MODULE 2 → IQ1 Organisation of Cells

● compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular

organisms by:
– investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle
– relating the structure of cells and cell specialisation to function
Types of Cells

Type of Cell Description Image

Unicellular → One Cell, either prokaryotic or eukaryotic
→ Includes Bacteria, Protozoa, unicellular algae
→ A Single-cell organism that carries out all
functions and life processes → Nutrient and Gas
Intake/Exchange, waste removal and reproduction
Examples → Yeast, Escherichia. Coli (E.Coli), Fungi

Colonial → A special form of a multicellular organism that

consists of many individuals living together. There
are two types; Facultative and Obligate
→ Facultative Colonies are usually independent
organisms that aggregate together to
form complex social structures that increase the
chance of survival
→ Obligate Colonies consist of individuals called
zooids that vary in form and carry out specific
functions for the organism to survive. Individuals
in an obligate colony are dependent on one another
for survival and reproduction and are sometimes
physically connected (Jellyfish)
→ A group of cells working or organism together
collectively is called a colony
→ Can exist as either Multicellular or Unicellular
→ Can exist independently, however in a
multicellular organism colonial organisms cannot
exist alone.
→ Each cell or member of the colony function
individually
Multicellular → Multiple Specialised Cells each responsible for
specific functions and MUST Reproduce
→ Multicellular cells must have the same DNA
(Except Reproductive Cells), be dependant on each
other for survival and communicate with each other
to function as a single organism
→ Community of Cells working together to enable
the organism to carry out life processes → Nutrient
and Gas Intake/Exchange, waste removal and
reproduction
→ Composed of many groups of different eukaryotic
specialised cells
→ Similar cells are grouped together and perform
specific functions that combine for the efficient
functioning for the organism
Stem Cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms they can divide
(through mitosis) and differentiate into diverse specialised cell types can self-renew to
produce more stem cells
There are two types:
Embryonic Stem Cells
- are pluripotent
- can differentiate into all the specialised cells
- gives rise to every cell type in a fully formed body
- are in very low numbers in adults
Adult Stem Cells
→ Are more specialised than embryonic stem cells, can generate different cell types for
the specific tissue or organ in which they live
→ Have been identified in many organs and tissues eg brain, bone marrow, peripheral
blood, blood vessels, skin, teeth and are thought to reside in a specific area of each
tissue.
→ Replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues eg new skin, and muscle in
adults
● Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate
those functions to cell differentiation and specialisation
Cell Differentiation
→ During an Organism’s development, stem
cells are instructed by specific gene expressions.
This causes the stem cells to differentiate into a
particular type of cell (skin, bone, liver). Cell
differentiation drastically changes a cell’s shape,
size, SA/V and response to signals
→ It's the process by which a stem cell divides
and is differentiated into other types of cells
(Skin, Liver, Nerve etc.)
Cell Specialisation
→ Cells that have different structures that provide unique specialised functions
→ After Cell Differentiation, the cells develop into a specialised function.
→ When cells are ‘specialised’ to perform particular functions, they differentiate →
Complete a specific function as they have the structures needed to do it.
→ A multicellular organism can consist of many trillion cells, which vary in size and
function. Different types of cells have different organelles. The number and types of
organelles in a cell are related to cell function (Structure relates to Function)
→ Organisms have developed a range of ‘specialised’ structures that have a specific
function to ensure survival
→ All these components work together to promote survival and reproduction of the
whole organism.
● justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues,
organs, systems and organisms
Hierarchical Structure and Organisation of Life
Levels of Organisation of Organisms
→ Organelles, Specialised Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organism
1. Organelles → Animal cells that require large energy reserves will contain more
mitochondria than other cells. Plant cells that require additional water to
maintain their shape may possess larger vacuoles than other plant cells. And
chloroplasts, the organelles that carry out photosynthesis, are only found in
plant cells that photosynthesise
2. Specialised cells → Specialised cells are cells that have a specific function. All
cells are adapted to perform different jobs in a multicellular organism, and have
unique structural adaptations that enable them to carry out these functions
3. Tissues → Specialised cells are organised into tissues. A tissue is a group of
similar cells working together to carry out a specific function in a multicellular
organism. As organisms become more complex, tissues alone may not be
enough to carry
out all the tasks required. In these cases, tissues have evolved to group together in
distinct structures called organs.
4. Organs → An organ consists of two or more tissues that work together to
perform one or more specialised tasks. An organ is commonly recognized as a
distinct structure.
5. Organ Systems → • In multicellular organisms, an organ rarely functions
independently of other organs. Instead, organs form systems. A system is a
group of organs that work together to perform a vital task, such as the
circulatory and respiratory systems in humans.
6. Organisms → The final level of organisation is the organism itself
→ All the Specialised Cells found in multicellular organisms originate from one cell.
These undifferentiated STEM cells have the capability to turn into all the cells in your
body. All cells originate from the Embryotic STEM Cells.

Goes from areas of low/less organisation to more organisation. So they can work more
efficiently. As seen below.
MODULE 2 → IQ2
NUTRIENT AND GAS REQUIREMENTS
Autotrophs
→ Autotrophs produce their own organic compounds and energy from inorganic
compound molecules from their environment, such as carbon dioxide and water and
Sulphates, Nitrates and Phosphates
→ Converting inorganic compounds into organic compounds is called carbon fixation
because the autotroph ‘fixes’ carbon into organic compounds/molecules like glucose
→ Autotrophs can be further divided into two groups depending on how they obtain
energy required for carbon fixation
1. Photosynthetic Autotrophs → Use light energy to produce Photoautotrophs
2. Chemosynthetic Autotrophs → Use chemical energy to produce
Chemoautotrophs
Photosynthetic Autotrophs
→ Organisms that obtain the energy required for carbon fixation from light energy
→ Combination of carbon dioxide and water using solar energy (sunlight) through the
process of photosynthesis to produce organic compounds known as photoautotrophs
Chemosynthetic Autotrophs
→ Organisms that obtain the energy required for carbon fixation from chemical energy
(eg; Nitrifying Bacteria in Soil). Chemosynthetic autotrophs live in extreme
environments where the below ions can be found.
→ Chemosynthetic autotrophs obtain their energy by the oxidation of inorganic
molecules such as Ammonium (NH4+) to Nitrite (NO2-), Nitrite (NO2-) to Nitrate (NO3-)
and Sulfide (S2-) to Sulfate (SO42-).
→ Produce Foods and Organic Substances using Chemical energy from chemical
reactions, by combining H2S or CH4 with O2 Gas and obtain energy from a
carbon-fixing reaction in which carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H2) react to form a
simple organic compound: methane (CH4).
Non-Vascular Plants
→ Plants without Vascular tissue (Phloem + Xylem). They possess simpler tissues with
specialised functions for the internal transport of water.
→ Nutrients and minerals are absorbed and waste removal is completed through
diffusion and osmosis.
→ Located in Damp Areas (Water Areas)
Vascular Plants
→ Vascular Plants obtain Vascular tissue (Phloem + Xylem)
→ Contain organs → Stem, Leafs, roots, flowers, seeds
 → Contain systems → Roots, Shoot, Vascular System
investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of
materials, for example: (ACSBL035)
– dissected plant materials
Vascular System
→ The Vascular System is responsible for the transport and distribution of organic
compounds, water, minerals and gases around parts of plants. Vascular Systems have
2 types of tissue; Vascular tissue, Xylem and Phloem.

Structure Description Image

XYLEM → Type of Transport tissue located inside a
plant stem and is responsible for the
transportation of the water and inorganic
nutrients absorbed from the soil and root of
plants up to the leaves of the plant, where
water is required for biochemical processes
(Photosynthesis)
→ The Xylem ONLY carries water and
inorganic nutrients in a unidirectional way
up from the roots to the leaves (Only carry
water and nutrients up plant one way)
Composed of Xylem Vessels and elongated
cells called tracheids. Long water-filled tube
consisting of elongated cells joined from one
end to the other.
PHLOEM → Type of Transport tissue located outside a
plant stem and is responsible for the
transportation of carbohydrates (dissolved
sugars) in the form of glucose, produced
during photosynthesis from the leaves to
other parts of the plant.
→ The Phloem carries the photosynthesis
products in a bidirectional way (Transport
up and down the plant)
 investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of
materials, for example: (ACSBL035)
- microscopic structures

Structure Description Image

ROOT SYSTEM → Its main function is to anchor the plant
and to absorb water and inorganic nutrients
→ Root Systems have a large SA/V ratio to
maximise the amount of water and minerals
intake from the soil
○ The roots are covered with an
epidermis that enables the
absorption process to occur
○ Water travels through the root
system through osmosis;
Minerals and nutrients move by
diffusion (Simple/Facilitated
Diffusion and Active
Transport).
○ CO2 and O2 can diffuse in and
out respectively through air
pockets in the root system.
SHOOT SYSTEM
STEM
→ Provides Structural support and a transport pathway
→ Consists of 3 Main Structures; Dermal, Vascular and Ground
Tissues

Dermal Tissue → The Outer layer of the stem that provides

protection, a waterproof layer and controls
gas exchange

Vascular Tissue → Composed of the Xylem and Phloem

Tissues, called the Vascular Bundle, which
absorbs nutrients and water
Ground Tissue → Fills in around the Vascular Tissue
 LEAF
→ The Main function of a leaf is to absorb sunlight and CO2.
→ Thin, Flat structure with large SA/V to allow maximum absorption
of sunlight.
→ Leaves are responsible for photosynthesis (Absorbs sunlight and
CO2 during the day, releases oxygen, provides chlorophyll, to make
and produce glucose), transpiration (Release water to cool plants,
transport water from roots to the top of the plant through suction pull)
and Gas Exchange (Release of photosynthetic byproduct; Oxygen and
the release of CO2 as a result of respiration which is used for
photosynthesis).
→ Its interior includes; Stomata, Epidermis (Lower + Upper) and
Mesophyll Cells
→ Its exterior is made up of a Cuticle (Waxy Layer)

STOMATA → Located on the underside of leaves

→ Each Stoma is regulated by guard cells
which enable the stoma to open and close
(Underside Holes) under different environmental conditions
○ When water is Scarce, the
stomata will reduce the amount
of water lost during
transpiration. However, the
plant will not be able to collect
CO2 or remove O2 and thus, not
be able to photosynthesise.
○ When water is Abundant, the
stomata will open to maximise
CO2 intake and O2 outtake.
However, the plant will lose
water and thus, not be able to
transpire.
When the Guard cells of the Stomata become
turgid (swollen with water), the two stoma
will open to maximise transpiration and
exchange gases. When the Guard cells of the
Stomata become flaccid by losing water
(Water is scarce), forcing the stoma to close.
If Stomata is left open, the plant dies of
dehydration.
EPIDERMIS → The Epidermis is the exterior of the root,
composed of epidermal cells and forms a
single protective layer of cells on the upper
(Outermost and lower surfaces of the leaf. It is
Layer) transparent to allow sunlight to easily
penetrate through the photosynthetic cells
and access photosynthetic pigments in the
palisade mesophyll cells.
→ The Epidermis (Lower) contains guard
cells with chloroplasts that group in pairs
around the stoma in order to control and
regulate the exchange of gases and loss of
water.
MESOPHYLL → These cells located in the centre of the leaf
consist of two types:
CELLS ○ Palisade mesophyll cells are
regularly arranged, elongated
(Middle Layer) cells packed with green
chloroplasts. It is in these cells
that most of the plant’s
photosynthesis occurs.
(Photosynthesis)
○ Spongy mesophyll cells
contain fewer chloroplasts than
palisade cells and are
irregularly arranged with large
spaces between them (air
spaces). This arrangement
enables gases and water vapour
to move easily between the cells
and stomata. (Gas Exchange)
CUTICLE → The Cuticle is an extracellular
hydrophobic layer that covers the aerial
epidermis of all land plants, providing
(Extracellular protection against desiccation and external
Layer) environmental stresses. The Cuticle is made
of Wax and is waterproof to prevent the
evaporation of water.

investigate the function of structures in a plant, including but not limited to:
– tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to
create oxygen and energy in the form of dissolved sugars (Glucose).
Leaves produce carbohydrates in the form of sugars during the photosynthesis process. The
non-photosynthetic tissues of the plant also need these carbohydrates.
Phloem transports organic solutes, such as sugars and amino acids, from the leaves (Source)
to the stems and leaves (Sink)
Source = Origin
Sink = Destination

What are the Products of Photosynthesis?.

The process of photosynthesis uses sunlight, H2O and CO2 to produce Glucose (C2H6O6) and
Oxygen (O2).
How do the products of Photosynthesis move across the Plant? (STRUCTURES)
The products of photosynthesis are transported in vascular plants through the vascular tissue
namely the xylem and phloem. The Xylem is responsible for the transportation of water and
inorganic nutrients absorbed by the soil and roots of the plants during photosynthesis. The
XYLEM only carries water and inorganic nutrients (Oxygen) in an unidirectional way (One
way) from the roots to the leaves. The Phloem is responsible for the transportation of
carbohydrates or dissolved sugars (Glucose → C12H6O6), the other product of Photosynthesis
in a bidirectional way from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
What do the products of Photosynthesis use to move across the plant?
The Products of photosynthesis (C6H12O6) move across the plant through the process of
translocation.
Movement of Products through Plants
Both the Xylem and Phloem move nutrients through plants. These include water taken in by
the roots and glucose made in the leaves. Xylem moves water from the roots (source) to the
leaves (sink). This movement can be traced using water and dye. To trace the movement of
glucose and sucrose in the phloem; follow the method below
→ If a plant is exposed to light and to CO2 containing some radioactive C-14, a leaf
sample will be found to contain radioactive glucose and starch almost immediately
→ Some time later, a sample from the veins in the stem will be found to contain
radioactive sucrose (or other similar sugar)
 → Further, the roots will be found to contain radioactive starch in the storage
cells or tubers
→ This gives clues about what the plant is doing to convert its carbohydrates
into different forms and how this is linked to the movements of food chemicals
throughout the plant.
investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants (ACSBL032,
ACSBL056) through
the collection of primary and secondary data and information, for example:
– microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants
Gas Exchange in Plants
→ Gas exchange occurs through a structure called the stoma
→ The stoma is the opening to an air space located in the lower epidermis of a leaf
→ Each stoma consists of two highly specialised cells called guard cells. The guard
cells surround a spore, creating an opening through the epidermis and cuticle.
When the guard cells are open, the stoma is open, gas exchange occurs
When the guard cells are closed, the stoma is closed, and gas exchange does not
occur
→ Stomata play an important role in regulating the exchange of gases and water
between plants' internal and external environment. They do this by changing shape,
which causes the pore to open and close
→ When plants open their stomata to allow carbon dioxide in for photosynthesis,
oxygen gas is released, and water is lost as water vapour during the process of
transpiration (Passive movement of water through a plant
from the roots and its evaporation as water vapour
through the stomatal pores in leaves.
→ When the guard cells are turgid, or swollen, the
stomatal opening is large, allowing water and gases to
enter and exit the leaf
→ When guard cells lose water, the cells become flaccid
and the stomatal opening closes, preventing water and
gases from leaving the leaf.
Gas Exchange in Mammals
→ Gas exchange in mammals always take place by diffusion across a moist cell membrane
→ For Gas Exchange to occur by diffusion, cells need to be in a moist texture to allow the
gas exchange to occur. In Mammals, gases are exchanged in the lungs.
For Efficient Gas Exchange in Mammals
1. The Surface area should be as large as possible. There is a greater total
exchange across a large surface than across a small one.
2. The barrier to be crossed (such as cell membranes and fluid layers) should be
as thin as possible and should consist of a material that allows the gas to pass
through the barrier easily.
3. There needs to be an adequate supply of gas being transferred. If the
respiratory surface is not adequately ventilated, the rate of exchange drops.
When breathing in or inhaling, the diaphragm contracts to increase the SA/V of the lung
space, in which the lungs then expand to therefore allow more Oxygen to be transferred
into the lungs. The muscles between your ribs also help enlarge the chest cavity. They
contract to pull your rib cage both upward and outward when you inhale.
4. There should be efficient removal of the substance after transfer. Oxygen is
carried away from the respiratory surface, usually by blood
Movement of Air In and Out
For Mammals, Gas exchange occurs across the thin walls of the alveoli. Alveoli are:
- The tiny air sacs in our lungs.
- There are millions in each lung and they have moist, thin walls.
- They massively increase the surface area inside our lungs.
- They have a lot of tiny blood vessels called capillaries
investigate the gas exchange structures in animals and plants (ACSBL032,
ACSBL056) through
– macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals
The Respiratory System
The Nasal Cavity → Air is drawn in through the nose and passes into the nasal
cavity and pharynx. Breathing through the nose is preferable to breathing through
the mouth because air is filtered, moistened and warmed in the nasal passages.
Airways → From the Pharynx, air passes into the airways; the trachea, paired
bronchi (Singular Bronchus) branching bronchioles. The trachea and bronchi are
lined with cells covered in cilia (singular cilium) and separate mucus. Particles of
dust or bacteria are trapped by this mucus and swept by the cilia back up the
pharynx and swallowed.
Alveoli → Air enters the terminal air sacs, called alveoli, where gas exchange takes
place. A constant supply of oxygen to cells is the most critical input for endotherms,
such as mammals and birds, because they use energy to warm their bodies, and
therefore need oxygen at a great rate for cellular respiration.
→ The tissue of the alveoli shows all the features of an efficient gas exchange
structure. It provides a large surface area for gas exchange (Adults 30m2 - 70m2)
Respiratory Systems in Fish
→ Fish have gills that exchange dissolved glasses with water
around them. Fish take water through the mouth and
release it out the gills. The gill contains many stacked layers,
which provides a large surface area.
→ The gills have a plentiful blood supply and so the gases
diffuse directly into the blood supply.
→ The gills are made up finger-like filaments, increasing the
SA of the gills, allowing more gas exchange
→ The water enters the mouth, flows over the gills and out of
the operculum
→ Diffusion of oxygen in and carbon dioxide out occurs at the same time, as water
only flows in one direction
Respiratory Systems Insects
→ Insects have a tracheal system that enables individual cells
(rather than a whole system) to exchange. Air is passed
through a network of tubes deep into the
→ Oxygen/Air enters the body of an insect through spiracles
(Holes on both sides of the insect)
→ Gas entering insects occurs through the spiracles. Insects
breathe through these spiracles located on the underside and
overside of the insect, near its thorax and abdomen.
→ Gas Exchange in insects occurs in a network of tubes
called tracheae. The tracheae of the insect then further divide into tiny branches
called tracheoles.
Respiratory Systems in Amphibians
Amphibians always have wet and moist skin in order to allow an
efficient exchange of gas (O2 and CO2). Gas Exchange in
amphibians occurs through the skin of the animal in which the CO2
and O2 is absorbed into the skin of the animal. Amphibians have soft moist skin in
which the gas is absorbed or rather diffuses past the thin membrane of their skin.
It;s blood supply is located directly under an amphibian's skin so once O2 diffuses
into the skin, it immediately travels and is transported/pumped via the blood to the
rest of the body for use.
→ Frogs have two respiratory systems; the lungs and the skin. There is a
well-developed blood supply to the skin of frogs that enables the diffusion of gases
directly through the skin.
→ Frogs also have simple lungs, with smaller surface areas than mammals. The
lungs hang in the abdominal cavity and air passes in and out by the pumping
movement of the floor of the mouth (buccal pump).
interpret a range of secondary-sourced information to evaluate processes, claims
and conclusions that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models
about the structure and function of plants, including but not limited to: (ACSBL034)
– photosynthesis
Early Contributions (Priestly, Van Helmont)
Van Helmont
Jan Baptista van Helmont (1580-1644) partially discovered the process of photosynthesis.
He grew a willow tree in a weighted amount of soil. After five years, he discovered that the
willow tree weighed about 74 kg more than it did at the start. As the weight of the soil had
hardly changed, van Helmont concluded that plant growth cannot only be due to minerals
from the soil. He thought that the extra plant material had come from the water alone.
For the first time this disproved the previous theory of the Ancient Greeks which was that
the plants gained mass by taking in minerals from the soil. Van Helmont was the first
person to test this idea and find it incorrect.
John Priestly
Several centuries later, Joseph Priestley (1733 - 1804) carried out an experiment that
showed that plants produce oxygen. He put a mint plant in a closed container with a
burning candle. The candle flame used up the oxygen and went out. After 27 days, Priestley
was able to re-light the candle. This showed that plants produce a gas that allows fuels to
burn. This gas is oxygen.
– transpiration-cohesion-tension theory
Transpiration
Transpiration involves the upward movement of water
against the force of gravity
 Transpiration also includes the evaporation of water from the leaves via the stomatal
pores. The plant uses a small amount of water for metabolic processes, but 99% of the
water is lost. Only 1% of the water absorbed is actually used
The water is absorbed by the roots and is transported through the vascular system
(Xylem). Humidity decreases the rate of transpiration (The evaporation of water from
the leaf slows when the leaf is surrounded by moist air) whereas Airflow and light
increase the rate of transpiration (Light→ Stomata open wider to increase the uptake
of carbon dioxide and rate of photosynthesis).
Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Theory
Although transpiration is a passive process, it requires the movement of water against the
force of gravity
The Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension theory was first proposed in 1984 by John Joly and
Henry Horatio Dixon and is now the most widely accepted theory to explain the upwards
movement of water through the xylem of plants
The attraction of water or ability of water to stick to other things is called cohesion. Water
that sticks or is attracted to itself is called adhesion or more commonly known as tension.
The Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Theory is the main reason why water travels upwards
the plant without any energy, against the force of gravity. The theory explains the primary
mechanisms of water movement in plants
● Cohesion between water molecules
● Adhesion between water molecules and plant cell walls
● Tension (Differential pressure) created when water evaporates from the leaves

The thinner the walls of the Xylem tube in the Stem, the quicker the rate of transpiration.
Translocation → Source to Sink
→ The sites where sugar is produced during
photosynthesis are known as sources
→ The sources in a plant are the leaves
→ The sites where the sugars are translocated to are
known as sinks “Roots, Stems, → Flowers, bulbs and
fruits”.
The movement of Sugar (Source to Sink Method)
requires energy for the movement and transportation
of sugar from the leaves to the roots, stem etc.
Glucose (Sugar) is produced in the chloroplasts of a
plant and then converted into Sucrose in the cytosol of plants. Once the Sucrose is
produced, it is then pumped into the companion cells and then is pushed into the
Phloem using energy as it goes against the concentration gradient. Once the sugar is
in the phloem, we now have a high concentration of the sugar so they move down
the phloem, along with water in an osmotic gradient. Sugars and water then enter
the sieve tubes of the phloem and then transported/translocated throughout the
plant.

trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system, including:

Digestion:
→ Organisms are composed of many different types of complex organic molecules, When
eaten as food, these molecules are too large to be simply absorbed into an animal’s
body
→ The digestive system breaks down organic food into molecules small enough to
be able to pass through cell membranes and into cells for use in the production of
energy
→ Digestion is the breakdown of molecules and substances into nutrients and
molecules for absorption.
– physical digestion
If food is swallowed in large pieces, the enzymes have a relatively small surface area
to work on. Unless the digestive system is extraordinary long (snake), most of the
food would remain undigested
→ Digestion is much faster if food is in small pieces the enzymes have a
proportionally larger area to act upon
Teeth of vertebrae, which break food into pieces small enough to
be swallowed
It's about getting food into smaller pieces, getting the special
enzymes in the saliva (amylase) to break down the starches
inside the foods
– chemical digestion
The process of breaking apart complex molecules into simple
molecules called chemical digestion, and is carried out by the
action of enzymes
Enzymes are important in digestion, because they greatly increase the rate of breaking down
fixed molecules. Digestive enzymes are manufactured by specific cells in the gut wall,
slavery gland, and pancreas. Many large fixed molecules can only be broke down by
enzymes
There are three main types of digestive enzymes;
→ Amylase, which act on carbohydrates (starches)
→ Proteases, which act on proteins
→ Lipases, which act on lipids (fats or oils being high in energy)
pH
→ Because enzymes are proteins, they are sensitive to changes in the pH of a solution
→ Altering the pH changes the shape of protein molecules, which in turn alters their
chemical properties.
→ The change in shape alters the way that an enzyme binds with the molecule upon which
it acts.
→ Enzymes, therefore, have certain pH ranges over which they operate best. Different
regions of the gut have different pH values that are the most suitable for enzymes found in
that region.
– absorption of nutrients, minerals and water
Effective Digestion
Characteristics of Highly efficient digestive systems include:
→ Effective mechanisms for capture and handling of food
→ Appropriate physical breakdown of food
→ A one-way gut with separation of tasks along its length
→ Efficient transport and storage of undigested food
→ Efficient sequential release of digestive enzymes (which work in specific areas and where
the food is along its path to break it down
→ An adequate surface area for maximum absorption of nutrients and water
→ Efficient egestion (rimowa;) of unwanted materials
Digestive System
→ All mammals need food and water, but different species have different food requirements,
feeding behaviours and digestive systems.
Carnivores
● Carnivores have strong jaws for biting and their teeth are specialised for tearing
meat. Many carnivores share adaptations, such as along sharp canine teeth
● Animal matter has a much higher proportion of extractable energy per gram
than plant matter. Digestion is therefore quicker and more efficient for animal
shelters. So the digestive systems are …. Simpler than those of herbivores
● Carnivores don’t have a larger caecum (An enlarged … where small and large
intestines). =
Herbivores
● The tough cellulose cell walls of plants make plant matter much harder to
breakdown and digest animal matter
● Herbivores typically spend much of the day eating, because the plant matter
must be repeatedly ground by the teeth (physical digestion) to release the
contents from broken cells and increase the surface area for enzyme action
(chemical digestion)
● Herbivore teeth are usually flat for grinding and crushing plant matter
● Small intestines of animals are used to absorb nutrients. The longer the small
intestine, the quicker the food or nutrients are absorbed.
● The Caecum houses bacteria which are further released to break down foods
and nutrients. The larger the caecum, the more quicker and more nutrients are
broken down
● Because Plant matter is more difficult to digest, herbivores require a longer
digestive system than carnivores to increase the surface area over which
nutrients can be absorbed
● Microorganisms in the digestive system tract of herbivores also play an
important role in breaking down cellulose and providing essential nutrients to
their animal hosts
● Many herbivores cannot break down cellulose
Omnivores
● The word omnivores is from the latin ‘omnivorous’, which means all
devouring. Omnivore digestive tracts can break down with meat
and plant matter
● Stomach pH is 1-3 and breaks down foods and nutrients using acid
and digestive enzymes
 ● Before the stomach releases the things inside it, it needs to go through a
neutralisation reaction to convert the acidic nutrients and foods into neutral
substances in order to transfer them to the small ineptness, Nutrients, foods,
fats, lipids and carbohydrates are then absorbed by diffusion and osmosis and
travel down to the large intestine
– elimination of solid waste
Intestines
Small Intestines
● Absorbs nutrients and minerals from food
● Enzymes produced in the pancreas and the small
intestines and bile from thee liver and gallbladder
breakdown food products to facilitate nutrient and water
absorption
● Has many blood vessels to absorb nutrients and waste
product of digestion delivering them to the circulatory
system
Structure of small intestines
● The small intestines is long and has a large surface area
making it suitable for absorption
● Internal surface area is increased by millions of villi, have many minerals
Large intestines
● Absorbs water with soluble compounds, such as vitamins and minerals
● Undigested foods leaves the body as faeces
Large intestines
● When all of the required digestive products have been absorbed in the small
intestine, the remaining undigested material moves to the large intestine
● This material is composed of substances such as water, slats and dietary fibre.
The large intestine system has two main sections; the colon and the rectum
● In the colon, the water and some salts are absorbed into the bloodstream, with
the undigested material compacting into more solid substance
● The remaining waste material, known as faeces, is moved into the rectum
following peristalsis and then egested, or eliminated from the body through the
anus.
Compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs.

Nutrient Requirements
→ Autotrophs and heterotrophs require gases and nutrients to maintain efficient and
effective metabolic functions
→ Both heterotrophs and autotrophs require inorganic substances, water and oxygen
gas
→ Autotrophs also require carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs need to take in all of their
nutrients. Autotrophs produce their own organic nutrients using the energy from the
sun, but need to obtain water, mineral ions and the gases carbon dioxide and oxygen.
(Glucose, produced by Photosynthesis)
→ Autotrophs manufacture their own glucose and other organic substances from
inorganic nutrients.
→ Heterotrophs must obtain all of their organic nutrients by consuming autotrophs or
other heterotrophs.
MODULE 2 → IQ3 Transport
investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures
and components
using physical and digital models, including but not limited to: (ACSBL032,
ACSBL058, ACSBL059, ACSBL060)
– macroscopic structures in plants and animals
Xylem
The Xylem is a vascular tissue that transports water and mineral ions obtained
from soil through the plant. The Xylem is composed of xylem vessels and
elongated cells called tracheids (Presumed Dead Tubes - Once alive)
→ A mature xylem (also known as a vessel element) is a long, water-filled tube
consisting of elongated cells joined end to end. The tracheids allow the water to
move horizontally across the plant.
Roots
→ The Major function of the roots is to take in water and mineral ions from the
soil
→ Roots have a branched structure which increases their surface area, volume
and capacity to allow the absorption of water and mineral ions
→ Water can enter the roots
1. Extracellular pathway
2. Cytoplasmic pathway
Path of Water
→ there are two possible pathways for movement and mineral ions absorbed
from the soil via the roots; the extracellular way and cytoplasmic pathway
Extracellular pathway → most water and some minerals pass in or between cell
walls
Cytoplasmic pathway → Most minerals ions and some water pass through the
cytoplasm of living cells
– microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and plant vascular
systems
Lymphatic System
→ A closed system
→ Maintains a vital role in maintaining osmotic and fluid balance in tissues
and supporting defences
→ Cicuculates clourlose lymph fluid
The Cardiovascular System
→ Is a Closed system
→ Uses blood as a circulatory fluid
→ Provides most of the transport need in mammals
→ The mammalian cardiovascular system is a closed system that transports
substances(Nutrients, sugar, CO2, O2) throughout the body
→ The vital metabolic products of the body are transported through blood. The blood,
circulatory tissues and organs ensure that cells have a ready supply of nutrients and
oxygen and a means of transport away metabolic wastes
→ In mammals, the highly branched network of the cardiovascular system means
that no cell is more than 1mm away from the capillary
→ This ensures efficient nourishment and waste removal for all cells in the body
→ The organ that pumps blood and is responsible for the transportation of blood that
holds nutrients and substances through blood vessels is the Heart
→ The Heart obtains its oxygen through the diffusion of the oxygen into the alveoli
Pathways
→ Blood circulates around the body via two sequential pathways
Pulmonary Circulation: Transports blood to and from the lungs.
Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs, where it is
oxygenated before returning it to the heart
Systemic Circulation: Transports blood to and from the rest of the
body. This system is larger and thicker than the pulmonary circulatory system.
Because the heart must pump blood to all the organs in the body. Oxygenated
blood is pumped from the heart to all the organs in the rest of the body that
require oxygenated blood. This is where the blood gives up the oxygen to the
cells and transports the deoxygenated
blood back to the heart and to the
lungs to complete the cycle.
Components of the Circulatory System
→ The Key components of the
cardiovascular system are the heart, blood
vessels and blood.
Heart
→ The human heart is a four-chambered
muscular pump with two pumping
chambers (ventricles) and two receiving
chambers (atria)
→ It is responsible for moving blood
throughout the cardiovascular system
→ The rights side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood (blood with a low oxygen concentration), while the left side pumps
oxygenated blood to the body (blood with high oxygen concentration)
→ The Valves of the heart makes sure the blood flows in a unidirectional way
→ Connective tissue makes up the valves, while nerve tissue controls the heart rate
mammalian heart can keep beating even if it is separated from the body, because has
its own electrical impulses
→ Both sides of the heart function in a coordinated way: first both atria contract, then
both ventricles contract
→ The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where it
becomes oxygenated
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood from the lungs around the body
→ Then the heart beats, it pushes blood through its chambers in a specific sequence.
This ensures that deoxygenated blood is transported to the lungs, while oxygenated
blood is transported to the rest of the body
→ One complete circuit (One blood cell going from the heart to the capillaries and
back) of the cardiovascular system takes ∼ 45 seconds
Arteries, veins, capillaries
→ Blood vessels are named according to their structure and position in the
cardiovascular system
● Arteries → Transport blood away from
the heart (Arteries are thicker than
veins → High Pressure = Small Hole)
● Veins → Transport blood towards the
heart (Low Pressure → Large Hole)
● Capillaries → Narrow exchanges
connecting arteries and veins
(Capillaries are thin to allow the
transfer of nutrients and gases.
Capillaries are thin to allow the
unidirectional flow of blood)
Arteries and Veins are composed of the same layers of tissue, but arteries have more
muscular walls, and veins are more easily stretched. Capillaries have very thin walls
consisting of only a single layer of flattened epithelial cells.
Capillaries are the smallest of the blood vessels. Their internal diameter is so small
that blood cells must travel through them in a single file
→ The Capillaries connect arteries to veins, deliver nutrients and other substances to
extracellular fluids through diffusion and receive CO2 and other wastes
→ Capillary walls are extremely thin - just one epithelial cell thick - and porous, which
allow substances to pass in and out of the cardiovascular system
→ Capillaries are distributed throughout the body as an enormous branched network,
providing a vast surface area for the exchange of materials between the blood and
extracellular fluid
→ Most of the length of the cardiovascular system is capillaries providing a surface
area bigger than 1000m2 to exchange nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and wastes
between blood and extracellular fluids.
Capillaries have a diameter of 10 micrometres so red blood cells (7-10 micrometres in
diameter) pass close to the capillaries walls. When it presses against the capillary
walls, there is no change of oxygen and CO2
The Atrium in the Heart receives blood whereas the ventricles in the heart pump out
blood.
Blood
→ Mammalian Blood is a fluid containing cells and cellular fragments. The fluid
proportion of the blood is plasma, which is a pale, yellow liquid containing ions,
dissolved gases, proteins, hormones, nutrients and wastes.
The cellular elements of blood include red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(Leukocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes)
They are all produced by cells in the red bone marrow. The bone marrow is found in
the upper end of the long bones, and in bonds such as the skull, ribs and pelvis.
Blood is a tissue because it is made up of many similar cells working together.
Red Blood Cells
Red Blood cells make up around 40% of the blood in humans and a single drop of
blood contains about 5 million red blood cells
Mature red blood cells are concave on each side and highly flexible. They lack a
nucleus and are full of red pigment haemoglobin.
Unlike carbon dioxide, oxygen is relatively insoluble in water. So haemoglobin bonds to
Oxygen and transports it to the cells.
White Blood Cells
White Blood cells are slightly larger than red blood cells, but there are far fewer of
them(around 5000). A drop of blood contains between 5000-10,000 white blood cells,
but more are held in reserve in organs such as the spleen, kidney, thymus and thyroid
glands.
There are several different types of white blood cells, most of them being phagocytosis
(neutrophils) and lymphocytes, both of which are involved in defence against
microorganisms.
Phagocytes remove debris and fight
infections. They are attracted to a site of
infection where they squeeze through tiny
gaps on capillary walls and engulf harmful bacteria and damaged cells.
Lymphocytes are responsible for the production and the development of immune
response.
Blood Composition
Blood is composed of;
55% Plasma
45% Erythrocytes
Thrombocytes and Leukocytes <1%
Homeostasis
→ Maintains blood volume and the concentration of components within narrow limits.
Any fluid that seeps from the blood vessels into the blood vessels into the extracellular
fluid, called intestinal fluid is collected by the lymphatic system and returned to the
bloodstream

Lymphatic System
→ The Lymphatic system is an open system that consists of lymph vessels, lymph
nodes and organs, such as the thymus and the spleen. It transports a colourless
liquid, called lymph, from the tissues to the heart
→ Fine lymphatic capillaries join to form increasingly larger vessels
→ Some of the larger vessels can contract but most lymph flow results from the
external compression of lymph vessels by muscular activity, such as during movement
and breathing. When vessels are compresses, lymph fluid is forced in one direction
because of numerous one way valves
→ The lymphatic system also plays a vital role in the immune system. Invading
pathogens are transported in the lymph to the lymph nodes, where bacteria, viruses
are trapped by phagocytes, and lymphocytes
Open Circulatory system
→ Arthropods, including insects, have an open circulatory system. An open circulatory
system has a heart or heart-like structure, but no blood vessels. There is also no
distinction between blood and extracellular fluid through this single fluid called hemo
glyph.
Closed Circulatory System
In closed circulation a heart pumps blood and maintains a high blood pressure in the
arteries. Animals with closed circulation and this increases oxygen delivery. In a
closed system the blood flows in a continuous circuit, enclosed within a system of
blood vessels and the heart.
Transport Oxygen
→ Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration and the production of energy. The
respiratory and cardiovascular systems work together to bring oxygen into the blood,
and transports oxygen to cells throughout the body and removing carbon dioxide, in
the external environment
→ Amount of oxygen gas that dissolves in water is small
→ The oxygen carrying molecule (haemoglobin) increases oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood. The most important feature of haemoglobin is that it can combine reversibly
with the Oxygen.
Haemoglobin
→ Oxygen is relatively insoluble in blood, only 0.2ML of oxygen gas dissolves in
100mL of blood.The carrying capacity of mammalian blood is increased 100
times by the presence of the red respiratory protein haemoglobin.
→ Mature red blood cells are little more than cell membranes filled with
haemoglobin.
→ Haemoglobin is a complex protein containing iron. Four oxygen molecules
can combine with each haemoglobin molecule
→ In areas of high oxygen concentration, such as in the blood in vessels in the
lungs, haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. In areas of
low oxygen concentration, such as in muscles that are exercising, oxygen is
released
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
→ When CO2 combines with water, it forms H2CO3 (Carbonic acid), which dissociates
into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. This causes a decrease in pH (more acidic)
→ In Mammals, about 7% of the carbon dioxide carried by the blood is dissolved into
the blood plasma