Unit1 NavneetHimanshu

Geotechnical Engineering
Unit-I
Chapter-I
Dr. Navneet Himanshu
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Chandigarh University, Punjab
Soil Properties & Origin DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

Content
• Topic 1: Origin and Preliminary Definitions and Relationships
1. Introduction:
2. Preliminary Definitions and Relationships
3. Determination of Index Properties
• Topic 2: Soil Classification & Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy
1. Classification of Soils
2. Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy
09-05-2020 Navneet Himanshu Geotechnical Engineering (RCE 501) Unit Number: 1 Slide Number 2
Content
1. Introduction of Geotechnical Engineering as disciplines of civil engineering involving the study of soil, its behaviors
and application as an engineering material.
2. To understand Preliminary Definitions and Relationships of different soil parameters and soil mass as a three phase
system.
3. To understand the Determination of Index Properties which are used in their identification and classification. These
includes the determination of: (i) water content, (ii) specific gravity, (iii) particle size distribution, (iv) consistency
limits, (v) in-situ density, and (vi) density index.
4. To understand the Classification of Soils mass of various type of soil into group according to their engineering
properties and various other properties.
5. To understand the arrangement and the state of soil particles in a soil mass.
Content
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
• Understand concept of origin of soil mass and its behaviors and its application as an engineering material.
• Understand the concept of three phase soil mass and also, the concept of (i) water content, (ii) specific gravity, (iii)
particle size distribution, (iv) consistency limits, (v) in situ-density, and (vi) density index.
• Understand the concept of index properties of soils which are used in their identification and classification. These
include the determination of : (i) water content, (ii) specific gravity, (iii) particle size distribution, (iv) consistency
limits, (v) in situ-density, and (vi) density index. And the method which can use into the determination of these index
properties.
Content
• Understand Different classification system in general engineering purposes such as Particle size classification,
Textural classification Highway Research Board (HRB) classification and Unified soil classification and IS
classification system.
• Understand the arrangement of soil particles in a soil mass. In large sense, consideration of mineralogical
composition, electrical properties, shape and orientation of solid particles, nature and properties of soil water and its
ionic composition, and interaction between soil particles, soil water and their adsorption characteristics.
Content
Objectives of topic :-
At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:
• Understand concept of origin of soil mass and its behaviors and its application as an engineering material.
• Understand the concept of three phase soil mass and also, the concept of (i) water content, (ii) specific gravity, (iii)
particle size distribution, (iv) consistency limits, (v) in situ-density, and (vi) density index.
• Understand the concept of index properties of soils which are used in their identification and classification. These
include the determination of : (i) water content, (ii) specific gravity, (iii) particle size distribution, (iv) consistency
limits, (v) in situ-density, and (vi) density index. And the method which can use into the determination of these index
properties.
Origin and Preliminary Definitions and Relationships
Introduction to Soil Mechanics
• The term ‘Soil’ has various meanings, depending upon the general professional field in which it is being considered.
• To an agriculturist, soil is the substance existing on the earth’s surface, which grows and develops plant life.
• To the geologist also, soil is the material in the relatively thin surface zone within which roots occur, and all the rest
of the crust is grouped under the term rock irrespective of its hardness.
• To an engineer, soil is the unaggregated or uncemented deposits of mineral and or organic particles or fragments
covering large portion of the earth’s crust. It includes widely different materials like boulders, sands, gravels, clays
and silts, and the range in the particle sizes in a soil may extend from grains only a fraction of a micron (10~ cm) in
diameter up to large size boulders.
• Soil engineering, Soil-Mechanics or Geotechnique is one of the youngest disciplines of civil engineering involving
the study of soil, its behaviors and application as an engineering material.
• According to Terzaghi (1948) : ‘Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced by
the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of
organic constituent’.

• Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its behaviour and application as an
engineering material.
• Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with
sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of organic constituents.
• Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This fundamental composition gives rise to
unique engineering properties, and the description of its mechanical behavior requires some of the most classic
principles of engineering mechanics.
• Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and strength. These depend
primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.
Formation of Soils
• In the Earth's surface, rocks extend upto as much as 20 km depth. The major rock types are categorized as igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
• Igneous rocks: formed from crystalline bodies of cooled magma.
• Sedimentary rocks: formed from layers of cemented sediments.
• Metamorphic rocks: formed by the alteration of existing rocks due to heat from igneous intrusions or pressure due to
crustal movement.
Formation of Soils
Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks by various processes of physical and
chemical weathering. The nature and structure of a given soil depends on the processes and conditions that formed it:
Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.
Transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
Environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine, lacustrine or marine.
Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage: little or no surcharge, heavy surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits,
change from saline to freshwater, leaching, contamination.
All soils originate, directly or indirectly, from different rock types.
Formation of Soils
Physical weathering reduces the size of the parent rock material, without any change in the original composition of the
parent rock. Physical or mechanical processes taking place on the earth's surface include the actions of water, frost,
temperature changes, wind and ice. They cause disintegration and the products are mainly coarse soils.
The main processes involved are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing. The principal cause is climatic
change. In exfoliation, the outer shell separates from the main rock. Heavy rain and wind cause erosion of the rock
surface. Adverse temperature changes produce fragments due to different thermal coefficients of rock minerals. The
effect is more for freeze-thaw cycles.
Formation of Soils
Chemical weathering not only breaks up the material into smaller particles but alters the nature of the original parent
rock itself. The main processes responsible are hydration, oxidation, and carbonation. New compounds are formed due
to the chemical alterations.
Rainwater that comes in contact with the rock surface reacts to form hydrated oxides, carbonates and sulphates. If there
is a volume increase, the disintegration continues. Due to leaching, water-soluble materials are washed away and rocks
lose their cementing properties.
Chemical weathering occurs in wet and warm conditions and consists of degradation by decomposition and/or
alteration. The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with altered mineral grains.
The effects of weathering and transportation mainly determine the basic nature of the soil (size, shape, composition and
distribution of the particles).
Formation of Soils
The environment into which deposition takes place, and the subsequent geological events that take place there,
determine the state of the soil (density, moisture content) and the structure or fabric of the soil (bedding, stratification,
occurrence of joints or fissures)
Transportation agencies can be combinations of gravity, flowing water or air, and moving ice. In water or air, the
grains become sub-rounded or rounded, and the grain sizes get sorted so as to form poorly-graded deposits. In moving
ice, grinding and crushing occur, size distribution becomes wider forming well-graded deposits.
In running water, soil can be transported in the form of suspended particles, or by rolling and sliding along the bottom.
Coarser particles settle when a decrease in velocity occurs, whereas finer particles are deposited further downstream. In
still water, horizontal layers of successive sediments are formed, which may change with time, even seasonally or daily.
Wind can erode, transport and deposit fine-grained soils. Wind-blown soil is generally uniformly-graded.
A glacier moves slowly but scours the bedrock surface over which it passes.
Gravity transports materials along slopes without causing much alteration.
Soil Types
Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified into two broad categories:
(1) Residual soils
(2) Transported soils
Residual Soils
Residual soils are found at the same location where they have been formed. Generally, the depth of residual soils varies
from 5 to 20 m.
Chemical weathering rate is greater in warm, humid regions than in cold, dry regions causing a faster breakdown of
rocks. Accumulation of residual soils takes place as the rate of rock decomposition exceeds the rate of erosion or
transportation of the weathered material. In humid regions, the presence of surface vegetation reduces the possibility of
soil transportation.
Soil Types
Residual Soils
As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth, there is a corresponding decrease in the degree
of chemical weathering from the ground surface downwards. This results in a gradual reduction of residual soil
formation with depth, until unaltered rock is found.
Residual soils comprise of a wide range of particle sizes, shapes and composition.
Transported Soils
Weathered rock materials can be moved from their original site to new locations by one or more of the transportation
agencies to form transported soils. Transported soils are classified based on the mode of transportation and the final
deposition environment.
(a) Soils that are carried and deposited by rivers are called alluvial deposits.
Soil Types
Transported Soils
(b) Soils that are deposited by flowing water or surface runoff while entering a lake are called lacustrine deposits.
Alternate layers are formed in different seasons depending on flow rate.
(c) If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called marine deposits. Marine deposits contain both
particulate material brought from the shore as well as organic remnants of marine life forms.
(d) Melting of a glacier causes the deposition of all the materials scoured by it leading to formation of glacial deposits.
(e) Soil particles carried by wind and subsequently deposited are known as aeolian deposits.
Daily Quiz
1. Soil that has been transported and deposited by moving water is called ?
2. If the deposits are made by rivers in sea water, they are called?
3. Soil known as aeolian deposits are carried by …………?
4. As leaching action due to percolating surface water decreases with depth will lead……………..?
5. Soils as they are found in different regions can be classified as?
Preliminary Definitions and Relationships:
A soil mass is a three-phase system consisting of solid particles
(called soil grains), water and air. The void space between the soil
grains is filled partly with water and partly with air. However, if
we take a dry soil mass, the voids are filled with air only. In case
of a perfectly saturated soil, the voids are filled completely with
water. In general, the soil mass has three constituents which do

Figure 1: Soil as a three phase system
not occupy separate spaces but are blended together forming a
complex material [Fig. 1 (a)], the properties of which depend
The properties of which depend upon the relative percentages of these constituents, their arrangement and a variety of other factors. For
calculation purposes, it is always more convenient to show these constituents occupying separate spaces, as Shown in Fig. 2.1 ( b) (i)
and Fig. 2.1 (b) (ii). As shown in Fig. 2.1(b) (i),
 the total volume V of the soil mass consists of (i) volume of air , volume of water and the volume of solids ,.
 The volume of voids , is therefore, equal to volume of air plus the volume of water .
 Similarly, Fig. 2.1(i) (b) shows the weights. The weight of air is considered to be negligible.
 Hence, the weight of total voids is equal to the weight of water . The weight of solids is represented by (or ) which is evidently
equal to the dry weight of soil sample.
 The total weight W of the moist sample is, therefore, equal to (+ )
• Water content, Density and Unit Weights
Water Content: The water content w, also called the moisture content, is defined as the ratio of weight of water 𝑊𝑤 to the weight of
solids 𝑊𝑠 (or 𝑊𝑑) in a given mass of soil.

Ww
w  100
Wd
………………..Eq. 1
The water content is generally expressed as a percentage. However, when used in the formulae giving relationship between certain
quantities, it may also be expressed as a fraction. Rewriting equation 1, we have;
W  Wd W 
w  100    1  100 ………………..Eq. 1(a)
Wd  Wd 
The usual procedure to find the natural water content is to take a mass of about 20 g to 30 g of soil sample in a container and determine
its mass M very accurately. The soil sample is then kept in an oven (105°C—110°C) for about 24 hours so that it becomes perfectly dry.
Its dry mass is then determined and the water content is calculated from the relation,
Mw M  Md  M 
w  100   100    1  100
Md Md  Md  ………………..Eq. 1(b)
b) Density of soil: The density of soil is defined as the mass of the soil per unit volume.
i) Bulk density    : The bulk density or moist density is the total mass M of the soil per unit of its total volume.
Thus,
M
 ………………..Eq. 2
V
It is expressed in term of gm/
ii) Dry density   d : The dry density is the mass of solids per unit of total volume (prior to drying) of the soil mass.
Thus,
Md
d  ………………..Eq. 2a
V
iii) Dry density of soil solids   s  : The density of soil solids is the mass of soil solids (or ) per unit of volume of solids
Thus,
Md Ms
s   ………………..Eq. 2b
Vs Vs
b) Density of soil: The density of soil is defined as the mass of the soil per unit volume.
iv) Saturated density   sat  : When the soil mass is saturated, its bulk density is called saturated density. Thus, saturated density is the
ratio of the total soil mass of saturated sample to its total volume.
Thus,
M
 ………………..Eq. 2c
V
v) Submerged density   sub or   : The submerged density is the submerged mass of soil solids per unit of total volume V of the soil
mass.
Thus,
 M d sub  M s sub
 sub or     ………………..Eq. 2d
V V
The submerged density or buoyant density is also expressed as:
  sub or      sat   w ………………..Eq. 2e
Where,  w is the density of water which may be taken as 1gm/ of calculation purposes
c) Unit weight of soil mass: The unit weight of a soil mass is defined as its weight per unit volume.
i) Bulk unit weight   : The bulk weight or moist unit weight is the total weight W of a soil mass per unit of its total volume V.
Thus,
W
 ………………..Eq. 3
V
It is expressed in term of
ii) Dry unit weight   : The dry weight is the weight of solids per unit of total volume (prior to drying) of the soil mass.
Thus,
Wd
d  ………………..Eq. 3a
V
iii) Unit weight of soil solids  s : The unit weight of soil solids is the weight of soil solids (or ) per unit of volume of solids
………………..Eq. 3b
W W
s  d  s
Vs Vs
iv) Saturated density  sat : When the soil mass is saturated, its bulk unit weight is called saturated unit weight. Thus, saturated unit
weight is the ratio of the total weight of a saturated sample to its total volume.
Thus,
W
 ………………..Eq. 3c
V
v) Submerged density  sub or    : The submerged unit weight is the submerged mass of soil solids per unit of total volume V of
the soil mass.

Thus,
Wd sub Ws sub
 sub or     ………………..Eq. 3d
V V
When the soil mass is submerged, the weight of soil solids is reduced due to buoyancy. The submerged weight is, therefore, equal
to the weight of soil solids in air minus the weight of water displaced by solids. The submerged unit weight or buoyant weight is
also expressed as:
 sub or      sat   w ………………..Eq. 3e
Where,  w is the unit weight of water which may be taken as 9.81 kN/ of calculation purposes.
Daily Quiz
1. When the soil is fully saturated, then there are no air voids present in it.? True or false.
2. The phase diagram is also known as _______
3. The volume of solids is represented as _______ in the phase diagram.
4. The total weight of the moist sample is the sum of _______
5. For a fully saturated soil sample, the volume of voids is equal to _______
6. A soil mass in a three-phase system consists of ______
7. The weight of total voids is equal to the weight of Water.? True or False.
• Specific Gravity
Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of soil solids at a given temperature to the weight of an equal
volume of distilled water at that temperature, both weights being taken in air. In other words, it is the ratio of the unit weight of soil
solids to that of water.
s
G ………………..Eq. 4
w
The Indian Standard specifies 27°C as the standard temperature for reporting the specific gravity.
Some qualifying words like true, absolute, apparent, bulk or mass, etc., are sometimes added to the term ‘specific gravity’. These
qualifying words modify the sense of specific gravity as to whether it refers to soil particles or to soil mass. The soil solids have
permeable and impermeable voids inside them, the permeable voids being capable of getting filled with water. If all the internal voids of
soil particles (permeable and impermeable) are excluded for determining the true volume of solids, the specific gravity obtained is
called absolute or true specific gravity. The apparent or mass or bulk specific gravity
denotes the specific gravity of soil mass and is given by:
• Specific Gravity
Unless otherwise specified, we shall denote the Specific Gravity G (defined by equation 4) as the specific gravity of soil solids.

Gm  ………………..Eq. 4
w
Table 1 gives the values of specific gravity of some important soil constituents.
Void ratio, Porosity and Degree of Saturation
As the amounts of both water and air are variable, the volume of solids is taken as the reference quantity. Thus, several
relational volumetric quantities may be defined. The following are the basic volume relations:
1. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of soil solids , and is expressed as a decimal.
V
e v
Vs
2. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil (V) and is expressed as a percentage.
Vv
n  100
V
Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

n e
e and n 
1 n 1 e
Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

n e
e and n 
1 n 1 e
Figure 2: Void ratio and Porosity
3. Degree of saturation (S): The volume of water in a soil can vary between zero (i.e. a dry soil) and the volume of voids.
This can be expressed as the degree of saturation (S) in percentage.
For a dry soil, S = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, S = 100%
Vw
S  100
Vv
4. Air content is the ratio of the volume of air to the volume of voids.
Va
ac 
Vv
5. Percentage air voids is the ratio of the volume of air to the total volume.
V
na  a  100  n  ac
V
Figure 3: Descriptive terms of soil state with various value of S
Daily Quiz
1. Void ratio is the ratio of _____
2. For a fully saturated soil sample, the degree of saturation is ______
3. The percentage void ratio is defined as the ratio of _____
4. If air content and degree of saturation are represented as a c and S respectively,
then the relationship between them is ________
6. The air content ratio is defined as the ratio of _____
7. The degree of saturation is defined as the ratio of _____
8. The range of degree of saturation is between 0 and 0.25 for a humid soil sample? True or false.
9. The relationship between porosity n and void ratio e is given by _______
10. In wet soil mass, air occupies one-seventh of its volume and water occupies one- eighth of its volume.,
the void ratio of the soil is ______
Outcomes of topic :-
At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:
• The concept of origin of soil mass and its behaviors and its application as an engineering material.
• The concept of three phase soil mass and also term such as (i) water content, (ii) specific gravity, (iii) particle size
distribution, (iv) consistency limits, (v) in situ-density, and (vi) density index.
• The concept of index properties of soils which are used in their identification and classification. These include the
determination of : (i) water content, (ii) specific gravity, (iii) particle size distribution, (iv) consistency limits, (v) in
situ-density, and (vi) density index. And the method which can use into the determination of these index properties.
Summary [Origin and Preliminary Definitions and Relationships]:-
This topic includes Origin and classification of soil involving the study of soil, its behaviors and application as an
engineering material. Along with this the Preliminary Definitions and Relationships of different soil parameters such as
knowledge of Water content, Density, Unit Weights & specific gravity of soil as material. Moreover, to this the topic have
discussed soil mass as a three-phase system & different method of Determination of Index Properties which are used in
their identification and classification.
Soil Classification & Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy
• Soil Classification & Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy
1. Classification of Soils
2. Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy
Objectives of topic :-
Classification of Soils
It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification in order to describe the various materials found
in ground investigation. Such a system must be meaningful and concise in an engineering context, so that engineers will be
able to understand and interpret.
It is important to distinguish between description and classification:
Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar characteristics and potentially
similar behavior. A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties: permeability,
stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.
Description of soil is a statement that describes the physical nature and state of the soil. It can be a description of a sample,
or a soil in situ. It is arrived at by using visual examination, simple tests, observation of site conditions, geological history,
etc.
The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions which will allow useful comparisons to be made
between different soils. The system must be simple. The relevant criteria for classifying soils are the size distribution of
particles and the plasticity of the soil.
Particle Size Distribution
For measuring the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample, it is necessary to conduct different particle-size tests.
Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine grains from coarse grains by washing the soil specimen on a 75 micron sieve
mesh.
Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron. Samples (with fines removed) are dried and shaken
through a set of sieves of descending size. The weight retained in each sieve is measured. The cumulative percentage
quantities finer than the sieve sizes (passing each given sieve size) are then determined.
The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with grain size along x-axis (log scale) and percentage passing
along y-axis (arithmetic scale).
Sedimentation analysis is used only for the soil fraction finer than 75 microns. Soil particles are allowed to settle from a
suspension. The decreasing density of the suspension is measured at various time intervals. The procedure is based on the
principle that in a suspension, the terminal velocity of a spherical particle is governed by the diameter of the particle and the
properties of the suspension.
In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled water to which a deflocculating agent is added.
The soil particles are then allowed to settle down. The concentration of particles remaining in the suspension at a particular
level can be determined by using a hydrometer. Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same level at different time
intervals provide information about the size of particles that have settled down and the mass of soil remaining in solution.
The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.
Grain-Size Distribution Curve
The size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse- and fine-grained portions, can be combined to form one complete
grain-size distribution curve (also known as grading curve). A typical grading curve is shown.
Figure 4: Grain-Size Distribution Curve
Grain-Size Distribution Curve
Figure 5: Grain-Size Distribution Curve
From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful information can be obtained such as:
1. Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity and range in grain-size distribution.
2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size.

Grading Characteristics
A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description. The geometric properties of a grading curve are called grading
characteristics.
Figure 6: Grading Curve

Daily Quiz
1. Sieve analysis is meant for______
2. In Indian Standard (IS : 460-11962) the sieve sizes are given by_____
3. The portion retained on______ IS sieve is termed as gravel fraction.
4. The receiver at the bottom of the assembly in sieve shaking machine is________
5. ______ minutes of shaking is done for soil with small particles.
6. The soil portion passing through 4.75 mm sieve is washed for further sieve analysis? True or false.
7. In sedimentation analysis, the soil fraction should be of what micron size, so as to be kept in a liquid medium (water).
8. The sedimentation analysis is done with the help of________
9. The lower limit of particle size allowed in sedimentation analysis is ________
10. The sedimentation analysis is based on _________ law.
To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading curve.
= size at 60% finer by weight

The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:
1. Effective size  D10
D60
2. Uniformity coefficient , Cu 
D10
D 
2
3. Curvature coefficient , Cc  30
D60 D10
Both Cu and Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.
Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e., a soil which has a distribution of particles over a wide size range.
Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.
Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e., a soil which has a very narrow particle size range.
Consistency of Soils
The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to its firmness, and it varies with the water content of the soil.
A gradual increase in water content causes the soil to change from solid to semi-solid to plastic to liquid states. The water
contents at which the consistency changes from one state to the other are called consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).
The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (Ws ), plastic limit (Wp ), and liquid limit (WL ) as shown. The values of
these limits can be obtained from laboratory tests.
Consistency of soils
Consistency is meant the relative case with which soil can be deformed. This term is mostly used for fine grained soils
for which the consistency is related to a large extent to water content. Consistency denotes degree of firmness of the soil
which may be termed as soft, firm, stiff or hard. Fine grained soil may be mixed with water to form a plastic paste which
can be molded into any form by pressure. The addition of water reduces the cohesion making the soil still easier to mold.
Further addition of water reduces the cohesion until the material no longer retains its shape under its own weight, but
flows as a liquid. Enough water may be added until the soil grains are dispersed in a suspension. If water is evaporated
from such a soil suspension, the soil passes through various stages or states of consistency. In 1911, the Swedish
agriculturist Atterberg divided the entire range from liquid to solid state into four stages: (i) the liquid state, (ii) the
plastic state, (iii) the semi-solid state, and (iv) the solid state. He set arbitrary limits, known as consistency limits or
Atterberg limits, for these divisions in terms of water content. Thus, the consistency limits are the water contents at
which the soil mass passes from one state to the next.
Liquid limit (WL ). Liquid limit is the water content corresponding to the arbitrary limit between liquid and plastic state
of consistency of a soil. It is defined as the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state, but has a
small shearing strength against flowing which can be measured by standard available means. With reference to the
standard liquid limit device, it is defined as the minimum water content at which a part of soil cut by a groove of standard
dimensions, will flow together for a distance of 12 mm i.e., inch under an impact of 25 blows in the device.
Plastic limit (Wp ). Plastic limit is the water content corresponding to an arbitrary limit between the plastic and the semi-
solid states of consistency of a soil. It is defined as the minimum water content at which a soil will just begin to crumble
when rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in diameter.
Shrinkage limit (Ws ). Shrinkage limit is defined as the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content
will not cause a decrease in the volume of a soil mass. It 1s the lowest water content at which a soil can still be
completely saturated.
Plasticity index (Ip ). The range of consistency within which a soil exhibits plastic properties is called plastic range and is
indicated by plasticity index. The plasticity index is defined as the numerical difference between the liquid limit and the
plastic limit of a soil:
I p  Wl  W p
In the case of sandy soils, plastic limit should be determined first. When plastic limit cannot be determined, the
plasticity index is reported as NP (non-plastic). When the plastic limit is equal to or greater than the liquid limit, the
plasticity index is reported as zero.
Plasticity: Plasticity is defined as that property of a soil which allows it to be deformed rapidly. Without rupture, without
elastic rebound, and without volume change. According to Goldschmidt theory, the plasticity is due to the presence of
thin scale like particles which carry on their surfaces’ electromagnetic charges. Water molecules are bi-polar and orient
themselves like tiny magnets in the magnetic field next to the surface of the soil particles. Water becomes highly viscous
near the particles, but as the distance increases, the viscosity of water decreases until at some distance ordinary water
exists. When enough water is present (corresponding to the plastic state of consistency), the particles are separated by
molasses-like water which allows particles to slip past each other to new positions without any tendency to return to their
former positions without change in volume of voids, and without impairing the cohesion. The correctness of
Goldschmidt’s theory for the cause of plasticity is evidenced by the fact that clay does not become plastic when mixed
with a liquid of non-polarizing molecules like kerosene.
Soil Classification & Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy (CO1)
Plasticity index (Ic ). The consistency index or the relative consistency is defined as the ratio of the liquid limit minus the
natural water content to the plasticity index of a soil:
W W
Ic  l
Ip
where W is the natural water content of the soil.

Consistency index is useful in the study of the field behavior of saturated fine grained soils. Thus, if the consistency
index of a soil is equal of unity, it is at the plastic limit. Similarly, a soil with Ic equal to zero is at its liquid limit. If Ic
exceeds unity, the soil is in a semi-solid state and will be stiff. A negative consistency index indicates that the soil has
natural water content greater than the liquid limit and hence behaves just like a liquid.
Liquidity index: The liquidity index or water-plasticity ratio is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the natural water
content of a soil minus its plastic limit, to its plasticity index:
W  WP
IL 
Ip
Figure 7: Consistency Limit

Two of these are utilized in the classification of fine soils:
Liquid limit (WL ) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid state
Plastic limit (Wp ) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic state
The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit is known as the plasticity index (Ip ), and it is in this range of
water content that the soil has a plastic consistency. The consistency of most soils in the field will be plastic or semi-solid.
Consistency of soils
Figure 7 & 8 shows the four states of consistency, with the appropriate consistency limits. The Atterberg limits which are
most useful for engineering purposes are: liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit. These limits are expressed as per
cent water content.
Figure 8: Consistency Limit
Indian Standard Soil Classification System
Classification Based on Grain Size

The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very large: from boulders with dimension of over 300 mm down to clay
particles that are less than 0.002 mm. Some clays contain particles less than 0.001 mm in size which behave as colloids, i.e.
do not settle in water.
In the Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS), soils are classified into groups according to size, and the
groups are further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups.
The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into boulder, cobble, gravel, sand, silt or clay.
Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols G, S, M, and C respectively.
Physical weathering produces very coarse and coarse soils. Chemical weathering produce generally fine soils.
Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the soil material by weight has particle sizes greater than
0.075 mm. They are basically divided into either gravels (G) or sands (S).
According to gradation, they are further grouped as well-graded (W) or poorly graded (P). If fine soils are present, they
are grouped as containing silt fines (M) or as containing clay fines (C).
For example, the combined symbol SW refers to well-graded sand with no fines.
Both the position and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid in establishing its identity and description. Some
typical grading curves are shown.
Curve A : a poorly-graded medium SAND

Curve B : a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND (i.e. having equal amounts of gravel and sand)
Curve C : a gap-graded COBBLES-SAND
Curve D : a sandy SILT
Curve E : a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand)
Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the material has particle sizes less than 0.075 mm. Clay
particles have a flaky shape to which water adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity.
A plasticity chart , based on the values of liquid limit (WL ) and plasticity index (Ip ), is provided in ISSCS to aid
classification. The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as Ip = 0.73 (WL - 20).
Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided into clays (C), silts (M), or organic soils (O). The organic
content is expressed as a percentage of the mass of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.
Three divisions of plasticity are also defined as follows.
Low plasticity WL < 35%
Intermediate plasticity 35% <WL<50%
High plasticity WL> 50%
The 'A' line and vertical lines at WL equal to 35% and 50% separate the soils into various classes.
For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of high plasticity.
Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:
Group Symbol Classification
Coarse soils
GW Well-graded GRAVEL
GP Poorly-graded GRAVEL
GM Silty GRAVEL
GC Clayey GRAVEL
SW Well-graded SAND
SP Poorly-graded SAND
SM Silty SAND
SC Clayey SAND
Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:
Group Symbol Classification
Fine soils
ML SILT of low plasticity
MI SILT of intermediate plasticity
MH SILT of high plasticity
CL CLAY of low plasticity
CI CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH CLAY of high plasticity
OL Organic soil of low plasticity
OI Organic soil of intermediate plasticity
OH Organic soil of high plasticity
Pt Peat
Activity
"Clayey soils" necessarily do not consist of 100% clay size particles. The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 0.002 mm
size) in a fine soil increases its tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water content. This is called the activity of
the clayey soil, and it represents the degree of plasticity related to the clay content. Activity = (Plasticity index) /(% clay
particles by weight)
Classification as per activity is:
Activity Classification
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75 - 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active
Liquidity Index
In fine soils, especially with clay size content, the existing state is dependent on the current water content (W) with
respect to the consistency limits (or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index () provides a quantitative measure of the present
state.
Liquidity index Classification
>1 Liquid
0.75 - 1.00 Very soft
0.50 - 0.75 Soft
0.25 - 0. 50 Medium stiff
0 - 0.25 Stiff
<0 Semi-solid
Daily Quiz
1. The ratio of liquid limit, minus the natural water content to the plasticity index of the soil is __________
2. The shrinkage limit is represented by the term ___________
3. Which of the following is not useful for engineer purpose, as proposed by Atterberg?
4. In consistency of soil, the limits are expressed in terms of__________
5. Which of the following is not considered as one of the state, as divided by Atterberg?
6. The grooving tool which is used for finding liquid limit is _______
7. The depth of the groove cut by casagrande tool for determining the liquid limit is ______
8. The toughness index (It) is defined by the ratio of __________
9. The plastic index is calculated from the relation ____________
10. he apparatus used for finding, WL value by static cone penetrometer method is _________
Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy
Soil Structure Introduction:
Soil Structure is usually defined as the arrangement and state of aggregation of soil particles in a soil mass. This term
includes, in larger sense, consideration of the mineralogical composition, electrical properties, shape and orientation of
solid particles; the nature and properties of soil water and its ionic composition; and the interaction forces between soil
particles, soil water, and their adsorption complexes (Leonard: 1962). As far as structure is concerned, soil particles refer
not only to the individual mechanical elements, such as sand, silt and clay, but also to the aggregates or structural
elements which are formed by the aggregation of smaller mechanical fractions. Soil structure is an important factor which
influences many soil properties, such as permeability, compressibility and shear strength etc.
Soil Structure Introduction:
The following types of soil structure are generally recognized:

1. Single grained. An arrangement composed of individual soil particles.
2. Honeycomb. An arrangement of soil particles having a comparatively loose, stable structure resembling a honeycomb.
The soil mass is composed of loosely arranged bundles of particles, irrespective of the arrangement of the particles within
the bundles (Terzaghi and Peck: 1967).
3. Flocculent. An arrangement composed of ‘flocs’ of soil particles instead of individual soil particles. The particles are
oriented ‘edge-to-edge’ or ‘edge-to-face’ with respect; to one another.
4. Dispersed. An arrangement composed of particles having a ‘face-to-face’ or parallel orientation.
5. Coarse-grained skeleton. An arrangement of coarse grains forming a skeleton with its interstices partly filled by a
relatively loose aggregation of the finest soil grains.
6. Cohesive matrix. An arrangement in which a particle-to-particle contact of coarse fraction is not
possible. The coarse grains remain embedded in a large mass of cohesive fine grains.
Solid Particle in Soils:
The particles of coarse-grained soils are composed of primary minerals (i.e., they are the same as existing in present-day
rocks). These particles are sometimes termed as bulky particles, and can be thought of rough-edged shapes approaching
spheres. These particles do not possess the property of plasticity and cohesion and their behavior is governed primarily by
gravitational forces or mass energy rather than colloidal forces.
Many investigations have shown (Grim, 1959) that fine-grained soils are composed predominantly of crystalline minerals
and the amorphous materials that may be present (such as allophane) have little, if any, effect on soil behavior. These
minerals, which have low surface activities and do not contribute appreciable plasticity or cohesion are referred to as non-
clay minerals.
The crystalline minerals whose surface activity is such that they develop cohesion and plasticity are called clay minerals.
About 15 minerals are classed as clay minerals and these belong to four main groups : kaolin, montmorillonite, illite and
playgorskite.
Chemically, the clay minerals are silicates of aluminum and/or iron and magnesium. Some of them also contain alkalis
and/or alkaline earths, as essential components. Most of the clay minerals have sheet or layered structures.
Some of the clay minerals have elongate tubular or fibrous structures. Clays can be considered as essentially made up of
extremely small particles, each one of which is either a book of sheet-like units or a bundle of tubes or fibres. Individual
soils or clays may contain more than one kind of book-like units or a mixture of books and bundles of tubes or fibres
(Grim, 1959).
Clay particles behave like colloids. A colloid is a particle whose specific surface (surface area per unit mass or volume) is
so high that its behavior is controlled by surface energy rather than mass energy. The smaller is any given shaped particle,
the larger is the surface area per unit volume. If we consider a cube of sides 1 cm long, the ratio of surface area to the
volume is 6 per centimeter.
Suppose the cube is sub-divided into smaller cubes whose sides are 1 u (= mm) in length, there will be such cubes in a
total volume of 1 and a total surface area of 6 x Sq. cm increasing the ratio of surface area to volume by ten thousand
times. Since the clay particles are plate, needle or rod shaped, they have still higher specific surfaces than a cube of equal
volume. A montmorillonite platelet 0.1 u x 0.002 u has specific surface/volume equal to 1000/u, which is five times that
of an equivolume cube. The upper size limit of a colloid has arbitrary been set at approximately 0.2 to 1 u. Nearly, all clay
particles are colloidal even though the maximum particles dimension of several of clay minerals (such as kaolinite,
dickite, attapulgite, etc.) is greater than 1u
Atomic and molecular bonds
The nature of surface bonding forces is not completely understood. Possibly, one of the simplest general classification
system for these bonding forces is: (1) Electrostatic or Primary Valence Bond, (2) Hydrogen Bond, and (3) Secondary
Valence Bond.
Electrostatic or primary valence bonds
An example a of such a bond is illustrated by the union of Al and O. Aluminum

has an excess of 3 electrons in its outer ring and oxygen lacks 2 electrons in its
outer ring. The linking of the tons of these two elements can be indicated as
shown in Fig. 5.1 in which each of the joining lines can be considered as a unit
electrostatic force bonding the aluminum and oxygen ions into a molecule of
aluminum oxide.
Daily Quiz
1. What are the Soil properties, which are influenced by soil structure?
2. Soil structure usually defines __________
3. An arrangement composed of ‘flocs’ of soil particle is known as __________
4. The soil structure, having comparative loose stable structure is ____________
5. he honey comb, flocculent and dispersed structure are found in ___________
6. Coarse-grain skeleton structure, consist of arrangement of __________
7. Coarse- grained soil may be deposited in a _____________
8. Honey comb structure exist commonly in ___________
9. The structure of honey comb might be broken down due to ___________
10. The Coarse-grained soil settle in suspension due to ____________
Outcomes of topic :-
Summary [Origin and Preliminary Definitions and Relationships (CO1)]:-
This topic includes the Classification of Soils mass of various type of soil into group according to their engineering
properties and various other properties along with understanding of the arrangement and the state of soil particles in a
soil mass using Particle size classification, Textural classification Highway Research Board (HRB) classification and
Unified soil classification and IS classification system. Apart from that, this also includes the arrangement of soil
particles in a soil mass. In large sense, consideration of mineralogical composition, electrical properties, shape and
orientation of solid particles, nature and properties of soil water and its ionic composition, and interaction between soil
particles, soil water and their adsorption characteristics.
Faculty Video Links, YouTube & NPTEL Video Links and
Online Courses Details
1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105101084/
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3R-xR6NFIAQ
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1a-7HsF1A0
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nG4Sx-1wVrc
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_arD9SDTK74
Weekly Assignment
https://classroom.google.com/c/NTQ4MDc4OTE5NjFa
1) Define Void ratio, Porosity, Specific Gravity, Activity and Sensitivity.

2) Define the Plasticity index, Relative consistency and Liquidity index.
3) Illustrate by schematic diagrams, how the clay minerals kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite are formed.
4) Give the expressions of the equivalent permeability for vertical flow of water in soil medium.
5) A soil specimen has a water content of 15% and a wet unit weight of 25 kN/m 3. If the specific gravity of solids is
2.70, determine the dry unit weight, Void ratio, and the Degree of saturation, take .
6) The minimum and maximum dry unit weight of sand were found to be 14.71 and 16.68 kN/m3 respectively.
Calculate the dry unit weight corresponding to a relative density of 50%.
MCQs
1. A soil sample may be well graded if __________
a) If it has most number of particles of same size
b) Excess of certain particles
c) Good representation of particles of all size
d) None of the mentioned
2. For coarse grained soil, the particle size D10 is sometimes
called as __________
a) Effective size and effective diameter
b) Uniform diameter
c) All of the mentioned
MCQs
3. The shape of particle size curve, which is represented by the coefficient of curvature (Cc) is given by __________
a) Cc = (D30)2/D10×D40
b) Cc = (D40)2/D10×D30
c) Cc = (D30)2/D10×D60
d) Cc = D60/D10
4. The coefficient of uniformity (CV) is the ratio of _________
a) D60 and D10
b) D30 and D10
c) D10 and D30
d) D10 and D30
MCQs
5. A curve with a flat portion, in particle size distribution curve represent __________
a) Intermediate size particle are missing
b) Intermediate size particles are present
c) Smaller size particle are present
d) Large size particles are present
6. The shape of the particle size curve is represented by _________
a) Effective size
b) Effective diameter
c) Uniform coefficient
d) Co-efficient of curvature
MCQs
7. The ratio of liquid limit, minus the natural water content to the plasticity index of the soil is __________
a) Consistency index
b) Plasticity index
8. Which of the following is not useful for engineer purpose, as proposed by Atterberg?
a) Plastic limit
b) Liquid limit
c) Solid limit
d) Shrinkage limit
MCQs
9. In consistency of soil, the limits are expressed in terms of__________
a) Per cent water content
b) Area
c) Volume
d) All of the mentioned
10. Which of the following is not considered as one of the state, as divided by Atterberg?
a) Solid state
b) Gaseous state
c) Semi-solid state
d) Liquid state
MCQs
11. The shrinkage ratio of soil is equal__________ the soil in its dry state.
a) Mass specific gravity
b) Mass density
c) Water content
d) Specific gravity
12. Shrinking limit can be found out using alternate method, if __________
a) The specific gravity of soil is known
b) Dry volume of soil is known
c) Water content in the soil is known
d) Dry density of soil is known
MCQs
13. The plasticity of clay depends on which of the following?
a) The nature of clay minerals present
b) Volume of clay present
14. The typical activity value of illite, present in clay is________
a) 0.4-0.5
b) 0.5-1.0
c) 1.0-7.0
d) 2.7-5.3
MCQs
15. Clay containing kaolinite, will relatively have a_________ activity.
a) High
b) Intermediate
c) Low
d) Moderate
16. Activity of a clay can be determined by laboratory test like __________
a) Wet analysis
b) Liquid limit
c) Plastic limit
d) All of the mentioned
MCQs
17. The sensitivity of most clays usually falls in a range of _________
a) 2 to 8
b) 1 to 6
c) 1 to 8
d) 1 to 5
18. Highly over consolidating clays tends to be _________
a) sensitive
b) normal sensitive
c) less sensitive
d) extra sensitive
Old Question Papers
1. https://institutes.aglasem.com/uptu-b-tech-question papers-ag-241-soil-mechanics/
2. https://aktu.ac.in/old-question-paper.html
Old Question Papers
Old Question Papers
Old Question Papers
Old Question Papers
Expected Questions for University Exam
https://classroom.google.com/c/NTQ4MDc4OTE5NjFa
Problem 1: A soil has void ratio = 0.72, moisture content = 12% and G s= 2.72. Determine its
(a) Dry unit weight
(b) Moist unit weight, and the
(c) Amount of water to be added per m3 to make it saturated.
Problem 2: The dry density of a sand with porosity of 0.387 is 1600 kg/m3. Find the void ratio of the soil and the
specific gravity of the soil solids.
Problem 3: A mass of soil is coated with thin layer of max. weight of soil and wax is 690.6gm. Soil alone has 683 gm.
When this sample is immersed in water it displaces 350 ml of water. Sp. Gravity of solids is 2.73 and that of wax 0.89.
Find Void ratio and degree of saturation if water content in the soil is 17%.
Summary
This Chapter includes Origin and classification of soil involving the study of soil, its behaviors and application as an
engineering material. Along with the Preliminary Definitions and Relationships of different soil parameters and soil mass
as a three phase system, Determination of Index Properties which are used in their identification and classification, This
also includes the Classification of Soils mass of various type of soil into group according to their engineering properties
and various other properties along with understanding of the arrangement and the state of soil particles in a soil mass
using Particle size classification, Textural classification Highway Research Board (HRB) classification and Unified soil
classification and IS classification system. Apart from that, this also includes the arrangement of soil particles in a soil
mass. In large sense, consideration of mineralogical composition, electrical properties, shape and orientation of solid
particles, nature and properties of soil water and its ionic composition, and interaction between soil particles, soil water
and their adsorption characteristics.
References
1. “Geotechnical Engineering” by S L Gulati and M Datta.

2. “Applied Analysis in Geotechnics” by F Azizi.
3. “Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Basic Geotechnics” by D F McCarthy.
4. “Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering: Geotechnical Engineering series” by Murthy VNS.
5. “SOIL MECHANICS: SERIES IN SOIL ENGINEERING” by LAMBE T W.
6. “Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, ” by BC punmia.

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Geotechnical Engineering

Soil Properties & Origin DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER

• Topic 1: Origin and Preliminary Definitions and Relationships

2. Preliminary Definitions and Relationships

3. Determination of Index Properties

• Topic 2: Soil Classification & Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy

2. Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy

and application as an engineering material.

limits, (v) in-situ density, and (vi) density index.

properties and various other properties.

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:

Introduction to Soil Mechanics

diameter up to large size boulders.

Introduction to Soil Mechanics

the study of soil, its behaviors and application as an engineering material.

Introduction to Soil Mechanics

A soil mass is a three-phase system consisting of solid particles

of a perfectly saturated soil, the voids are filled completely with

water. In general, the soil mass has three constituents which do

complex material [Fig. 1 (a)], the properties of which depend

and Fig. 2.1 (b) (ii). As shown in Fig. 2.1(b) (i),

equal to the dry weight of soil sample.

 The total weight W of the moist sample is, therefore, equal to (+ )

• Water content, Density and Unit Weights

solids 𝑊𝑠 (or 𝑊𝑑) in a given mass of soil.

the soil mass.

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:

Figure 2: Void ratio and Porosity

Figure 3: Descriptive terms of soil state with various value of S

At the end of the topic, the student will be able to:

their identification and classification.

• Soil Classification & Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy

2. Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

Figure 4: Grain-Size Distribution Curve

Figure 5: Grain-Size Distribution Curve

2. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size.

Figure 6: Grading Curve

= size at 60% finer by weight

Cc between 1 and 3 also indicates a well-graded soil.

where W is the natural water content of the soil.

Figure 7: Consistency Limit

Liquid limit (WL ) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid state

Plastic limit (Wp ) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic state

Figure 8: Consistency Limit

Classification Based on Grain Size

Curve A : a poorly-graded medium SAND

The following types of soil structure are generally recognized:

An example a of such a bond is illustrated by the union of Al and O. Aluminum

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

1) Define Void ratio, Porosity, Specific Gravity, Activity and Sensitivity.

1. “Geotechnical Engineering” by S L Gulati and M Datta.

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