CELL- STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Cell:
• Basic structural and functional unit of life
• Structural unit- All organisms mad up of cell, whether it is a micro-organism or a huge organism like elephant. Each organism’s
body is made of small units called cells.
• Functional unit- The smallest unit in any living organism’s body which can function on its own.
• Try to complete this flow chart
• Words Sentences Chapter Book

• Answer is

• Similarly, for living organisms, cells are the basic fundamental units.
• Discovery of cell: Cell was discovered by a scientist, named Robert Hooke. He
observed a thin section of cork ( outer covering of tree bark). He saw some
hexagonal shapes compartments as seen in honey comb, he called a single
hexagonal unit as cell. The term cell is derived from ‘cella’ which means small
room.
• Cell theory: Two scientists named M.J.Schleiden and Theodore Schwann
formulated a theory about cellular structure and called it Cell Theory. It states:
 All living organisms are made up of cells
 Cells are fundamental unit of organism
• Rudolf Virchow modified Cell theory of Schleiden and Schwann and stated that ‘all cells arise from pre-existing cells’
Measurement and observation of cells:
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek assembled lenses and constructed a small microscope. He observed some living cells under
microscope. He saw some moving protozoan cells and was the first one to see living cells.
• The cells observed were minute in size and couldn’t have been observed with naked eyes.
• The size of cells were then measured in micrometre (μm) and nanometre (nm) units.
• Compound microscope is now a days used for observing cells. An object on a glass slide magnified many times by the lenses of
this microscope.
• 1 centimetre = 10 millimetre, 1 millimetre = 1000 micrometre, 1micrometre = 1000 nanometre

Activity:
Aim: To observe plant cell in temporary mount of onion peel
Steps: Take a piece/segment of onion and carefully separate the thin skin or peel from inner surface with help of forceps. Place
the membrane in water so that it does not dry up. Transfer the peel from water to a watch glass having dye (safranin or iodine or
eosin). Transfer the piece to a glass slide. Keep a drop og glycerine on the peel, so that it doesnot dry up. Place the cover slip and
observe under microscope.
Cell Size and Shape:
• Cells are observed in different shapes and size. Most of cells have their shape modified
according to the function they perform.
• Cells have different shapes. Eg: Circular (RBC), rod shaped (bacteria), Columnar
(epithelial cells), Spiral ( bacteria), Oval (ovum), Rectangular (plant cells), Irregular
(WBC, Amoeba), Spindle (muscle cells), Cylindrical ( muscle cell), Elongated and
branched (nerve c ell)
• Cells contain various components for carrying out different life processes of the
living organism. These small components are called organelles. To study structure,
functioning of these organelles, a special type of microscope, called electron microscope,
is used which can magnify up to 2 billion times ( 2 x 109) their actual size.

Types of cells:
• There are mainly two types of cells- plant cell and animal cell
• These cells have different membrane bound organelles which performs various functions
• Plant cells show a large centrally located vacuole,
whereas animal cells does not have large vacuole.
• Plant cell and animal cells are called as Eukaryotic cell.
• Eukaryotic cell: A cell which has well developed nucleus
• Nucleus: It is the brain of the cell and controls all
organelles and activities of cell.
• A cell has four main parts: Cell wall, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, cell organelles
Parts of cell:
• Cell wall: It is the outermost covering of cell which is found only in plant cells.
• Plasma membrane: It is present in every cell, which is also called as cell membrane. It forms a covering, enclosing all the
organelles and cytoplasm of cell. It is extremely delicate and flexible in nature. It forms the outermost covering of animal cells.
• Cytoplasm: It is the liquid part of the cell, present in and around nucleus. In this liquid, all the organelles are present and
scattered. It occupies the space between cell membrane and nucleus.
• Cell organelles Different cell organelles observed in cells are – Nucleus, Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi bodies, Lysosomes,
Mitochondria, Vacuoles, Plastids etc. Some of these organelles are found only in plat cells like plastids.
• Plastids give colour to different body parts pf plant like flower, fruit, leaves. One type of plastid is chloroplast. Chloroplast
produces and stores chlorophyll, the green pigment of leaf, which helps in photosynthesis.
• Nucleus: It is most important of all cell organelles. It is covered by a double
layered porous membrane ( membrane having pores). It controls all the activities
of cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum(ER): It is a net like structure, present near the nucleus. It
processes and changes the proteins produced by the ribosomes and transports
them to Golgi bodies.
• Golgi bodies: They are sac like structures made of several flattened membrane
folding. Their main function is proper distribution of proteins.
• Mitochondria: The main function of mitochondria is to produce energy, which is
used by different organelles and cell as whole to perform various functions.
Therefore, it is called as Powerhouse of the cell.
• Vacuoles: Vacuoles are bag like structure, which help to throw out waste
products of the cell. It is big, and located in centre in animal cell. In animal cells,
vacuoles are small, may be more in number and scattered

Micro-organisms:
• Organisms which cannot be seen through naked eyes, but needs a microscope to see, are called as micro-organisms.
• Micro-organisms are present everywhere around us in air, soil, water, food, sewage, garbage as well as in bodies of plants and
animals.
• Some of the micro-organisms are solitary i.e. they live their life singly. Eg: Amoeba, Paramaeium
• Some micro-organisms lives in colonies. Eg: Yeast ( used in bakeries)
• Some of the micro-organisms live on the bodies of animals or on dead remains of plants and animals.
• To observe micro-organisms, compound microscope or electron microscope is used.
• Many micro-organisms are having their body made of single cell and are called as Unicellular organisms. Eg: Amoeba, Yeast,
Bacteria, Paramaecium etc
• Some micro-organisms have body made up of many cells and are called as Multi-cellular
organisms Eg: Breadmould (Rhizopus), Algae etc
• On the basis of cellular nature, micro-organisms can be divided into two tyes-
Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell
 Prokaryotic cell: The cells where nucleus is not well developed and membrane bound
organelles are absent. Eg: Bacteria, Virus
 Eukaryotic Cell: The cells where nucleus is well developed, membrane bound
organelles are found. Eg: Algae, Plant cell, Animal cell
• NCCS: National Center for Cell Science, Pune, is an institute involved in research in the
field of cell science (cytology), biotechnology etc.

Growth of micro-organisms:
• Each micro-organism needs a specific environment for growth and reproduction.
• Some micro-organisms need oxygen for their growth while some of the organisms can grow without oxygen.
• Some microbes can survive in extreme climatic conditions like in ocean floor, ice in polar regions, hot water springs etc.
• During adverse environmental conditions, microbes form a thick covering around themselves and stop their life-processes.
When they encounter favourable conditions, they come out of their protective covering and continue their life processes.
• Different environments in which micro-organisms grow:
 Medium: Soil, Water, decaying matter etc
 Temperature: 25˚-37˚ C
 Nutrition: specific nutrients, like for algae- chlorophyll, oxygen
 Atmosphere: Humid, Moist, Warm
Types of micro-organisms:
According to shape and life-processes, micro-organisms are divided into:
1. Algae
2. Fungi
3. Protozoa
4. Bacteria
5. Viruses

Useful micro-organisms:
• Micro-organisms can be useful to human beings in various ways
• Activity: Take two earthen pots half filled with soil and mark them ‘A’ and ‘B’. To pot ‘A’ add some garden waste like dead
leaves, flowers etc., fruit and vegetable peels, paper scrap etc. To pot ‘B’ add wastes like glass pieces , scrap metal, plastic bags
etc. Keep them undisturbed for 3-4 weeks. Observe the pots after 3-4 weeks. The garbage in pot ‘A’ disappears, whereas the
garbage in pot ‘B’ remains unchanged.
• Biodegradable wastes: The wastes that can be decomposed or turned into its simplest form by action of various micro-
organisms is called as Biodegradable waste. Eg: Fruit and vegetable peels, leftover food, dried leaves, flowers etc.
• Non-Biodegradable waste: The waste material that cannot be changed into simpler forms , can be recycled or reused, are
called as Non-biodegradable wastes. Eg: Metal cans, Glass, Plastics etc.
• Biodegradable waste, when acted upon by micro-organisms turns into simpler material, rich in nutrients and is called as
Manure or Compost. This manure or compost when added to soil, provides nutrients to plants. Also it recycles or processes
the wastes and helps in getting rid of such wastes.
• Roots of leguminous plants: Roots of leguminous plants have some swollen
structures called as root nodules. These root nodules are home to micro-organisms
called Rhizobium. These micro-organisms are responsible for converting the
gaseous atmospheric nitrogen into soluble nitrogen compounds that can be
utilised by plants. Nitrogen is important for plants to perform various processes
like producing proteins stored in pulses. These microbes add nitrogenous
compounds to soil, thereby increasing the soil fertility.

• Formation of curd from milk: If few drops of curd or buttermilk to lukewarm

milk, after sometime it changes into curd. It happens so because the microbe,
Lactobacillus, present in the curd or buttermilk changes the milk sugar Lactose into
Lactic acid and changes the milk into curd. Using this microbes, milk can be changed into various other milk products like paneer,
cheese, buttermilk, butter etc.

• Fermentation: The chemical process of conversion of one type of carbon compound into another type of carbon compound by
the action of micro-organisms is called fermentation. Heat is generated in this process and carbon dioxide and some other
gases are released. These gases cause an increase in volume. Eg: bread dough and idli batter are seen to ‘rise’. The process of
fermentation is used for making yoghurt from milk, producing alcohol from grains and fruits, bread from flour as well as in the
producing of acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, vitamins, antibiotics etc.

• Medicines: Some of the microbes are used to make medicines. When we were young, we used to get vaccinated against may
diseases. This method used injections containing microbes which would trigger our immune system against those microbes
providing us strength to fight against many diseases. Many microbes are useful as they provide us various medicines. These
medicines obtained from microbes, which kills other microbes are known as Antibiotics. Eg: Penicillin
• Penicillin is the first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Flemming. This antibiotic is obtained from a fungus called, Penicillium
notatum.

• Other uses: Microbes are also used for tanning of leather, production of ropes and strings from agave.
• Some microbes uses oil for their growth. Such microbes are used to clear oil from water
surface during oil spills on oceans or lakes.

• Farm waste, human urine and faeces, wet garbage etc. is collected and used in a biogas plant,
to produce biogas and fertiliser.

Harmful micro-organisms:
• Microbes can be harmful also, as they can spoil the food or materials, cause various diseases.
• Food poisoning: As microbes use food stuffs for their growth, some microbes releases toxic
materials ( enterotoxins) in the food. Such toxins spoil the food and can cause loose motions and vomiting.
• Disease causing microbes are also called as Pathogens. Pathogens may be present in water bodies contaminated with sewage
and dirt from surroundings, in food left uncovered in unhygienic conditions with houseflies sitting on it etc. If such
contaminated food or water is consumed, we may fall ill with amoebiasis, typhoid, cholera, hepatitis etc. Pathogens are
released in the air when a person having an infection of the respiratory tract sneezes or coughs. A healthy person may get
infected with such pathogens on breathing in the same air and contracts diseases like common cold, diphtheria, pneumonia,
tuberculosis etc.
• Mosquitoes reproduce in places like heaps of garbage, drains, stagnant water etc. Microbes that can cause diseases like
malaria, dengue, elephantiasis, yellow fever, chikungunya, Zika fever etc gain entry into the human bpdy through the bite of a
female mosquito.
Malaria: Female Anopheles mosquito

Dengue, Chikungunya, Yellow fever, Zika fever: Female Aedes mosquito

Elephantiasis: Female Culex mosquito