Introduction to Geology - Planetary Geology - Earth's Spheres: Atmos-

phere, Hydrosphere, Biosphere, and Geosphere - Tectonics

Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dl8uo1
Study of the earth, its composition, structure, and history and the
Geology processes that shaped the earth of the past and those that would
continue to mold the earth of the present.
A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
Hypothesis
limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
hypothesis expressed as a visual or statistical simulation or as
Model a description by analogy of phenomena or processes that are
difficult to observe and describe directly.
the widely accepted explanation for a group of known facts. A
theory is a hypothesis that has been elevated to a high level of
Theory confidence by repeated confirmation through testing and exper-
imentation; serendipity - finding something of a value purely by
chance
Physical Geology and Historical Geology Two main divisions of Geology
examines Earth's composition and processes occurring on and
Physical Geology
beneath the surface.
examines the origin of the Earth, origin of life and changes in Earth
Historical Geology
and life through time; deals with layered rock record and fossils.
Paleontology, Stratigraphy, and Geochronology 3 Branches of Historical Geology
Volcanology, Seismology, Environmental Geology, Engineering
Geology, Mining Geology, Petroleum Geology, Mineralogy, Petrol- Branches of Physical Geology
ogy, Geomorphology, Geophysics, Geochemistry, Geophysics
Theoprastus Interpretation of Fossils (Who)
Land Formation: Erosion of the mountains by deposition of silt
Shen Kua
(Who)
Georg Bauer (Georgius Agricola) Who wrote De Re Metallica (On the Nature of Metals)
first Geologic maps; first observation of the volcanic origins of
Jean-Etienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest
parts of France
George Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart Stratigraphic succession of Earth layers
Alfred Wegener and Arthur Holmes Proposed Continental Drift Theory
Harry Hess Proposed Theory of seafloor spreading
William Morris Davis Davisian geomorphology or Davis' Theory. Cycle of Erosion Model
Nicolas Steno father of stratigraphy
Law of Original Horizontality, Law of Superposition, Law of Lateral
3 defining priniciples of stratigraphy (Nicolas Steno)
Continuity
Law of Original Horizontality Beds were deposited nearly horizontal due to gravitational pull.
Law of Superposition The younger strata lies at the top of older strata
Strata is deposited laterally until the sediment supply last or en-
Law of Lateral Continuity
counter any geologic barrier
it was first established by Nicolas Steno, then later formulated by
James Hutton and embelisshed upon by Charles Lyell. Geologic
Law of Cross-cutting relationship
features that cut across rocks must have formed after the rocks
they cut through
Proposed by Charles Lyell: the rocks that was included is relatively
Law of Inclusion
older than the body that includes it.
William Smith: Ordering strata by examining the fossils contained
Law of Faunal Succession
in them
James Hutton Scottish medical man, farmer, geologist. Father of modern geology
Rocks were formed by emplacement and solidification of lava from
Plutonism (James Hutton)
volcanoes

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 Introduction to Geology - Planetary Geology - Earth's Spheres: Atmos-
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Rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose level gradually
Neptunism (Abraham Werner)
dropped over
the idea that the facts of geology can and should be explained by
Actualism
in terms of the sort of physical processes that actually happen
Catastrophism (coined by William Whewell, proposed by Baron the Earth has been affaceted in the past by sudden, short-lived,
Georges Cuvier) violent events, possibly worldwide in scope
assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate
Uniformitarianism (coined by William Whewell, formulated by in the universe now, have always operated in the universe in the
James Hutton, popularized by Charles Lyell) past and apply everywhere in the universe: "The present is the key
to the past."
the Universe originated from a cosmic explosion that hurled matter
The Big Bang Theory in all directions 15 and 20 billion years ago at incredible speeds
began to cool and condense into the first stars and galaxies
First proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lemaitre in the
The Big Bang Theory
1920s
He justified Lemaitre's theory through observations that the Uni-
Edwin Hubble verse is continuously expanding; galaxies are moving away from
each other
Formulated by Edwin Hubble: light from galaxies is shifted to
Red Shift
longer wavelengths (redder) as they move further
an explanation for the formation of solar systems. stars are born
The Nebular Theory
from clouds of interstellar gas and dust.
The time it takes for the transition from an undifferentiated cloud
100 million years to a star system complete with planets and moons based on the
Nebular Theory
4.6 billion years How old is our solar system
The Planetesimal Theory Put forth by Viktor Safronov in 1941
explains planet formation in the early solar system from accretion
The Planetesimal Theory of small bodies, growing in size as gravity attracted more and more
objects.
The Universe the totality of space and time - past, present, and future
an enormous collection of heavenly bodies held together by grav-
Galaxies itational attraction. Each galaxies is light years apart from each
other
Light year distance traveled by light in one year
3x10^5 km/sec Speed of light
9.4x10^12 km Distance of 1 light year in kilometers
The Sun largest object in the solar system (99.8%)
Photosphere surface of the Sun
5800 Kelvin Temperature of Photosphere
cool regions of Sun, can be very large as much as 50,000 km in
Sunspots
diameter
3800 Kelvin temperature of Sunspots
Chromosphere small region above the photosphere
highly rarefield region above the chromosphere, extends millions
Corona of kilometers into space but is visible only during a total solar
eclipse
over 1 000 000 Kelvin Temperature of Corona
The Sun Yellow dwarf star

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 Introduction to Geology - Planetary Geology - Earth's Spheres: Atmos-
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rocky airless worlds that orbit our sun, but are too small to be called
Asteroids
planets.
a vast doughnut-shaped ring between the orbits of Mars and
Main Asteroid belt
Jupiter
Stars luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity
astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar evolutionary
Super Nova stages of a massive star's life, whose dramatic and catastrophic
destruction is marked by one final titanic explosion
Comet icy bodies in space that release gas or dust
known colloquially as a shooting star or falling star, is the visible
Meteor
passage of a glowing meteoroid
solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or
Meteorite meteoroid, that originates in outer space and survives its passage
through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon
Sirius brightest star in the sky
VY Canis Majoris largest star
Rigel blue supergiant that is the brightest star in the constellation Orion
Betelgeuse bright red star in the Orion which is nearing to its end
Planets celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star
small, dense, rocky planets closest to the Sun, and their satellites,
Terrestrial planets
and a belt of asteroids beyond Mars
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars The 4 terrestrial planets
large, low density planets farthest from the Sun whose outer
Jovian planets layers are composed mainly of frozen or liquid hydrogen, helium,
ammonia, and methane
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune The 4 Jovian planets
a Dutch astronomer that showed in 1950 that comets form a
Jan Oort diffuse spherical cloud located in the far reaches of the Solar
System.
Moon any celestial body in space that orbits around a larger body
Luna Earth's moon
Phobos and Deimos Mars' moons
79 Number of Jupiter's moons
82 Number of Saturn's moons
27 Number of Uranus' moons
14 Number of Neptune's moons
5 number of Pluto's moons
Pluto's largest moon. Half the size of Pluto itself, largest satellite
Charon
relative to the planet it orbits in our solar system.
Ganymede Largest moon
Ganymede, Callisto, Io, Europa At least 4 moons of Jupiter
Titan, Rhea, Iapetus At least 3 moons of Saturn
Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, Miranda At least 5 moons of Uranus
Triton, Proteus, Nereid At least 3 moons of Neptune
Charon, Hydra, Nix, Kerberos, Styx Moons of Pluto
Mercury Fastest planet that takes 88 Earth days around the Sun
oxygen, sodium, hydrogen, helium, potassium Composition of Mercury's exosphere

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Venus Hottest planet in our solar system
The only planet in the solar system to spin to the opposite direction
Venus
(clockwise)
Carbon dioxide, with clouds of sulfuric acid droplets Venus' atmosphere's composition
Maxwell Montes Highest mountain on Venus at 20 000 feet high
Alta Regio complex dome of shield volcanoes on Venus
Thetis Regio highland plateau created by crustal compression on Venus
Chasmata prominent canyons on Venus
fifth largest planet in the solar system, biggest of the terrestrial
Earth
planets
23.5 degrees The tilt of the Earth's axis
Mars one of the most explored bodies in our solar system
Her Desher Term of Egyptians to Mars meaning the red one
large canyon system on Mars long enough to stretch from Cali-
Valles Marineris fornia to New York - more than 4 800 km. 320 km at its widest and
7 km at is deepest. 10x the size of Grand Canyon
Tallest shield volcano in the solar system, 3 times taller than Mt
Olympus Mons
Everest and with a base the size of New Mexico
largest object in the asteroid belt and the only dwarf planet located
Ceres
in the inner solar system
largest planet in the solar system, twice as massive as all the
Jupiter
planets combined
cold windy clouds of ammonia and water floating in an atmosphere
Jupiter's stripes and swirls
of hydrogen and helium
Great Red Spot giant storm bigger than Earth that has raged for hundreds of years
adorned with a dazzling system of icy rings. made mostly of
Saturn
hydrogen and helium
very cold and windy ice giant surrounded by 13 faint rings and
Uranus 27 moons. rotates at a nearly 90-degree angle almost looks like
rolling
first planet found with the aid of a telescope in 1781 by William
Uranus
Herschel
Dark, cold, and whipped by supersonic winds, ice giant and most
Neptune
distant planet in our solar system
20-year period every 248 Earth years period when Pluto's orbit is inside Neptune's orbit
1979-1999 most recent period which Pluto is closer to the Sun than Neptune
solar system's windiest world, 3 times stronger than Jupiter and 9
Neptune
times stronger than Earth
large oval-shaped storm in Neptune's southern hemisphere, large
Great Dark Spot
enough to contain the entire Earth
complex mysterious world with mountains, valleys, plains, craters,
Pluto
and maybe glaciers. Discovered in 1930
Pluto and Charon often referred to as double planet
2377 km Diameter of Pluto
59 Earth days (58 days 15.5 hours) Rotation of Mercury in Earth days
243 days 26 mins Venus' rotation in Earth days
24 hours 36 minutes Mars' rotation in Earth time
9 hours 4 minutes Ceres' rotation in Earth time

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 Introduction to Geology - Planetary Geology - Earth's Spheres: Atmos-
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9 hours 55 minutes (10 hours) Jupiter's rotation in Earth time
10 hours 33 minutes Saturn's rotation in Earth time
17 hours 14 minutes Uranus' rotation in Earth time
16 hours Neptune's rotation in Earth time
6 days 9 hours 18 minutes Pluto's rotation in Earth days
Mercury - Mars - Venus - Earth - Neptune - Uranus - Saturn -
Smallest to largest planet (MMVenusJ)
Jupiter
5.5 density of Earth (heaviest)
0.7 density of Saturn (lightest)
Oort Clouds thick bubble of icy debris that surrounds our solar system
concentration of mass so dense that nothing - not even light - can
Black hole
escape its gravitational pull once swallowed up.
event that occurs when the shadow of a planet or moon falls upon
Eclipes
a second body
Solar eclipse Sun-Moon-Earth eclipse
Lunar eclipse Sun-Earth-Moon eclipse
two times each year, when the sun is directly overhead at noon as
Equinox seen from the equator. Near March 20th and September 22nd. day
and night are equal length
Solstice When the sun is farthest north or south in the sky
Summer Solstice day is longest and night is shortest, around June 20th
Winter Solstice night is longest and day is shortest, around December 21st
apparent offset of a foreground object against the background
Parallax
when your perspective changes
Apogee farthest point of moon from the earth
Perigee closest point of moon from the earth
the earth is closest to the sun about 2 weeks after the winter
Perihelion
solstice
Earth is farthest away from the Sun, 2 weeks after the summer
Aphelion
solstice
half-shadow that occurs when a light source is only partly covered
Penumbra
by an object
Umbra the shadow's dark center portion
Antumbra the lighter part of the shadow that begins where the umbra ends
The Moon fifth largest moon in the solar system
1 737.5 km radius of Moon
distance of moon away from the Earth, slowly moving away an
384 400 km
inch farther per year
27 Earth days revolution of Moon around the Earth, rotates at the same rate
240 km radius of moon's iron rich core
150 km partially molten layer that surrounds the iron core of the moon
70 - 150 km thickness of moon's crust
3.344 g/cm^3 Density of moon
4.53 billion years Age of Earth's moon
rubble pile of charcoal-gray, powdery dust and rocky debris that
Lunar regolith
covers the moon due to series of impacts

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dark-colored basaltic lowland regions of the moon that were filled
maria
with lava between 4.2 and 1.2 billion years ago
lunar highlands older and much more cratered crust of the moon
Theia a planet-sized body that collided with Earth forming the Moon
a planetesimal the size of Mars struck the Earth ejecting large
The Giant Impactor Theory (The Ejected Ring Theory) volumes of heated material from the outer layers of both objects.
The materials eventually stuck together to form the Moon
the Moon was once part of the Earth and somehow separated
The Fission Theory
from the Earth early in the history of the solar system
the Moon was formed somewhere else in the solar system and
The Capture Theory
was later captured by the gravity of the Earth
the Moon and the Earth condensed individually from the nebula
The Condensation Theory that formed the solar system, with the Moon formed in orbit around
the Earth
Moonquake Lunar equivalent of an earthquake
Birth - Molecular Cloud or Nebular Cloud
Main Sequence - can be massive, low-mass, or brown dwarf star
Old Age - Red or Orange Supergiant or Red Giant Life cycle of a star
Death - Supernova explosion
Remnant - Black hole, neutron star, or black dwarf
the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the
Atmosphere
planet Earth and is retained by Earth's gravity
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exos-
5 layers of Atmosphere from bottom to top
phere
Lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere. Average height of about
Troposphere
12 km from the Earth's surface
Troposphere 80% of the mass Earth's Atmosphere, densest of all layers
Troposphere It is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place
Tropopause The end of the troposphere
high altitude clouds (above 6kms) feathery, wispy formations
Cirrus clouds
made up of very minute ice crystals. onset of bad weather
high altitude clouds (above 6kms) made up of tiny ice crystals.
Cirrostratus clouds have a thin-layered formation through which the sun's rays pass,
creating a halo like effect. rainy spell
high altitude clouds (above 6kms) formed when two layers of cloud
Cirrocumulus clouds
move in directions opposite each other. unsettled weather
Middle altitude clouds (between 3-6kms) thick, fluffy, patchy white
Altocumulus clouds
and gray in color. sunny spells
Middle altitude clouds (between 3-6kms) clusters of bluish-gray
Altostratus clouds
clouds. rain ahead
Low altitude (below 3kms) thick usually puffy and have very dis-
Cumulus clouds tinct edges and noticeable vertical development. Have interesting
shapes. Sunny weather
Low altitude (below 3kms) responsible for dull, gloomy, overcast
Stratus clouds
days. rainy weather
considered as low altitude clouds but are actually multilayered
Nimbostratus clouds clouds up to the middle altitude. Dark gray clouds that cover the
sky completely. long spell of heavy rain or snow
Multilayered clouds that produce lightning, thunder, heavy rain,
Cumulonimbus clouds
hail, strong winds, and tornadoes. Tallest among all clouds
Stratosphere Contains the ozone layer that blocks solar radiation

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UVC ray Deadly but mostly absorbed by Earth's atmosphere
damaging, causes skin cancer, easily blocked by glass and
UVB ray
clothes
UVA ray penetrates glass and deep into the skin damaging and aging
Coldest place on Earth average temperature of -85 degrees cel-
Mesosphere
cius
Mesopause marks the top of the mesosphere
aka night clouds, tenuous cloud-like phenomena made of ice
Noctilucent clouds
crystals.
Mesosphere the layer where most meteors burn upon entrance
Thermosphere Hottest layer of the atmosphere as high as 1500 degrees celcius
this layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor, but
Thermosphere
aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen
outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere. extending from exobase
Exosphere
700 km asl to 10 000 km where it merges into the solar wind
composed mainly of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium,
Exosphere and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide
all the waters on the Earth's surface, such as lakes, and seas, and
Hydrosphere
sometimes including water over the Earth's surface such as clouds
97% Saline 3% Freshwater Composition of all water
68.7% icecaps and glaciers, 30.1% groundwater, 0.9% others,
Composition of the 3% freshwater
0.3% surface water
87% lakes, 11% swamps, 2% rivers Composition of the 0.3% surface water
global ecological system integrating all living beings and their
relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the
Biosphere
lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Includes
all life on Earth.
4 billion years ago First appearance of primitive life in the oceans
homogeneous accretion, heterogeneous accretion, magma models for the Earth's accretion and its differentiation into a prim-
ocean model itive mantle and core
process by which random chunks of primordial matter were trans-
Differentiation formed into a body whose interior is divided intro concentric layers
that differ from one another physically and chemically
process of growth or increase, typically by the gradual accumula-
Accretion
tion of additional layers of matter
2-stage process: accretion of homogeneous proto-Earth and dif-
Homogeneous accretion
ferentiation into a metallic core and silicate mantle
Planet growth by simultaneous condensation and accretion of
Heterogenous accretion various compounds as the temperature fell inside an originally hot
Solar Nebula
Earth experienced a large scale melting and developed one or
more magma oceans late in its accretion. The melting caused
Magma Ocean Model
by collisions with other planetesimals, and decay of Al-26 which
caused differentiation
Crust, Mantle, Core Layers of Earth based on Geochemistry
light-colored granitic rock richer in Na and K with thickness from
Continental crust
30-80 km sometimes 100 km in some portions.
dark, dense volcanic rocks (basalt) more Fe-rich than the conti-
Oceanic crust
nental crush and thinner from 3-10 km.

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2.7 Density of continental crust
3 Density of oceanic crust
82% of Earth's volume, 68% of Earth's mass. composed of iron
Mantle
and magnesium silicate rock
Plasma Mantle's state
Central mass about 7 000 km in diameter. Average density is 10.78
Core
g/cm^3. Mostly composed of iron
Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Mesosphere, Liquid outer core, Sol-
Layers of Earth based on Geophysics
id inner core
strong rigid outer layer consisting of the crust and a portion of the
Lithosphere
upper mantle. 70-125 km thick
(weak sphere) major zone within the upper mantle where temper-
Asthenosphere ature and pressure are at just the right balance so that part of the
material melts. 200 km thick
Mesosphere The lower mantle that is hot but too strong due to high pressure
Liquid layer 2270 km thick. the movement of metallic iron within
Outer core
this zone generates the Earth's magnetic field
sphere with 1216 km radius. higher temperature than outer core
Inner core
but solid iron due to pressure
Conrad, Mohorovicic, Repiti, Guttenberg, Lehmann discontinu-
Discontinuities between the layers of Earth from top to bottom
ities
Conrad Discontinuity boundary between upper and lower crust
boundary between crust and mantle; P wave increase from 7 to 8
Mohorovicic discontinuity
km/sec due to disappearance of feldspar
Repiti Discontinuity boundary between upper and lower mantle
Guttenberg Discontinuity boundary between lower mantle and outer core
Lehmann discontinuity boundary between outer core and inner core
Low Velocity Zone 60 - 220 km depth
410 to 660 km depth, transition of silicate. phase transition of
Transition zone
olivine to spinel type structure
Mineral found in the Transition zone that holds so much water,
Ringwoodite
considered to be the largest ocean under the surface of Earth
Bridgmanite Most abundant mineral in all of Earth
a layer said to be in the boundary between the lower mantle and
D" Layer
the liquid outer core, that is composed of Post-perovskite
6378 km Equatorial Radius of Earth
6357 km polar radius of the earth
40 076 km equatorial circumference
40 008 km Polar circumference
260 billion cubic miles volume of the earth
5.52 g/cm3 average density of earth
Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the earth
Triclinic Crystal structure of Feldspar
Orthorhombic Crystal structure of alpha-Olivine (above 400 km depth)
Crystal structure of beta- and gamma-olivine (below 400 km
Cubic (Isometric)
depth)
large areas of highly deformed igneous and metamorphic rock
shield
(basement complex) e.g. Africa
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extensive flat, stable regions of the continents in which complex
stable platform or craton crystalline rocks are exposed or buried beneath a thin sedimentary
cover.
folded mountain belts uplifted mountain ranges that are sites of tectonic convergence
3.8 billion years old Age of oldest formation on Earth
Acasta Gneiss oldest rock on Earth. about 4.03 billion years old
Zircon oldest mineral on Earth. about 4.4 billion years old
most striking and important feature on the ocean floor. extends
Oceanic ridge continuously from the Arctic basin down the center of the Atlantic
ocean, into the Indian ocean, and across the South Pacific
a huge cracklike valley that runs along the axis of the ridge
Rift valley
throughout most of its length
vast areas of broad, relatively smooth, deep-ocean basins on both
Abyssal floor
sides of the ridge; lies at depths of 4km
Seamounts isolated peaks of submarine volcanoes
lowest areas of Earth's surface; adjacent to island arcs or coastal
Trenches
mountain ranges of the continents
zone of transition between a continental mass and an ocean basin
Continental margins
consisting of continental shelf and continental slope
extends seaward from the shore, flooded extension of the conti-
Continental shelf
nents
fathoms depths of oceans
1.8 m or 6 ft equivalent of 1 fathom
consists of a thick accumulation of sediments that moved downs-
Continental rise lope from the continental shelf to the deep-ocean floor. Formed
where trenches do not exist.
study of the origin and arrangement of the broad structural fea-
Tectonics
tures of the Earth's surface
large, mobile slab of rock that is part of the Earth's surface. It may
Plate be made up entirely of seafloor (Nazca plate) or both continental
and seafloor (North American plate)
principle that the earth's surface is divided into large thick plates
Plate tectonics
that move slowly and change size relative to one another
narrow areas of intense geologic activity where plates move away
Plate boundary
from one another, past one another, or toward one another
Plate Tectonics Theory Formulated by Alfred Lothar Wegener
Eurasian, Australian, North American, South American, African,
7 Major plates
Antarctic, Pacific
Philippine sea, Arabian, Scotia, Nazca, Cocos, Juan de Fuca,
minor plates
Caribbean, Indian
The boundary between Eurasian plate and Philippine Sea plate,
Philippine Mobile Belt (PMB)
where the Philippines sit above
Juan de Fuca and Cocos Plates Oldest crust (150-200 million years)
Farallon Plate Ancient plate. Present day Juan de Fuca and Cocos Plates
The mechanism that operates along the oceanic ridge system to
Seafloor spreading
create new seafloor is appropriately
tectonic boundary where two plates are moving away from each
other and new crust is forming from magma that rises to the
Diverging Plate Boundary
Earth's surace between the two plates. Constructive or Extension-
al.

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continental-continental divergence forms rifts and eventually rift valleys
oceanic-oceanic divergence forms mid-ocean ridges
region of active deformation where two or more tectonic plates
Converging Plate Boundary or fragments of the lithosphere near the end of their life cycle.
Destructive
ocean-ocean convergence Older and denser oceanic plate is subducted. Forms island arc
ocean-continent convergence denser oceanic plate is subducted. forms volcanic arc
continent-continent convergence collision between continental plates. forms mountain belt
one plate slides horizontally past one another plate along a fault
Transform Plate Boundary
or a group of parallel faults. Conservative
hypothesis suggesting that the continents moved over the Earth's
Continental Drift
surface.
all the world's continental crust had existed as a single landmass,
Central idea called Pangea. The continents we see today are the result of
fragmentation
Alexander de Toit (friend of Wegener) divided Pangea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland
Laurasia North America, Greenland, and Eurasia
Gondwanaland South America, Africa, India Australia, Antarctica
Weakness lack of adequate mechanism
Jigsaw fit
Continuous mountain belts and other geologic features
Glaciers
Evidences for Pangea
Distribution of life forms
Similar sedimentary records
Paleomagnetic evidence
Mesosaurus freshwater reptile fossils found in South America and Africa
Cynognathus Triassic land reptile fossils found in South America and Africa
Lystrosaurus Triassic land reptile fossils found in Africa, India, and Antarctica
Tropical fern fossils found in all of the southern continents (South
Glossopteris
America, Africa, Antarctica, India, Australia)
Appalachian and Caledonian Mountains 2 separate mountain ranges that were once connected
study of the Earth's past magnetism as recorded at the time of
Paleomagnetism
their formation
The angle with the horizontal plane that forms when the compass
magnetic inclination
needle rotated vertically
a path of the continent through time where the inclination of
apparent polar-wandering curve
minerals in a sequence of rocks changes
the magnetic north pole becomes the magnetic south pole and
Magnetic reversal
vice versa.

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