predict the
movement of groundwater in aquifers. This is important in water
resource management, environmental studies, and the design of
groundwater remediation systems.
Soil Mechanics
5.2.2 Darcy' law:-
Applications:-
Drainage design:
Darcy's law is used to design drainage systems for foundations and
other geotechnical structures. By calculating the permeability of the
soil and the expected water flow, engineers can design drainage
systems that effectively manage water flow and prevent soil
instability.
Soil compaction:
Darcy's law is used to calculate the rate of water flow through
compacted soil during construction. This is important in the design
of earthworks and other construction projects where soil compaction
is necessary to achieve desired stability and load-bearing capacity.

Soil Mechanics
5.2.2 Darcy' law:-
Applications:-
Geothermal energy systems:
Darcy's law is used in the design of geothermal energy systems to
calculate the flow rate of water through the subsurface rock layers.
This is important in the design of geothermal heat pump systems,
where water is used to extract heat from the ground
Overall, Darcy's law is an important concept in geotechnical

engineering, with applications in a variety of fields such as
groundwater modeling, seepage analysis, drainage design, soil
compaction, and geothermal energy systems.

Soil Mechanics
5.2.3 Factors affecting permeability:-
Soil permeability is a measure of the ability of soil to transmit water.
It is influenced by a variety of factors, including:
Grain size:
Soil permeability increases with increasing grain size. Coarse-
grained soils, such as sand and gravel, have high permeability, while
fine-grained soils, such as clay, have low permeability.
Soil structure:
Soil permeability is also influenced by the structure of the soil. Well-
structured soils with a high degree of interconnectivity between pore
spaces tend to have higher permeability than poorly structured soils.
Soil compaction:
Soil compaction reduces the permeability of soil by reducing the size
and number of pore spaces between soil particles.
Soil Mechanics
Saturation:
The degree of soil saturation also affects soil permeability. Saturated
soils have lower permeability than unsaturated soils because the
water-filled pores are smaller and less interconnected.
Temperature:
Soil permeability increases with increasing temperature due to the
decrease in viscosity of water. This is particularly important in cold
regions where soil may freeze and become less permeable.
Soil chemistry:
The chemical composition of the soil can also affect its permeability.
For example, soils with high salt content may have reduced
permeability due to the formation of salt crusts that clog the pore
spaces.

Soil Mechanics
Vegetation:
Vegetation can affect soil permeability by altering the structure of the
soil and increasing water uptake, which can reduce soil moisture
content and increase permeability.
Overall, soil permeability is influenced by a complex interplay of

factors, including grain size, soil structure, compaction, saturation,
temperature, soil chemistry, and vegetation. Understanding these
factors is important in the design of geotechnical structures such as
drainage systems, foundations, and retaining walls.

Soil Mechanics
5.3 Compaction of soil:-
o Soil compaction is the process of mechanically increasing the
density and stability of soil by reducing the volume of air within
the soil.
o Compaction is important in geotechnical engineering because it
increases the load-bearing capacity of soil and reduces settlement.
Here are some key points about soil compaction:
 Compaction is achieved by applying a mechanical force to the
soil, typically through the use of heavy machinery such as rollers
or compactors.
 Compaction increases the density of soil by reducing the volume
of air between soil particles. The degree of compaction is typically
measured by the dry density of the compacted soil.

Soil Mechanics
 The degree of compaction required depends on the type of soil
and the intended use of the compacted soil. For example, soils
used for road construction or building foundations may require
higher degrees of compaction than soils used for landscaping.
 The moisture content of soil plays an important role in
compaction. Soil that is too dry or too wet will not compact
effectively. The optimal moisture content for compaction depends
on the type of soil and the compaction method used.
 Over-compaction can be a problem, as it can reduce soil
permeability and increase the risk of soil erosion. It is important to
carefully monitor compaction during construction to ensure that
the desired degree of compaction is achieved without over-
compaction.
Soil Mechanics
 Compaction is important in a variety of geotechnical applications,
including road construction, foundation design, and soil
stabilization.
Overall, soil compaction is an important process in geotechnical

engineering that is used to increase the stability and load-bearing
capacity of soil. It is achieved through the application of mechanical
force and depends on factors such as soil type, moisture content, and
compaction method.

Soil Mechanics
5.3.1 Factors affecting soil Compaction:-
 Soil compaction is the process of increasing the density and
stability of soil by reducing the volume of air between soil
particles. The degree of compaction required depends on the type
of soil and the intended use of the compacted soil.
 Here are some of the key factors that affect soil compaction:
Soil type:
The type of soil plays a critical role in soil compaction. Coarse-
grained soils, such as sand and gravel, are generally easier to
compact than fine-grained soils, such as clay and silt.

Soil Mechanics
Moisture content:
The moisture content of soil is a key factor in soil compaction. Soil
that is too dry will not compact effectively, while soil that is too wet
will not be able to support the weight of the compaction equipment.
The optimal moisture content for compaction depends on the type of
soil and the compaction method used.
Compaction effort:
The compaction effort is the energy applied to the soil during the
compaction process. The higher the compaction effort, the greater
the degree of compaction that can be achieved.

Soil Mechanics
Compaction method:
The method used to compact the soil can also affect the degree of
compaction achieved. Different compaction methods include static
compaction, impact compaction, and vibratory compaction.
Gradation:
Soil gradation refers to the distribution of particle sizes within a soil
sample. Soils with a well-graded particle distribution are generally
easier to compact than soils with a poorly-graded particle
distribution.
Soil plasticity:
Soil plasticity refers to the ability of a soil to deform under load.
Highly plastic soils, such as clays, are generally more difficult to
compact than less plastic soils.
Soil Mechanics
Soil structure:
Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles within a soil
sample. Soils with a well-defined structure are generally easier to
compact than soils with a less-defined structure.
Overall, the degree of compaction achieved depends on a variety of

factors, including soil type, moisture content, compaction effort,
compaction method, gradation, soil plasticity, and soil structure.
Understanding these factors is important in achieving the desired
degree of compaction in geotechnical engineering applications.

Soil Mechanics
5.3.2 Optimum moisture content:-
 The optimum moisture content (OMC) of soil is a critical
parameter in geotechnical engineering that refers to the moisture
content at which a soil has the maximum dry density for a given
compaction effort.
 The OMC is used to determine the optimal moisture content for
soil compaction, which is important for constructing stable and
durable structures on soil.
 Here are some key points about the OMC:
Compaction characteristics: The OMC is used to determine the
compaction characteristics of soil, which are essential for achieving a
stable and uniform soil surface for construction. The OMC is the
moisture content at which the soil achieves maximum dry density for
a given compaction effort.
Soil Mechanics
Soil type:
The OMC varies depending on the type of soil. For example,
cohesive soils such as clay have a lower OMC than non-cohesive
soils such as sand. This is because cohesive soils have higher
plasticity and are less susceptible to deformation.
Testing methods:
The OMC is determined through laboratory compaction tests, such
as the Proctor compaction test or the modified Proctor compaction
test. These tests involve compacting soil samples at various moisture
contents and measuring their dry densities to determine the OMC.

Soil Mechanics
Importance in construction:
The OMC is an essential parameter in construction projects, as it
helps engineers determine the appropriate amount of water to add to
soil to achieve maximum compaction and stability. Failure to achieve
the optimal moisture content during compaction can result in
settlement and instability of the soil, which can compromise the
stability of the structure.

Soil Mechanics
Influence of environmental factors:
The OMC can be influenced by environmental factors such as
temperature, humidity, and soil organic matter content. These factors
can affect the moisture content of the soil and therefore impact its
compaction characteristics.
Overall, the optimum moisture content of soil is a critical parameter

in geotechnical engineering that is used to ensure that soil is
compacted to achieve maximum stability and durability for
construction projects.

Soil Mechanics
Field application of Optimum moisture content of soil in
Geotechnical Engineering:-
The optimum moisture content (OMC) of soil is an important
parameter in geotechnical engineering that has several field
applications. Here are some examples of its field applications:
Compaction of earthworks:
The OMC is used in the field to determine the appropriate moisture
content for compaction of earthworks, such as embankments,
foundations, and roadways. The OMC helps ensure that the soil is
compacted to the maximum density for a given compaction effort,
resulting in a stable and durable structure.

Soil Mechanics
Quality control of soil:
The OMC is used in the field to control the quality of soil during
construction. Soil samples are taken from the site and tested for their
OMC in the laboratory. If the OMC is found to be too high or too
low, the water content of the soil is adjusted accordingly to achieve
the desired OMC for compaction.
Soil stabilization:
The OMC is used in the field for soil stabilization techniques, such
as lime and cement stabilization. The OMC of the soil is determined,
and then the appropriate amount of lime or cement is added to the
soil to achieve the desired strength and stability.
Soil Mechanics
Slope stability analysis:
The OMC is used in the field for slope stability analysis, which is
essential for ensuring the safety of structures built on slopes. The
OMC is used to determine the shear strength of the soil, which is
critical for slope stability analysis.

Soil Mechanics
Soil erosion control:
The OMC is used in the field for soil erosion control measures, such
as terracing and vegetation. The OMC is used to determine the
appropriate moisture content for soil stabilization, which helps
prevent erosion and maintain the stability of slopes.
Overall, the OMC is a critical parameter in geotechnical engineering
that has many field applications, including soil compaction, quality
control, soil stabilization, slope stability analysis, and soil erosion
control. Accurate determination and control of the OMC can help
ensure the stability, durability, and safety of structures built on soil.

Soil Mechanics
5.3.3 Relation between dry density and moisture content of soil:-
 The dry density and moisture content of soil are closely related.
The dry density of soil is the mass of solids divided by the total
volume of soil, while the moisture content is the ratio of the mass
of water in the soil to the mass of solids in the soil.
 As the moisture content of soil increases, the dry density of the
soil decreases. This is because the added water fills in the voids
between the soil particles, reducing the overall density of the soil.
Conversely, as the moisture content decreases, the dry density of
the soil increases.
 There is an optimum moisture content at which the dry density of
the soil is maximum. This is known as the maximum dry density,
and it varies depending on the type of soil. The maximum dry
density is typically determined through laboratory testing, such as
the Proctor compaction test.

Soil Mechanics
 It is important to achieve the appropriate moisture content during
soil compaction to ensure that the desired degree of compaction is
achieved. Soil that is too dry will not compact effectively, while
soil that is too wet will not be able to support the weight of the
compaction equipment. The optimal moisture content for
compaction depends on the type of soil and the compaction
method used.
 In geotechnical engineering, knowledge of the relationship
between dry density and moisture content is important in
designing and constructing structures such as roadways,
foundations, and embankments.

Soil Mechanics
The relationship between dry density and moisture content of soil
can be represented by a compaction curve, which is a graphical
representation of the compaction process. The compaction curve
typically shows the dry density of soil as a function of moisture
content at a constant compaction effort.
The equation for calculating the dry density (𝜌𝑑) of soil is:
𝜌𝑑 = 𝑀𝑣 / (𝑉𝑡 + 𝑉𝑤)
where 𝑀𝑣 is the mass of solids in the soil, 𝑉𝑡 is the total volume of
the soil, and 𝑉𝑤 is the volume of water in the soil.
The equation for calculating the moisture content (𝑤) of soil is:
𝑤 = (𝑀𝑤 / 𝑀𝑠) x 100%
where 𝑀𝑤 is the mass of water in the soil and 𝑀𝑠 is the mass of
solids in the soil.
Soil Mechanics
The compaction curve typically shows the dry density of soil as a
function of moisture content at a constant compaction effort. A
typical compaction curve is shown below:

Soil Mechanics
 The compaction curve shows that the dry density of soil increases
with increasing compaction effort and reaches a maximum value
at a certain moisture content called the Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC). Beyond the OMC, the dry density of soil
decreases with increasing moisture content due to the increase in
air voids and reduction in soil particles' contact.
 The maximum dry density that can be achieved at the OMC is
called the Maximum Dry Density (MDD). The MDD and OMC
are important parameters in the design of geotechnical structures
such as embankments and foundations, as they help determine the
required compaction effort and moisture content for achieving the
desired degree of soil compaction.

Soil Mechanics
5.4 Shear strength of soil:-
 Shear strength of soil refers to its ability to resist the internal
forces that cause sliding and deformation along a failure plane.
 The shear strength of soil is an essential property in geotechnical
engineering as it is critical to the stability of slopes, foundations,
retaining walls, and other structures that rely on soil for support.
 Here are some key factors that influence the shear strength of soil:
Soil type:
The type of soil significantly affects its shear strength. Cohesive soils
such as clay have a higher shear strength than non-cohesive soils
such as sand.
Consolidation and saturation:
Consolidation and saturation can significantly affect the shear
strength of soil. Fully saturated soil typically has a lower shear
strength than partially saturated soil due to the buoyant forces from
pore water.
Soil Mechanics
key factors that influence the shear strength of soil:
Void ratio:
The void ratio, or the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
solids, is another critical factor influencing soil shear strength.
Generally, denser soils with lower void ratios have higher shear
strength.
Effective stress:
The effective stress principle, which describes the interrelationship
between the soil's total stress, pore water pressure, and effective
stress, is crucial to understanding soil shear strength. Higher
effective stress usually results in higher soil shear strength.
Confining pressure:
Confining pressure, or the pressure exerted on the soil from all sides,
can significantly affect the soil's shear strength. As confining
pressure increases, so does the soil's shear strength.
Soil Mechanics
key factors that influence the shear strength of soil:
Shear rate:
The rate at which shear stress is applied can also affect soil shear
strength. In some cases, rapidly applied shear stress can result in
lower soil shear strength than slowly applied stress.
In general, understanding the shear strength of soil is critical for

geotechnical engineers to design structures that rely on soil for
support. Accurate measurements of soil shear strength can help
engineers determine the load-bearing capacity of a foundation or the
stability of a slope or embankment, ensuring that these structures are
safe and reliable.

Soil Mechanics
5.4.1 Mohr coulomb failure theory:-
 The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is a widely used method for
predicting the failure of soils and rocks subjected to shear stresses.
 This theory is based on the assumption that failure occurs when
the maximum shear stress in a soil or rock mass reaches a critical
value, known as the shear strength.

Soil Mechanics
The shear strength of soil is expressed by the Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion, which is given by the following equation:
τ = c + σn tan(φ)
Where;
τ is the shear stress,
c is the cohesion intercept,
σn is the normal stress acting perpendicular to the plane of failure,
φ is the angle of internal friction, and
tan(φ) is the slope of the failure envelope.

Soil Mechanics
o In the Mohr-Coulomb failure theory, the strength of the soil is
characterized by two parameters: cohesion (c) and angle of
internal friction (φ).
o The cohesion intercept represents the soil's inherent strength,
while the angle of internal friction represents the frictional
resistance to shear stresses.
 The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is commonly used in
engineering practice to predict the shear strength of soils and
rocks.
 Engineers use laboratory tests such as the direct shear test or the
triaxial test to determine the soil's shear strength parameters (c
and φ), and then apply the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion to
analyze the stability of slopes, embankments, foundations, and
other geotechnical structures.
Soil Mechanics
 Despite its wide use, the Mohr-Coulomb failure theory has
limitations, as it assumes that the soil is homogeneous, isotropic,
and perfectly elastic, which is not always the case in real-world
geotechnical applications. Nonetheless, the Mohr-Coulomb failure
theory remains a valuable tool for predicting the shear strength of
soils and rocks and designing safe and reliable geotechnical
structures.

Soil Mechanics
Applications:-
 The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is widely used in geotechnical
engineering to predict the shear strength of soils and rocks and
analyze the stability of geotechnical structures.
 Here are some of the key applications of the Mohr-Coulomb
failure theory in geotechnical engineering:
Slope stability analysis: The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is
commonly used to analyze the stability of natural and man-made
slopes. Engineers use the theory to calculate the shear strength of the
soil or rock mass and compare it to the shear stress generated by the
slope's weight and external forces. This analysis can help engineers
design safe and stable slopes and prevent landslides and other slope
failures.

Soil Mechanics
Applications:-
Foundation design:
The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is used to analyze the stability of
foundations and other structures that rely on soil for support.
Engineers use laboratory tests to determine the soil's shear strength
parameters and apply the theory to calculate the maximum allowable
loads on the foundation. This analysis can help engineers design
foundations that can withstand the loads imposed by the structure
and the surrounding soil.

Soil Mechanics
Applications:-
Retaining wall design:
The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is used to analyze the stability of
retaining walls and other earth-retaining structures. Engineers use the
theory to calculate the maximum lateral forces that can be resisted by
the soil or rock mass behind the wall. This analysis can help
engineers design retaining walls that can safely support the weight of
the soil or rock mass and prevent catastrophic failures.

Soil Mechanics
Applications:-
Pavement design:
The Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is used to analyze the strength of
subgrade soils and design pavements that can withstand the loads
imposed by vehicles and other traffic. Engineers use laboratory tests
to determine the soil's shear strength parameters and apply the theory
to calculate the maximum allowable stresses on the subgrade. This
analysis can help engineers design pavements that are durable and
can resist the effects of traffic and environmental factors.
In summary, the Mohr-Coulomb failure theory is a valuable tool for
geotechnical engineers, allowing them to analyze the strength and
stability of soils and rocks and design safe and reliable geotechnical
structures.

Soil Mechanics
5.4.2 Cohesion and angle of internal friction:-
o Cohesion and angle of internal friction are two fundamental
parameters used to describe the shear strength of soils in soil
mechanics.
Cohesion:
 Cohesion is the shear strength of a soil that is independent of the
normal stress acting on it.
 It is often referred to as the "interparticle attraction" and
represents the ability of soil particles to stick together.
 Cohesion is measured in force per unit area, such as kPa or psi,
and is typically found in cohesive soils such as clays.
 In other words, cohesive soil particles have a natural tendency to
stick together, even without any external forces applied.

Soil Mechanics
Angle of Internal Friction:
 The angle of internal friction is the resistance of soil particles to
shear under normal stress.
 It is the slope of the line between the normal and shear stresses on
the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
 This parameter represents the frictional resistance of the soil
particles to sliding past each other and is measured in degrees.
 Cohesive soils have a low angle of internal friction, while non-
cohesive soils such as sands have a higher angle of internal
friction.

Soil Mechanics
o The cohesion and angle of internal friction are used to determine
the shear strength of soils in various applications such as slope
stability analysis, foundation design, and retaining wall design.
o Engineers use laboratory tests such as the triaxial test or direct
shear test to determine the values of these parameters.
o In general, a higher value of cohesion and/or angle of internal
friction indicates a stronger soil with greater resistance to
deformation and failure under shear stresses.
In summary, the cohesion and angle of internal friction are key

parameters in soil mechanics that help engineers predict the shear
strength of soils, which is crucial in designing safe and reliable
geotechnical structures.

Soil Mechanics
Physical meaning:-
o In soil mechanics, the concepts of cohesion and angle of internal
friction have practical meanings that are important for
understanding the behavior of soils and designing geotechnical
structures.
o Here are some practical meanings of these parameters:
Cohesion:
• In geotechnical engineering, cohesion is an important parameter
used to describe the strength of cohesive soils such as clays.
• Cohesive soils have the ability to stick together, even without any
external forces applied, and this property is quantified as
cohesion.
• In practical terms, cohesion can affect the stability of slopes, the
capacity of foundations, and the behavior of retaining walls.
Soil Mechanics
Physical meaning:-
Cohesion:
• For example, a higher value of cohesion in a soil can increase the
stability of a slope, while a lower value of cohesion can increase
the risk of slope failure.

Soil Mechanics
Physical meaning:-
Angle of Internal Friction:
• The angle of internal friction is an important parameter used to
describe the strength of non-cohesive soils such as sands.
• Non-cohesive soils do not have the ability to stick together, and
instead rely on frictional resistance between soil particles to resist
shear stresses.
• In practical terms, the angle of internal friction can affect the
stability of slopes, the capacity of foundations, and the behavior of
retaining walls.
• For example, a higher value of the angle of internal friction in a
soil can increase the stability of a slope, while a lower value can
increase the risk of slope failure.

Soil Mechanics
 In addition to slope stability analysis, foundation design, and
retaining wall design, the cohesion and angle of internal friction
are also important parameters in other geotechnical applications
such as pavement design, earthworks construction, and soil
reinforcement design.
 In these applications, these parameters are used to predict the
behavior of soils under different loading conditions and design
structures that can withstand the expected stresses.
o In summary, the practical meanings of cohesion and angle of
internal friction in soil mechanics include their influence on the
stability of slopes, the capacity of foundations, and the behavior of
retaining walls, as well as their importance in other geotechnical
applications such as pavement design and soil reinforcement
design.

Soil Mechanics
5.5 Earth pressures:-
 Earth pressure is a term used in geotechnical engineering to
describe the pressure exerted by soil on a retaining structure such
as a retaining wall or basement wall.
 Earth pressures play a significant role in the design of these
structures, as the pressure exerted by soil can cause these
structures to fail if not properly accounted for in the design.
Here are some key concepts related to earth pressures in geotechnical
engineering:
Active earth pressure:
• Active earth pressure is the horizontal pressure exerted by soil on
a retaining structure when the soil is in a state of failure or
impending failure.
• This occurs when the soil in front of a retaining structure is loose
and able to move, causing the pressure to be greater than the
pressure
4/6/2023 exerted by the soilEr.behind the structure.
Santosh Acharya 95
Soil Mechanics
Here are some key concepts related to earth pressures in geotechnical
engineering:
Passive earth pressure:
• Passive earth pressure is the horizontal pressure exerted by soil on
a retaining structure when the soil is constrained and unable to
move.
• This occurs when the soil behind a retaining structure is dense and
compacted, causing the pressure to be greater than the pressure
exerted by the soil in front of the structure.
At-rest earth pressure:
• At-rest earth pressure is the horizontal pressure exerted by soil on
a retaining structure when the soil is in a state of equilibrium and
there is no movement.
• This pressure is typically used for design purposes when the
actual pressure exerted by the soil cannot be determined.
Soil Mechanics
Rankine's theory:
 Rankine's theory is a commonly used method for calculating
active and passive earth pressures.
 This theory assumes that the soil is cohesive and the failure plane
is vertical.
 The theory also assumes that the soil is homogeneous and
isotropic.

Soil Mechanics
Coulomb's theory:
 Coulomb's theory is another method for calculating active and
passive earth pressures.
 This theory assumes that the soil is non-cohesive and the failure
plane is at an angle to the horizontal.
 The theory also accounts for the angle of internal friction of the
soil.
In summary, earth pressures are a critical consideration in the design
of retaining structures. Engineers use various methods to calculate
active and passive earth pressures, including Rankine's theory and
Coulomb's theory, to ensure that the structures can withstand the
pressures exerted by the soil.

Soil Mechanics
5.5.1 Active earth pressure:-
 Active earth pressure is the horizontal pressure exerted by soil on
a retaining structure when the soil is in a state of failure or
impending failure.
 This occurs when the soil in front of a retaining structure is loose
and able to move, causing the pressure to be greater than the
pressure exerted by the soil behind the structure.
 Active earth pressure is an important consideration in the design
of retaining structures, as failure to account for it can result in
structural failure and potential danger to people and property.

Soil Mechanics
There are several factors that influence the magnitude of active earth
pressure. These include:
Soil type:
The type of soil in front of a retaining structure can have a
significant impact on the active earth pressure exerted on the
structure. Soils with a high angle of internal friction, such as clay and
sand, typically exert higher pressures than soils with a low angle of
internal friction, such as silt and fine-grained soils.
Slope angle:
The angle at which the soil in front of a retaining structure is sloped
can also affect the magnitude of active earth pressure. Steeper slopes
generally result in higher pressures than shallower slopes.

Soil Mechanics
There are several factors that influence the magnitude of active earth
pressure. These include:
Height of the retaining structure:
The height of the retaining structure also plays a role in the
magnitude of active earth pressure. Taller structures typically
experience higher pressures than shorter structures.
Water content:
The water content of the soil can also affect the magnitude of active
earth pressure. Wet soils generally exert higher pressures than dry
soils.

Soil Mechanics
o Engineers use various methods to calculate the magnitude of
active earth pressure, including Rankine's theory and Coulomb's
theory. These methods take into account the various factors that
influence the pressure exerted by soil on a retaining structure, and
are critical in ensuring that structures are designed to withstand
the forces exerted upon them.

Soil Mechanics
5.5.1 Passive Earth pressures:-
 Passive earth pressure is the horizontal pressure exerted by soil on
a retaining structure when the soil is constrained and unable to
move.
 This occurs when the soil behind a retaining structure is dense and
compacted, causing the pressure to be greater than the pressure
exerted by the soil in front of the structure.
 Passive earth pressure is an important consideration in the design
of retaining structures, as failure to account for it can result in
structural failure and potential danger to people and property.

Soil Mechanics
There are several factors that influence the magnitude of passive
earth pressure. These include:
Soil type:
The type of soil behind a retaining structure can have a significant
impact on the passive earth pressure exerted on the structure. Soils
with a high angle of internal friction, such as clay and sand, typically
exert higher pressures than soils with a low angle of internal friction,
such as silt and fine-grained soils.
Slope angle:
The angle at which the soil behind a retaining structure is sloped can
also affect the magnitude of passive earth pressure. Steeper slopes
generally result in higher pressures than shallower slopes.

Soil Mechanics
There are several factors that influence the magnitude of passive
earth pressure. These include:
Height of the retaining structure:
The height of the retaining structure also plays a role in the
magnitude of passive earth pressure. Taller structures typically
experience higher pressures than shorter structures.
Water content:
The water content of the soil can also affect the magnitude of passive
earth pressure. Wet soils generally exert higher pressures than dry
soils.

Soil Mechanics
o Engineers use various methods to calculate the magnitude of
passive earth pressure, including Rankine's theory and Coulomb's
theory. These methods take into account the various factors that
influence the pressure exerted by soil on a retaining structure, and
are critical in ensuring that structures are designed to withstand
the forces exerted upon them.

Soil Mechanics
Difference between Active and passive earth pressure:-
Feature Active Earth Pressure Passive Earth Pressure
Soil Condition Loose and able to move Dense and compacted
Outward, away from the
Direction of Pressure wall Inward, towards the wall
Location of Maximum At or above the base of At or below the base of
Pressure wall wall
When soil in front of When soil behind wall
Occurrence of Failure wall fails fails
Pressure Calculation Rankine's and Coulomb's Rankine's and Coulomb's
Methods theory theory
Factors Affecting Soil type, slope angle, Soil type, slope angle,
Magnitude height height
Important for stability Important for stability
Design Considerations analysis analysis
Soil Mechanics
5.5.2 Lateral Earth pressure Theory:-
 Lateral earth pressure theory is a principle in geotechnical
engineering that describes the pressure exerted by soil against a
retaining structure.
 The theory is based on the assumption that soil is a granular
material that is subjected to internal friction and cohesion.
There are several theories that describe lateral earth pressure,
including:
Rankine's theory:
This theory assumes that soil behind a retaining wall exerts pressure
against the wall at an angle of 45 degrees from the horizontal. The
pressure is assumed to be uniform and can be calculated using the
soil's angle of internal friction and cohesion.

Soil Mechanics
including:
Coulomb's theory:
against the wall at an angle that is less than 45 degrees from the
horizontal. The pressure is assumed to be non-uniform and can be
calculated using the soil's angle of internal friction and cohesion.

Soil Mechanics
including:
Terzaghi's theory:
against the wall at an angle that varies with depth. The pressure is
assumed to be non-uniform and can be calculated using the soil's
angle of internal friction, cohesion, and the wall's stiffness.
o The lateral earth pressure theory is important in the design of
retaining structures, such as retaining walls and abutments. It
helps engineers to calculate the forces that will act on the structure
and ensure that it is designed to withstand those forces. The theory
also helps to determine the optimum design of a retaining
structure in terms of the wall height, thickness, and reinforcement
required.
Soil Mechanics
5.5.3 Rankine's Earth pressure theory:-
 Rankine's theory of earth pressure is a classical theory used to
determine the lateral earth pressure exerted on a retaining wall.
 The theory assumes that the soil mass behind a retaining wall is a
homogenous, isotropic, and frictional material with zero cohesion.
The theory is based on two assumptions:
• The soil mass exerts a uniformly distributed pressure on the back
of the retaining wall at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal.
• The failure plane of the soil mass is assumed to be vertical and
passing through the toe of the wall.

Soil Mechanics
According to Rankine's theory, the active earth pressure (Pa) is given
by:
Pa = Ka * γ * H^2/2
Where;
Ka is the active earth pressure coefficient,
γ is the unit weight of the soil,
and H is the height of the wall.
The value of Ka is determined by the angle of internal friction (φ) of
the soil and can be calculated using the formula:
Ka = tan^2(45 + φ/2)

Soil Mechanics
Similarly,
the passive earth pressure (Pp) can be calculated using the
formula:
Pp = Kp * γ * H^2/2
Where;
Kp is the passive earth pressure coefficient
and is also determined by the angle of internal friction (φ) of
the soil. The value of Kp is given by:
Kp = tan^2(45 - φ/2)

Soil Mechanics
 Rankine's theory is a useful tool for preliminary design and
assessment of retaining walls, but it has some limitations.
 The assumptions made by the theory may not hold true for all
types of soils and retaining walls.
 Therefore, more advanced theories, such as Coulomb's theory or
Terzaghi's theory, are used in practice for accurate analysis and
design of retaining walls.

Soil Mechanics
Assumptions:-
Rankine's earth pressure theory assumes the following:
Homogeneous soil:
The soil mass behind the retaining wall is assumed to be a
homogenous material with consistent properties throughout the
depth.
Frictional soil:
The soil is assumed to be a frictional material with zero cohesion.
Isotropic soil:
The soil is assumed to be an isotropic material, which means it has
the same properties in all directions.

Soil Mechanics
Assumptions:-
Vertical failure plane:
The soil failure plane is assumed to be vertical and passing through
the toe of the wall.
Uniformly distributed pressure:
The soil mass behind the retaining wall is assumed to exert a
uniformly distributed pressure on the back of the wall at an angle of
45 degrees to the horizontal.
Rigid wall:
The retaining wall is assumed to be a rigid structure that does not
deform or move under load.

Soil Mechanics
Assumptions:-
Static conditions:
The theory assumes that the soil is in a state of static equilibrium and
does not take into account dynamic or seismic loads.
Linearly elastic soil:
The soil is assumed to be a linearly elastic material, which means
that its deformation is proportional to the applied load.
It is important to note that these assumptions may not hold true in all
cases, and more advanced theories may be required for accurate
analysis and design of retaining walls.

Soil Mechanics
5.6 Foundation Engineering:-
 Foundation engineering is a branch of geotechnical engineering
that deals with the design and construction of foundations for
buildings, bridges, and other structures. Foundations are the base
of any structure and are responsible for transmitting the loads
from the structure to the underlying soil or rock mass.
 Foundation engineers use the principles of soil mechanics to
determine the safe bearing capacity of the soil, settlement
characteristics, and the potential for soil liquefaction, among other
factors. Based on this information, they design foundations that
can support the loads of the structure without causing excessive
settlement or structural failure.

Soil Mechanics
 There are various types of foundations used in engineering
practice, including shallow foundations, such as spread footings
and mat foundations, and deep foundations, such as piles and
drilled shafts. The selection of the appropriate type of foundation
depends on factors such as the type of soil, the magnitude and
nature of the loads, and the site conditions.
 Foundation engineering also involves the assessment and
remediation of existing foundations, such as underpinning and
strengthening of foundations that have been subjected to excessive
settlement or damage.
Overall, foundation engineering plays a crucial role in ensuring the

safety and stability of structures and is an essential component of the
construction industry.
Soil Mechanics
Application of Foundation Engineering in the field of Civil
Enginering:-
Foundation engineering has a wide range of applications in the field
of civil engineering, including:
Building foundations:
Foundation engineers design and construct foundations for various
types of buildings, ranging from residential houses to commercial
and industrial structures.
Bridge foundations:
Bridges require strong and stable foundations to support their weight
and resist lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes.
Retaining wall foundations:
Foundation engineers design and construct foundations for retaining
walls used to support slopes and
4/6/2023 prevent
Er. Santosh Acharyalandslides. 120
Soil Mechanics
Enginering:-
Tower foundations:
Communication towers, wind turbines, and other tall structures
require strong and stable foundations to support their weight and
resist wind loads.
Road and railway foundations:
Foundation engineers design and construct foundations for roads and
railways, including embankments, cut slopes, and retaining walls.
Seawall foundations:
Seawalls protect coastal areas from erosion and flooding and require
strong foundations to resist the forces of waves and tides.

Soil Mechanics
Enginering:-
Dam foundations:
Dams require strong and stable foundations to support the weight of
the structure and the water pressure behind it.
Underground structures:
Foundations are also required for underground structures such as
tunnels, mines, and underground storage facilities.
Overall, foundation engineering plays a crucial role in ensuring the

safety and stability of civil engineering structures and is an essential
component of the construction industry.

Soil Mechanics
5.6.1 Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas and their
applications:-
• Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas are used to calculate
the maximum bearing capacity of a soil foundation.
• The formulas were developed by Karl von Terzaghi, a pioneering
geotechnical engineer, and are widely used in civil engineering
applications.

Soil Mechanics
applications:-
General bearing capacity formulas developed by Terzaghi;
For a strip footing,
q = N_c * c * + N_q * q * B+ 0.5 * γ * B * N_γ * S
Where;
q is the ultimate bearing capacity,
N_c, N_q, and N_γ are dimensionless bearing capacity factors,
c is the effective cohesion of the soil,
q is the effective overburden pressure,
B is the width of the footing,
γ is the unit weight of the soil.

Soil Mechanics
applications:-
This formulas are useful in determining the maximum load that a
foundation can bear before it fails. They can be used to design a safe
and stable foundation for a variety of structures, such as buildings,
bridges, and dams.

Soil Mechanics
applications:-
Assumptions:-
 Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas are based on a set of
assumptions that must be satisfied for the formulas to be valid.
 Here are some of the key assumptions:
Homogeneous and isotropic soil:
The soil is assumed to be homogeneous, with the same properties at
all points, and isotropic, with the same properties in all directions.
This assumption is necessary to simplify the calculations and obtain
a single value for the bearing capacity factor.
Elastic behavior:
The soil is assumed to behave elastically, meaning that it deforms
and recovers its original shape when loaded and unloaded. This
assumption is valid for small deformations but may not hold for
larger deformations or in soils with high plasticity.
Soil Mechanics
applications:-
Assumptions:-
Plane strain conditions:
The soil is assumed to be loaded in a plane strain condition, meaning
that the deformation in the third dimension is negligible. This
assumption is valid for shallow foundations but may not be valid for
deep foundations.
Static loading:
The formulas are based on static loading conditions, meaning that
they do not account for the effects of dynamic loading or soil
liquefaction.
Failure criteria:
The formulas are based on a failure criterion that assumes a failure
plane at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal. This assumption
may not be valid for all soil types or for all loading conditions.
Soil Mechanics
applications:-
Assumptions:-
No lateral movement:
The formulas assume that there is no lateral movement of the soil,
meaning that the soil does not move horizontally. This assumption
may not be valid for soils with low cohesion or for sloping sites.
o Overall, the assumptions of Terzaghi's general bearing capacity
formulas simplify the calculations and make them applicable to a
wide range of soil types and loading conditions. However,
engineers must also consider the limitations of these assumptions
and use their judgment and experience to ensure that the formulas
are used appropriately for each specific project.

Soil Mechanics
applications:-
Field applications of Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas in
Foundation Engineering:-
 Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas are widely used in
foundation engineering to calculate the maximum bearing
capacity of soil foundations.
 These formulas are particularly useful in the design of shallow
foundations, such as strip footings, circular footings, and square
footings.

Soil Mechanics
applications:-
 Here are some field applications of Terzaghi's general bearing
capacity formulas in foundation engineering:
Design of building foundations:
Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas are commonly used to
design the foundations of buildings. Engineers can use these
formulas to calculate the maximum allowable load that a foundation
can bear without causing failure or excessive settlement.
Design of bridge foundations:
Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas can also be used to
design the foundations of bridges. For example, the formulas can be
used to calculate the maximum allowable load that a pier foundation
can 4/6/2023
bear without causing failure or excessive
Er. Santosh Acharya settlement. 130
Soil Mechanics
applications:-
Design of dam foundations:
Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas are used in the design
of dam foundations. Engineers can use these formulas to calculate
the maximum allowable load that the soil foundation can bear
without causing failure or excessive settlement.
Soil stabilization:
Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas can also be used to
design soil stabilization techniques. For example, if the soil is not
capable of bearing the loads imposed by a structure, then soil
stabilization techniques such as compaction, grouting, or soil
reinforcement can be employed to increase the bearing capacity.
Soil Mechanics
applications:-
Slope stability analysis:
Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas can also be used in
slope stability analysis. Engineers can use these formulas to calculate
the maximum allowable load that a soil slope can bear without
causing failure or instability.
o Overall, Terzaghi's general bearing capacity formulas are widely
used in foundation engineering for designing safe and stable
foundations for various structures.

Soil Mechanics
applications:-
Effect of water table on bearing capacity of foundations:-
 The water table, which is the level of groundwater in the soil, can
have a significant effect on the bearing capacity of foundations.
 When the water table is high, the soil becomes saturated, which
can lead to a reduction in its strength and bearing capacity.

Soil Mechanics
applications:-
 Here are some effects of the water table on the bearing capacity of
foundations:
Reduction in effective stress:
When the water table rises, the effective stress in the soil decreases.
This is because the water pressure in the soil increases, which
counteracts the weight of the soil and any loads applied to it. As a
result, the bearing capacity of the soil decreases.
Increase in pore water pressure:
As the water table rises, the pore water pressure in the soil increases.
This can lead to a decrease in the soil's shear strength and an increase
in its compressibility. These factors can also lead to a reduction in
the bearing capacity of the soil.
Soil Mechanics
applications:-
 Here are some effects of the water table on the bearing capacity of
foundations:
Loss of soil structure:
When the water table rises, the soil can become saturated, which can
lead to a loss of soil structure. This can result in soil liquefaction,
which can cause significant settlements and failures in the
foundation.
Influence of drainage conditions:
The drainage conditions around the foundation can also affect the
bearing capacity of the soil. If the soil is poorly drained, the water
table can rise and remain high for extended periods, leading to a
reduction in the bearing capacity of the soil.
Soil Mechanics
applications:-
o Overall, the water table can have a significant effect on the
bearing capacity of foundations. Engineers must consider the
water table when designing foundations and take appropriate
measures, such as providing drainage systems or constructing
deeper foundations, to mitigate the effects of the water table on
the soil's strength and bearing capacity.

Any Questions?

1
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

The active earth pressure of a soil is proportional to (where φ is the angle of friction of the soil)
A. tan (45° - φ)
B. tan2 (45° + φ/2)
C. tan2 (45° - φ/2)
D. tan (45° + φ)
Answer: Option C
The minimum water content at which the soil just begins to crumble when rolled into threads 3 mm in
diameter, is known
A. liquid limit
B. plastic limit
C. shrinkage limit
D. permeability limit.
Answer: Option B
Pick up the correct statement from the following:
A. The rise of the ground surface due to frost action is called frost heave.
B. The freezing of water is accompained by a volume increase of 9%.
C. Below freezing point, higher soil suction develops.
D. The magnitude of frost heave decreases as the degree of saturation of soil decreases
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
The lateral earth pressure on a retaining wall
A. is equal to mass of the soil retained
B. proportional to the depth of the soil
C. proportional to the square of the depth of the soil
D. proportional to the internal friction of the soil
E. none of these.
Answer: Option D
The internal molecular attraction of a soil, the cohesion
A. decreases as the moisture content increases
B. increases as the moisture content decreases
C. is more in well compacted clays
D. depends upon the external applied load.

Answer: Option C
Er. Santosh Acharya, Technical officer, Government of Nepal
2
The quantity of seepage of water through soils is proportional to

A. coefficient of permeability of soil
B. total head loss through the soil
C. neither (a) nor (b)
D. both (a) and (b).

Answer: Option D
The minimum water content at which the soil retains its liquid state and also possesses a small shearing
strength against flowing, is known
A. liquid limit
B. plastic limit
C. shrinkage limit
Answer: Option A
Minimum size of the particles of silt soil, is
A. 0.002 mm
B. 0.04 mm
C. 0.06 mm.
D. 0.08 mm
E. 1 mm
Answer: Option A
Under-reamed piles are generally
A. driven piles
B. bored piles
C. precast piles
D. all the above.

Answer: Option B
Pick up the clay soil group which does not swell when wet from the following :
A. Kaolinite group
B. Illite group
C. Vermiculite group
D. Montrorillonite group.
Answer: Option B
Factor of safety against sliding of a slope, is the ratio of
A. actual cohesion to that required to maintain stability of slope
B. shear strength to shear stress along the surface

3
C. neither (a) nor (b)
D. both (a) and (b).

Answer: Option D
The ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of soil solids in a given soil mass, is known
A. porosity
B. specific gravity
C. void ratio
D. water content.
Answer: Option C
A compacted soil sample using 10% moisture content has a weight of 200 g and mass unit weight of 2.0
g/cm3. If the specific gravity of soil particles and water are 2.7 and 1.0, the degree of saturation of the soil is
A. 11.1%
B. 55.6%
C. 69.6%
D. none of these.
Answer: Option B
A partially saturated sample of soil has a unit weight of 2.0 g/cm3 and specific gravity of soil particles is 2.6.
If the moisture content in the soil is 20%, the degree of saturation is
A. 20%
B. 77%
C. 92%
D. none of these.
Answer: Option C
According to Coulomb's wedge theory, the active earth pressure slides the wedge
A. down and outwards on a slip surface
B. up and inwards on a slip surface
C. horizontal upward and parallel to base
D. horizontal inward and parallel to base.

Answer: Option A
The coefficient of curvature is defined
A.
B.

4
C.
D.
Answer: Option C
The effective size of particles of soil is denoted by
A. D10
B. D20
C. D30
D. D60
Answer: Option A
Degree of saturation of a natural soil deposit having water content 15%, specific gravity 2.50 and void ratio
0.5, is
A. 50%
B. 60%
C. 75%
D. 80%
Answer: Option C
Rankine's theory of active earth pressure assumes
A. soil mass is homogeneous, dry and cohesionless
B. ground surface is a plane which may be horizontal or inclined
C. back of the wall is vertical and smooth
D. wall yields about the base
E. all the above.

Answer: Option E
The water content of soil is defined as the ratio of
A. volume of water to volume of given soil
B. volume of water to volume of voids in soil
C. weight of water to weight of air in voids
D. weight of water to weight of solids of given mass of soil.

Answer: Option D
Accurate determination of water content, is made by
A. calcium carbide method
B. sand bath method

5
C. alcohol method
D. oven-drying method.
Answer: Option D
Stoke's law sates that the velocity at which a grain settles out of suspension, the other factors remaining
constant, is dependent upon
A. shape of grain
B. weight of grain
C. size of grain
D. shape and size of grain
E. shape, size and weight of grain.

Answer: Option E
Pick up the correct statement from the following :
A. In soils, the flow index indicates variation in shear strength with water content
B. Liquid limit minus plastic limit, is known as plasticity index of the soil
C. Plastic limit minus shrinkage limit, is known as shrinkage index of the soil
D. The ratio of the plasticity index to the flow limit, is known as toughness index of the soil
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
The liquid limit and plastic limit exist in
A. sandy soils
B. silty soils
C. gravel soils
D. clay soils.
Answer: Option D
Back fill with a sloping surface exerts a total active pressure Pa on the wall of height H and acts at
A. H/4 above the base parallel to base
B. H/2 above the base parallel to base
C. H/3 above the base parallel to base
D. H/5 above the base parallel to base.

Answer: Option C
The ratio of the weight of given volume of soil solids to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water at
the given temperature, is known
A. porosity
B. specific gravity
C. void ratio

6
D. water content.
Answer: Option B
The ultimate Settlement of a soil is directly proportional to:
A. depth of the compressible soil strata
B. compressive index
C. void ratio
D. both (a) and (b)
E. none of these.
Answer: Option D
The seepage force in a soil, is
A. perpendicular to the equipotential lines
B. proportional to the exit gradient
C. proportional to the head loss
D. all the above.

Answer: Option D
A soil has bulk density 2.30 g/cm3 and water content 15 per cent, the dry density of the sample, is
A. 1.0 g/cm2
B. 1.5 g/cm3
C. 2.0 g/cm3
D. 2.5 g/cm3
Answer: Option C
The clay soil mainly consists of
A. Kaolinites .
B. Montomorillonite
C. Illites
D. Vermiculite
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
The liquidity index is defined as a ratio expressed as percentage of
A. plastic limit minus the natural water content, to its plasticity index
B. natural water content minus its plastic limit to its plasticity index
C. natural water content plus its plastic limit to its plasticity index
D. liquid limit minus the natural water content to the plasticity index.
Answer: Option B

7
The fluid generally used for grouting is

A. cement and water mix
B. clay suspension
C. sodium silicate
D. bitumen emulsion
E. all the above.

Answer: Option E
A coarse-grained soil has a voids ratio 0.75, and specific gravity as 2.75. The critical gradient at which quick
sand condition occurs, is
A. 0.25
B. 0.50
C. 0.75
D. 1.00
Answer: Option D
The relationship between void ratio (e) and porosity ratio (n) is :
A.
n=
B.
e=
C.
n=
D. e = n/(1 - n)
Answer: Option D
Geologic cycle for the formation of soil, is
A. Upheavel → transportation → deposition → weathering
B. Weathering → upheaval → transportation → deposition
C. Transportation → upheaval → weathering → deposition
D. Weathering → transportation → deposition → upheaval
E. None of these.
Answer: Option D
The weight of a pycnometer containing 400 g sand and water full to the top is 2150 g. The weight of
pycnometer full of clean water is 1950 g. If specific gravity of the soil is 2.5, the water content is
A. 5%
B. 10%
C. 15%

8
D. 20%
Answer: Option D
The maximum shear stress occurs on the filament which makes an angle with the horizontal plane equal to
A. 30°
B. 45°
C. 60°
D. 90°
Answer: Option B
For determining the moisture content of a soil sample, the following data is available Weight of container =
260 g, Weight of soil sample and = 320 g container, Weight of soil sample (dried) and = 310 g container. The
moisture content of the soil sample, is
A. 15%
B. 18%
C. 20%
D. 25%
Answer: Option C
Buoyant unit weight equals the saturated density
A. multiplied by unit weight of water
B. divided by unit weight of water
C. plus unit weight of water
D. minus unit weight of water.

Answer: Option D
A partially saturated soil is classified as
A. one phase soil
B. two phase soil
C. three phase soil
D. four phase soil.

Answer: Option C
For determing the specific gravity of soil solids, using a pycnometer of 500 cc., the following data is
available : Weight of dry empty pycnometer = 125 g Weight of dried soil and pycnometer = 500 g Weight of
dried soil and distilled = 850 g water filled in pycnometer up to top The specific gravity of soil soilds, is
A. 2.0
B. 2.25
C. 2.50
D. 2.75
Answer: Option C
A pile is being driven with a drop hammer weighing 1800 kg and having a free fall of 1.00 m. If the
penetration with last blow is 5 mm, the load carrying capacity of the pile, -according to the Engineering
9
News formula, is
A. 100 tonnes
B. 50 tonnes
C. 20 tonnes
D. 10 tonnes.
Answer: Option D
If the specific gravity and voids in soil sample are G and e respectively, the hydraulic gradient i, is
A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer: Option A
260 g of wet soil was taken in a pycnometer jar of weight 400 g in order to find the moisture content in the
soil, with specific gravity of soil particles 2.75. The weight of soil and remaining water filled in pycnometer
without air bubbles was 1415 g and the weight of pycnometer filled with water alone was 1275 g. The
moisture content in the soil is
A. 24.2%
B. 18.2%
C. 53.8%
D. none of these.
Answer: Option B
The earth pressure of a soil at rest, is proportional to (where φ is the angle of internal friction of the soil)
A. tan (45° - φ)
B. tan (45° + φ)
C. tan2 (45° - φ)
D. tan2 (45° + φ)
E. none of these
Answer: Option E
A fundamental equation of void ratio(e), specific gravity (G), water content (ω) and degree of saturation (Sr)
is
A.
e=

10
B.
ω=
C.
G=
D.
Sr =
Answer: Option A
Water content of a soil sample is the difference of the weight of the given sample at the given temperature
and the weight determined after drying it for 24 hours at temperature ranging from
A. 80° to 90°C
B. 90° to 95°C
C. 95° to 100°C
D. 103° to 105°C
E. 105° to 110°C
Answer: Option E
The ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the given soil mass, is known
A. porosity
B. specific gravity
C. void ratio
D. water content.
Answer: Option A
A. The void space between the soil grains, is filled partly with air and partly with water
B. In perfectly saturated soil, the voids are completely filled with water
C. In dry soil, the voids are completely filled with air
D. all the above.

Answer: Option D
W is the weight of soil having a moisture content ω. If V is the volume of proctor's mould, the dry density of
the soil is
A.
B.
C.

11
D.
Answer: Option C
Number of piles required to support a column, is
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Answer: Option C
The soil moisture driven off by heat, is called
A. free water
B. hydroscopic water
C. gravity water
D. none of these.
Answer: Option B
The direct shear test suffers from the following disadvantage:
A. Drain condition cannot be controlled
B. Pore water pressure cannot be measured
C. Shear stress on the failure plane is not uniform.
D. The area under the shear and vertical loads does not remain constant throughout the test
E. All the above.

Answer: Option C
The equation τ = C + σ tan φ is given by
A. Rankine
B. Coulomb
C. Culaman
D. Mohr.
Answer: Option B
You are given a sample of soil containing coarse grains to determine its water content, you will use
A. pycnometer
B. oven-drying method
C. calcium carbide method
D. alcohol method.
Answer: Option A
The soil which contains finest grain particles, is

12
A. coarse sand
B. fine sand
C. silt
D. clay.
Answer: Option D
The general relationship between specific gravity (G), weight of water (γω), degree of saturation (Sr), void
ratio (e) and bulk density (γ), is
A.
γ=
B.
γ=
C.
γ=
D.
γ=
Answer: Option B
The compressibility of clays, is caused due to:
A. expulsion of double layer water from in between the grains
B. sliping of particles to new positions of greater density
C. bending of particles as elastic sheets
D. all the above.

Answer: Option D
The ratio of the difference between the void ratio of the soil in its loosest state and its natural void ratio (e)
to the difference between the void ratios in the loosest and fully dense state, is generally termed as
A. degree of density
B. relativity index
C. density index
D. all the above.

Answer: Option D
Determination of water content of a soil sample suspected to contain gypsum is made by drying the sample
for longer period at a temperature not more than
A. 60°C
B. 80°C
C. 100°C

13
D. 110°C
Answer: Option B
Water formed transported soil is
A. alluvial
B. marine
C. lacustrine
D. loess.
Answer: Option A
A decrease in water content results in a reduction of the volume of a soil in

A. liquid state
B. plastic state
C. semi solid state
D. all of these.
Answer: Option D
A. If the ratio of depth to width is less than 2, it is shallow foundation
B. If the ratio of depth to width is more than 2, it is deep foundation
C. If the ratio of the length to width is between 1 and 2, it is spread foundation
D. If the length is large as compared to width, it is a strip foundation
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
The vane shear test is used for the in-situ determination of the undrained strength of the intact fully
saturated
A. sands
B. clays
C. gravels
D. highly organic soils.

Answer: Option B
Fundamental relationship between dry density (γd), bulk density (γ) and water content (ω), is :
A.
γ=
B.
γd =
C.
ω=
14
D.
ω=
Answer: Option B
The specific gravity of quartz, is
A. 2.65
B. 2.72
C. 2.85
D. 2.90
Answer: Option A
A. The phenomenon of quicksand generally occurs in the cohesionless soil
B. At critical hydraulic gradient, the saturated sand becomes quick
C. The critical gradient depends on the void ratio and the specific gravity
D. The quick sand occurs more in fine sand and silt than coarse material
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
If W1, W2, W3 and W4 are the sequential weights obtained during observations in pycnometer method for
determining water content, the formula to be used, is
A.
W=
B.
W=
C.
W=
D.
W=
Answer: Option C
Flow net is used for the determination of
A. quantity of seepage
B. hydrostatic pressure
C. seepage pressure
D. exit gradient

15
E. all the above.

Answer: Option E
Maximum size of clay particles, is :
A. 0.002 mm
B. 0.04 mm
C. 0.06 mm
D. 0.08 mm
E. 1 mm
Answer: Option A
The capillary rise of water
A. depends upon the force responsible
B. increases as the size of the soil particles increases
C. decreases as the size of the soil particles decreases
D. is less in wet soil than in dry soil.

Answer: Option A
Coulomb's wedge theory assumes that
A. back fill is dry, cohesionless, homogeneous and isotropic
B. slip surface is the plane which passes through the heel of the wall
sliding wedge itself acts as a rigid body and the value of earth pressure is obtained by considering the limiting
C.
equilibrium of the wedge
D. position and direction of the resultant earth pressure, are known
E. all the above.

Answer: Option E
If dry density, water density and specific gravity of solids of a given soil sample are 1.6 g/cc, 1.84 g/cc and
2.56 respectively, the porosity of the soil sample, is
A. 0.375
B. 0.370
C. 0.380
D. 0.390
Answer: Option A
Pick up the correct statement applicable to plate load test
A. Width of the test pit for plate load test is made five times the width of the plate
B. At the centre of the test pit, a hole is dug out whose size is kept equal to the size of the test plate
C. Bottom level of the hole dug at the centre of the test pit, is kept at the level of the actual formation
Ratio of the depth of the hole to the width of the test plate is the same as the ratio of the depth of the actual
D.
formation to the width of the formation

16
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
Terzaghi's analysis assumes :
A. soil is homogeneous and isotropic
B. elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at ψ = φ to the horizontal and plastic zones fully developed
C. failure zones do not extend above the horizontal plane through the base of the footing
D. all the above.

Answer: Option D
The fundamental equation of air content (ac), degree of saturation (Sr) and void ratio (e), is
A.
ac =
B.
ac =
C.
ac =
D. ac = 1 + e/Sr
Answer: Option C
The plasticity index is the numerical difference between
A. liquid limit and plastic limit
B. plastic limit and shrinkage limit
C. liquid limit and shrinkage limit
D. none of these.
Answer: Option A
The fundamental equation of specific gravity (G), dry density (γd), unit weight of water (γω) and void ratio (e),
is
A.
e=
B.
G=
C.
γd =
D.
γω =
Answer: Option C
Negative skin friction on piles

17
A. is caused due to relative settlement of the soil
B. is caused in soft clays
C. decreases the pile capacity
D. all of the above.

Answer: Option D
The ultimate bearing capacity of a soil, is
A. total load on the bearing area
B. safe load on the bearing area
C. load at which soil fails
D. load at which soil consolidates.

Answer: Option C
Transporting and redepositing soils, is done by
A. water
B. glacier
C. gravity
D. wind
E. all the above.

Answer: Option E
A moist soil sample of volume 60 cc. weighs 108 g and its dried weight is 86.4 g. If its absolute density is
2.52, the degree of saturation is
A. 54%
B. 64%
C. 74%
D. 84%
Answer: Option D
A. O.M.C. refers to the moisture corresponding to the maximum point on the moisture content dry density curve
The line which shows moisture content dry density relation for soil containing a constant percentage of air
B.
voids, is known as air void line
C. The weight of hammer used for compaction test is 25 kg
D. The free fall of hammer for compaction is 30.5 cm
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
The passive earth pressure of a soil, is proportional to (where φ is the angle of internal friction of the soil.)
A. tan (45° - φ)

18
B. tan (45° + φ)
C. tan2 (45° - φ
D. tan2 (45° + φ)
Answer: Option D
If the unit weight of sand particles is 2.696 g/cc. and porosity in loose state is 44%, the critical hydraulic
gradient for quick sand condition, is
A. 0.91
B. 0.92
C. 0.93
D. 0.94
E. 0.95
Answer: Option E
The maximum water content at which a reduction in water content does not cause a decrease in volume of a
soil mass, is known
A. liquid limit
B. plastic limit
C. shrinkage limit
Answer: Option C
A sample of saturated soil has 30% water content and the specific gravity of soil grains is 2.6. The dry
density of the soil mass in g/cm3, is
A. 1.47
B. 1.82
C. 1.91
D. none of these.
Answer: Option A
The specific gravity of sands, is approximately
A. 1.6
B. 2.0
C. 2.2
D. 2.4
E. 2.6
Answer: Option E
Darcy's law is applicable to seepage if a soil is
A. homogeneous
B. isotropic

19
C. incompressible
D. all the above.

Answer: Option D
Depending upon the properties of a material, the failure envelope may
A. be either straight or curved
B. pass through the origin of stress
C. intersect the shear stress axis
D. all the above.

Answer: Option D
The maximum net pressure intensity causing shear failure of soil, is known
A. safe bearing capacity
B. net safe bearing capacity
C. net ultimate bearing capacity
D. ultimate bearing capacity.

Answer: Option C
The factor which affects the compaction, is
A. moisture content
B. compacting content
C. method of compaction
D. type of soil
E. All the above.

Answer: Option E
The compression resulting from a long term static load and consequent escape of pore water, is known as
A. compaction
B. consolidation
C. swelling
D. none of these.
Answer: Option B
The coefficient of curvature for a well graded soil, must be between
A. 0.5 to 1.0
B. 1.0 to 3.0
C. 3.0 to 4.0
D. 4.0 to 5.0
Answer: Option B
Fundamental relationship between dry density (γd), specific gravity (G), water content (ω) and percentage of
air voids (na) is :
20
A.
γd =
B.
γd =
C.
γd =
D.
γd =
Answer: Option A
A moist soil sample weighing 108 g has a volume of 60 cc. If water content is 25% and value of G = 2.52, the
void ratio is
A. 0.55
B. 0.65
C. 0.75
D. 0.80
Answer: Option C
When the seepage pressure becomes equal to the pressure due to submerged weight of a soil, the effective
pressure is reduced to zero and the soil particles have a tendency to move up in the direction of flow. This
phenomenon is generally known
A. quick condition
B. boiling condition
C. quick sand
D. all the above.
Answer: Option D
The phreatic line in an earth dam may be
A. circular
B. elliptical
C. parabolic
D. a straight line

21
E. all the above.
Answer: Option C
A. A maximum value of dry density is obtained at optimum water content
B. At low value of water content most soils tend to be stiff.
C. At high water content, the dry density decreases with an increase of water content.
D. An airless soil will have maximum possible value of dry density for the given water content
E. All the above.
Answer: Option E
Cohesive soils are generally
A. plastic and also compressible
B. elastic and also compressible
C. plastic but incompressible
D. none of these.
Answer: Option A
If the coefficient of the active pressure Ka is 1/3, the coefficient of passive pressure Kp, is
A. 1/3
B. 2/3
C. 1
D. 3/2
E. 3
Answer: Option E
The inventor of the term soil mechanics, was
A. Kray

22
B. Dr. Karl Terzaghi
C. Leygue
D. Fellenius.
Answer: Option B
Compression of soil occurs rapidly if voids are filled with
A. air
B. water
C. partly with air and partly with water
D. none of these.
Answer: Option A
A soil sample of mass specific gravity 1.92, has a moisture content 30%. If the specific gravity of solids is
2.75, the degree of saturation, is
A. 95.4%
B. 95.5%
C. 95.6%
D. 95.7%
Answer: Option D
A critical hydraulic gradient may occur when
A. flow is in upward direction
B. seepage pressure is in upward direction
C. effective pressure is zero
D. all the above.
Answer: Option D
Plasticity index is defined as the range of water content between
A. liquid and plastic limit

23
B. plastic limit and semi solid limit
C. semi-solid limit and liquid limit
D. liquid limit and solid limit.
Answer: Option A
The minimum depth of building foundations on
A. sandy soils is 80 cm to 100 cm
B. clay soils is 90 cm to 160 cm
C. rocky soils is 5 cm to 50 cm
D. all the above.
Answer: Option D
The total weight of a pycnometer with water and oven dried soil 20 (g) is 1600 g. The pycnometer filled with
water alone weighs 1500 g. The specific gravity of the soil, is
A. 1.0
B. 1.5
C. 2.0
D. 2.5
Answer: Option C
The zero atmospheric pressure is at
A. sea level
B. mean sea level
C. water table
D. phreatic surface
E. both (c) and (d) of the above.
Answer: Option E
A soil mass coated with a thin layer of paraffin weighs 460 g. When immersed, it displaces 299 cc of water.
The weight of paraffin is 10 g. If specific gravity of solids is 2.5 and that of paraffin 0.9, the void ratio of soil,

24
is
A. 0.55
B. 0.60
C. 0.65
D. 0.70
Answer: Option B
The ratio of the volume of water present in a given soil mass to the total volume of its voids, is known
A. porosity
B. void ratio
C. percentage voids
D. degree of saturation.
Answer: Option D
Stoke's law does not hold good if the size of particle is smaller than
A. 0.0002 mm
B. 0.002 mm
C. 0.02 mm
D. 0.2 mm
Answer: Option A
The angle of internal friction, is least for
A. angular-grained loose sand
B. angular -grained dense sand
C. round-grained loose sand
D. round-grained loose sand
E. clays.

25
Answer: Option E
The consistency index of a soil is defined as the ratio of
A. liquid limit plus the natural water content to the plasticity index of the soil
B. liquid limit minus the natural water content to the plasticity index of the soil
C. natural water content of a soil minus plastic limit to the plasticity index of the soil
D. natural water content of a soil plus its plastic limit to the plasticity index of the soil.
Answer: Option B
The weight of a container is W1 and that of container with soil simple, is W2. If the weight of the container
and oven dried soil sample is W3, the moisture content of the soil, is
A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer: Option A
The Terzaghi's general bearing capacity equation for a continuous footing is given by (where Nc, 2V& and
Ny are bearing capacity factors.)
A. qf = cNc + γDNq + 0.5γBNγ
B. qf = cNc - γDNq + 0.5γBNγ
C. qf = cNc + γDNq - 0.5γBNγ
D. qf = cNc - γDNq - 0.5γBNγ
Answer: Option A
The expression ρω is used for

26
A. dry density
B. bulk density
C. degree of saturation
D. optimum water content.
Answer: Option A
The coefficient ka of the active earth pressure, is given by
A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer: Option D
A. The void ratio in soils is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids
B. The porosity of a soil is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the gross volume of the soil
C. The bulk density of a soil is defined as the unit weight of the soil
D. The dry density of a soil is defined as weight of solids to the total volume of the soil
E. All the above.
Answer: Option E
The shear strength of a soil
A. increases with an increase in the normal stress
B. is proportional to the cohesion of the soil

27
C. is generally known as the strength of the soil
D. is proportional to the tangent of the angle of internal friction
E. all the above.
Answer: Option E
The property of a soil which permits water to percolate through it, is called
A. moisture content
B. permeability
C. capillarity
D. none of these.
Answer: Option B
A pycnometer is used to determine
A. voids ratio
B. dry density
C. water content
D. density index.
Answer: Option C
Soils containing organic matters
A. are of spongy nature
B. swell with decrease of moisture
C. shrink with increase of moisture content
D. none of these.
Answer: Option A
The angle of internal friction is maximum for
A. angular-grained loose sand

28
B. angular-grained dense sand
C. round-grained dense sand
D. round-grained loose sand
E. clays.
Answer: Option B
If G is specific gravity of sand particles, e is porosity, the critically hydraulic gradient
A.
ic =
B.
ic =
C.
ic =
D.
ic =
Answer: Option C
A grillage foundation
A. is provided for heavily loaded isolated columns
B. is treated as spread foundation
C. consists of two sets of perpendicularly placed steel beams
D. all the above.
Answer: Option D
The plasticity of fine soils may be assessed by means of
A. dry strength test
B. toughness test

29
C. dilatancy test
D. all of these.
Answer: Option D
The density of soil can be increased
A. by reducing the space occupied by air
B. by elastic compression of soil grains
C. by expelling water from pores
D. All the above.
Answer: Option D
The bearing capacity of a soil depends upon
A. size of the particles
B. shape of the particles
C. cohesive properties of particles
D. internal frictional resistance of particles
E. all the above.
Answer: Option E
A direct shear test possesses the following disadvantage:
A. A relatively thin thickness of sample permits quick drainage
B. A relatively thin thickness of sample permits quick dissipation of pore pressure developed during the test
C. As the test progresses the area under shear, gradually changes
D. none of these.
Answer: Option C
The ratio of emax and emin of silty sand, is
A. 2.0

30
B. 5
C. 3.0
D. 3.5
E. 4.0
Answer: Option C
A flow net may be utilised for the determination of
A. exit gradient
B. seepage
C. hydrostatic pressure
D. seepage pressure
E. all the above.
Answer: Option E
If voids ratio is 0.67, water content is 0.188 and specific gravity is 2.68, the degree of saturation of the soil,
is
A. 25%
B. 40%
C. 60%
D. 75%
Answer: Option D
If water content of a soil is 40%, G is 2.70 and void ratio is 1.35, the degree of saturation is
A. 70%
B. 75%
C. 80%

31
D. 85%
E. 90%
Answer: Option C
If β is the surcharge angle of a backfill with an angle of internal friction φ, the coefficient of active earth
pressure given by Rankine's theory, is :
A.
B.
C.
D. none of these.
Answer: Option B
Which one of the following statements is true for Mohr-Coulomb envelope ?
Coulomb suggests that the relationship between shear strength and normal stress, is adequately represented
A.
by the straight line
The generalised Mohr theory suggests that, though the shear stress depends on the normal stress, the
B.
relation is not linear
Coulomb and Mohr suggest that a definite relationship exists among the principal stress and the angle of
C.
internal friction
D. For an ideal pure friction material, the straight line passes through the origin.
E. All the above.
Answer: Option E
On wetting, cohesive soils,
A. loose permeability
B. gain shear strength

32
C. loose elasticity
D. decrease their shear strength.
Answer: Option D
A. The range of water content between the liquid limit and plastic limit, is called plasticity index.
The ratio of the liquid limit minus the natural water content to the plasticity index of soils, is called consistency
B.
index
C. The ratio of natural water content minus its plastic limit to its plasticity index is called liquidity index
The ratio between plasticity index and flow index (i.e. slope of flow curve in case of liquid limit), is
D.
called toughness index
E. All the above.
Answer: Option E
'Talus' is the soil transported by

A. wind
B. water
C. glacier
D. gravitational force.
Answer: Option D
Chemical weathering of soil is caused due to
A. oxidation
B. carbonation
C. hydration
D. leaching
E. all the above.
Answer: Option E
33
An unsaturated 100 cm3 sample of soil weighs 190 g. If its dried weight is 160 g, water content of the soil, is
A. 0.188
B. 0.288
C. 0.388
D. 0.488
E. 0.588
Answer: Option A
The specific gravity of Calcite is
A. 2.65
B. 2.72
C. 2.85
D. 2.90
Answer: Option B
The ratio of volume of air voids to the volume of total voids, is known as
A. air content
B. percentage air voids
C. percentage voids
D. porosity.
Answer: Option A
A. The dry density reduces by addition of water after attaining optimum moisture content
The line joining the peak of three moisture content graphs obtained by using three compactive energies, is
B.
called line of optimus
C. Well graded coarse grained soils can be compacted to a very high density as compared to fine grained soils

34
D. All the above. .
Answer: Option D

A. The permeability of the coarse-grained soils may be reduced by grouting.
B. The process of injecting fluids (i.e. grouts) into the pores space of the soil, is called grouting.
C. The grouting increases the soil strength.
D. All the above.
Answer: Option D
A soil sample of mass specific gravity 1.92, has a moisture content 30%. If the specific gravity of solids is
2.75, the void ratio, is
A. 0.858
B. 0.860
C. 0.862
D. 0.864
Answer: Option C
The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids in a given mass of soil, is known
A. porosity
B. specific gravity
C. void ratio
D. water content.
Answer: Option D
During seepage through a soil, direction of seepage is always
A. parallel to equipotential lines
B. perpendicular to stream lines
C. perpendicular to equipotential lines

35
D. none of these.
Answer: Option C
According to Rankine's fromula, the minimum depth of foundation
A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer: Option A
Pick up the cohesive soil from the following:
A. Red earth
B. Clay
C. Black cotton soil
D. Compacted ground.
Answer: Option C
Pile foundations are generally preferred to for
A. bridge foundations
B. sky scrapper buildings
C. residential buildings
D. runways.
Answer: Option B
If the bulk density of the soil is ρ and water content ω, then dry density of the soil, is

36
A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer: Option C
'Loess' is silty clay formed by the action of
A. water
B. glacier
C. wind
D. gravitational force.
Answer: Option C
The maximum possible value nf dry density is referred to as
A. dry density
B. zero air voids
C. saturation dry density
D. all the above.
Answer: Option D
A. A soil having pH value more than 7 is an acidic soil
B. A soil having pH value less than 7 is an acidic soil
C. A soil having pH value more than 7 is an alkaline soil

37
D. A soil containing chemicals for the manufacture of portland cement is preferred.
Answer: Option B
Cohesionless soil is
A. sand
B. silt
C. clay
D. clay and silt.
Answer: Option A
Sedimentation analysis is based on the assumption:
A. soil particles are spherical
B. particles settle independent of other particles
C. walls of the jar do not affect the settlement .
D. all the above.
Answer: Option D
The maximum pressure which a soil can carry without shear failure, is called
A. safe bearing capacity
B. net safe bearing capacity
C. net ultimate bearing capacity
D. ultimate bearing capacity.
Answer: Option A
For general engineering purposes, soils are classified by
A. particle size classification system
B. textural classification system
C. High Way Research Board (HRB), classification system

38
D. unified soil classification system.
Answer: Option D
A failure wedge develops if a retaining wall
A. moves away from the backfill
B. moves towards the backfill
C. sinks downwards
D. stresses equally by vertical and horizontal forces.
Answer: Option A
The water content in a soil sample when it continues to loose weight without loosing the volume, is called
A. Shrinkage limit
B. Plastic limit
C. liquid limit
D. semi-solid limit.
Answer: Option A
When a cohesionless soil attains quick condition, it looses
A. shear strength
B. bearing capacity
C. both (a) and (b)
D. neither (a) nor (6).
Answer: Option C
Pick up the correct definition from the following:
The lateral pressure exerted by the soil when the retaining wall moves away from the back fill, is generally
A.
known as active earth pressure of the soil
The lateral pressure exerted by the soil when the retaining wail moves towards the soil, is generally known as
B.
'Passive earth pressure of the soil'
C. The lateral pressure exerted by the soil when the retaining wall has no movement relative to the back fill, is

39
known as 'earth pressure at rest of the soil'
D. All the above.
Answer: Option D

Soil Mechnics 1

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Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering

ER. SANTOSH ACHARYA

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 1

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Understanding soil types and classification is important in civil

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 12

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 14

Understanding the three-phase system of soil is important in civil

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 15

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 16

Understanding the unit weight of soil is important in civil and

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 18

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 20

Understanding bulk density is important in geology and soil science,

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 21

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 22

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 23

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 24

Understanding the saturated density of soil is important in

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4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 28

Understanding the submerged density of materials is important in

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4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 31

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Overall, understanding the soil-water relation is crucial in

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 43

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Overall, Darcy's law is an important concept in geotechnical

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 53

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Overall, soil permeability is influenced by a complex interplay of

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 56

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 57

Overall, soil compaction is an important process in geotechnical

4/6/2023 Er. Santosh Acharya 59

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Overall, the degree of compaction achieved depends on a variety of

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