EARTH SCIENCE

Jerry De Leon Taay, LPT, Ma (36u)

SHS Science Teacher
INTRODUCTION

We are living in an amazing planet, the

Earth. Every human being is considered as
stranger who is striving for a place where
life can be sustained. We need food, water
and air to survive. We also need light comes
from the sun, these are some of the
essentials of the Earth Science
EARTH SCIENCE: NATURE AND BRANCHES

 Geology Study of solid Earth, rocks of which it is composed, and the

processes by which they change

 Astrogeology Study of solid features of any celestial body such as geology

of the Moon

 Minerology Study of all kinds of minerals which are useful

 Petrology Study of different kinds of rocks

 Paleontology Study of fossils formation and recordings

 Pedology Study of different kinds of soil and their characteristics

 Seismology Study of Earthquakes existence

 Volcanology Study of basic and special features of volcano

 Geomorphology Study of the relief features of the earth such as

landforms or of another celestial body as the moon

 Geochemistry Study of the chemical composition and changes that takes

place chemically in the solid matter of the earth or of another
celestial body

 Sedimentology Study of rocks which are sedimentary and their functions

 Geodesy Investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces

and its magnetic and gravity fields
 Field of Study under Geologic Science

 Meteorology Study involved primarily the atmosphere, weather events, and variables
that affects weather conditions such as pressure and temperature

 Climatology Study of weather conditions in a long-term scale ranging to years

from month
 Atmospheric Study of chemical properties and characteristics of gaseous part
chemistry of the earth and changes happening to it.

 Atmospheric Study of the physical properties, processes, and phenomena of

the gaseous part of the earth.
physics
Study of the upper atmosphere of the planet or atmospheric
 Aeronomy regions above the lower stratosphere and phenomenon or events
happened such as auroras or photochemical processes
 Field of study under Atmospheric Science

 Hydrology 1. biological, 2. chemical oceanography

 Oceanography Study of weather conditions in a long-term scale ranging to years

from month
 Glaciology Study of the icy parts of the earth (cryosphere)

 Hydrogeology Study of the saturated zone’s subsurface water or locating ground

water

Study of the inland seas and even lakes

 Limnology

 Hydraulics
Study of the movements f liquid state of water
 DEVELOPMENT IN EARTH SCIENCE
The present situation of what is earth science today can be traced back
from simple and observable ideas of great idealist, known as
philosophers. These people really work hard and trigger the minds of
later scientist to provide and create experimental tools for quantitative
description on how everything in this world works and functions. In fact,
each simple and complicated discoveries of these genius people helped
a lot in the development of every study and discipline in the field of
science starting from measurements, chemical and physical properties
of nature, time, engineering and mathematics up to the transportation
not only found in this planet but even in more comprehensive view as for
explorations outside our planet earth. These perspective give us more
knowledge and ideas about every detail of something found in the earth
and also in nearby celestial objects and how they affects our loves as
human beings.
THE FOLLOWING ARE SOME OF MANY DISCOVERIES THAT LED TO
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARTH SCIENCE AS A FILED OF STUDY

1. The greatest discoveries and invention of prehistoric man was the use of
fire and language respectively
2. Astronomical events were recorded by Egyptians such as they have
identified constellations using stellar year of 360 days, consisted of 36
weeks and every week has 10 days.
3. Chinese established a way of time keeping.
4. Thales of Miletus foundered a school that produced students who
specialized in astronomical and geographical maps, predicting the
relative distance of the moon, planets from the earth and the sun
5. The idea that the earth is spherical in shape based on experimental
studies was proposed and theorized by Pythagoras.
6. Cause by eclipses was explained correctly by Anaxagoras. He was the one
observed the roundness of the earth’s shadow on the moon. His
observations led to the proof about the theory that the earth is spherical in
shape.
7. Democritus was credited in his theory that every objects in the universe
was made of atom.
8. The theory of the earth is the center (geocentric theory or earth-centerd)
of moving planets and sun was proposed by Claudius Ptolemeus or simply
Ptolemy but replaced by the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus
who explained that the sun is the center of of all revolutions of all planets
including earth.
9. Pointers were built by Tycho Brahe which he used to have precise
measurements on the locations of the celestial objects
10. The movements of the planets was discover by Johannes Kepler and
supports the heliocentric based on his (3) laws of Planetary motion.
11. Heavenly bodies was observed and study by Galileo Galilei using his
telescope.
12. The orbits and moons were calculated possibly using his law of motions and
gravity by Isaac Newton.
13. Oxygen as gaseous was discover by Joseph Priestly. The role of oxygen in
breathing and burning was determined by Antoine Lavoisier. The evidence
that the face of earth had been carved and shaped by processes were found
by James Hutton as his contribution in the study of geology.
14. Henri Becquerel and Curies, Marie and Pierre, found that certain minerals
containing uranium and thorium emits very high rays of energy.
15. The total eclipse confirmed the theory of Albert Einstein on relative. The
theory also explained the slow rotation of Mercury.
16. Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) proposed detailed explanations for the
formations of mountains, the origin of earthquakes, and other topics central
to modern geology, which provided an essentials foundations for the later
development in the science.
CORE SUBJECT DESCRIPTION
This learning area is designed to provide a general
background for the understanding of Earth Science and
Biology. It presents the history of the Earth through
geologic time. It discusses the Earth’s structure,
composition, and processes. Issues, concerns, and
problems pertaining to natural hazards are also included.
It also deals with the basic principles and processes in the
study of biology. It covers life processes and interactions
at the cellular, organism, population, and ecosystem levels.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE

Cosmology- the understanding of the

origin, evolution, structure and fate of
the universe.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 BIG BANG THEORY
 Prevailing cosmological model for the early development of
the universe.
 Perceived as massive explosion around 13.7 billion years ago
(age of the universe).
 After the explosion, the surroundings were at a high
temperature of about 10 billion °F (5.5 billion °C)
 Aggregates of fundamental particles such as neutrons,
electrons, and protons.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 STEADY STATE THEORY
 Sir James Jeans (1877-1946) in 1920
 Fred Hoyle (1915 -2001) –revised
 Hermann Bondi (1919-2005) & Thomas Gold (1920-2004)-
alternative to the BBT.
 States that the universe is always expanding in a constant
average density.
 Matter continuously created to form cosmic or celestial
bodies.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 STEADY STATE THEORY
 Toward 1960s- contradict the steadiness
 Discovery of quasars and radio galaxies that are at far
distance only, disproved that the universe is evolving not
steady.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 COSMIC INFLATION THEORY
 Alan Guth (1947-present) & Andrei Linde (1948-present) in the
1980s.
 The universe is rapidly expanding bubble of pure vacuum
energy.
 After expansion and cooling arising from this inflation, the
potential energy converted into kinetic energy of matter and
radiation.
 FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
(THEORIES)
 COSMIC INFLATION THEORY
 Observations:
Homogeneity of objects in space that use to be in contact got
farther away from one another.
Appearance of flatness of smoothness.

Formation of stars and star system .

 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) & Pierre-Simon Laplace (17-49-
1877) in the 18th century.
 Rotating gas cloud or nebula of extremely hot gas.
 Cooled gas , the nebula start to shrink, became smaller, rotated
faster, forming a dislike shape.
 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 Angular momentum for nebula’s rotation and the gravitational
force from the mass of the nebula formed the rings of gas
outside.
 Nebula continued to shrink, rings condensed into various
densities of planets and satellites.
 The remaining part of the nebula, which had most mass,
formed the sun.
 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 THE PLANETESIMAL TIDAL THEORIES
 Viktor S. Safronov (1917-1999) in 1941
 Thomas Chamberlin(1843-1928) & Forest Moulton (1872-1952) –
20th century.
 James Jean (1877-1946) & Harold Jeffreys (1891-1989)- in 1918
 The gravity of the space bodies attracted space objects until the
effect of their gravity was reduced due to the accretion which
also increased the size of the planetesimals.
 FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 TIDAL THEORIES
 Developed by James Jean and Sir Harold Jeffreys in 1917.
 A star passed close to the sun where the tidal force or the
secondary effect of gravitational pull between the passing star
and the sun drew large amount of matter out of the sun and the
passing star.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND DISCOVERIES ON
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 In2006 pluto was observed to belong to a different region,

the Kuiper belt (outer region of the solar system,
composed of frozen volatiles, comets, and asteroids).
 Pluto was reclassified by IAU(International Astronomical
Union) as dwarf planet instead of being the 9th planet of
the solar system.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND DISCOVERIES ON
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 Mars may have had prehistoric living forms.

 NASA ( National Astronautics and Space Administration)-
obtains data through space rovers.
 Dry lakebed on sedimentary rocks (fossilized) shape by
microbes that are found on earth.
 Presence of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur,
phosphorus, and organic compounds.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND DISCOVERIES ON
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The expansion of the universe is accelerating.
 1998, two independent projects the Supernova Cosmology Project and the
High-Z Supernova Search Team.
 Observed that the expansion of the universe is not slowing down
or even constant, but is inexplicably accelerating at an
increasing rate.
 Using advanced telescope, the distance of Milky Way to the
nearby galaxies was measured and result proved it
unexpectedly expanded in the last few years.
 ADVANCEMENTS AND DISCOVERIES ON
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 The farthest intersellar travel is outside the solar system.

 Voyager 1 was launched in 1977- been in the space traveling for
nearly 35 years.
 In 2012, NASA announced that Voyager 1 has already left the
solar system, and have reached the farthest realms of space.
 Voyager 1 mission has enabled humans to take samples and
images of various celestial bodies.
REFLECT UPON
Do you think there are other life-forms exploring
the universe aside from humans? Has Earth been
explored already by other life-forms?
 WHAT HAVE I LEARNED SO FAR?
1. Explain what could have come before the formation of the universe,
according to the cosmic inflation theory?

2. How do the inner planets differ from the outer planets in terms of
composition, size and formation?

3. How will the continuous expansion of the universe affects the Earth?
 WHAT HAVE I LEARNED SO FAR?
1. Compare and contrast the formation of the universe and
formation of the star system.

2. How did Earth form after the formation of the sun?

3. How do the inner planets differ from the outer planets in

terms of composition, size, and formation?
 EARTH SYSTEM
 Refers to earth’s interlacing physical, chemical and biological
changes.
 Gaia Hypothesis- states that organism interact with their
inorganic surrounding and establish a self-regulating
complex system that helps maintain the conditions necessary
for life on the planet.
 Presumed that it evolved into four subsystem
 Geosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Atmosphere
 Biosphere
 GEOSPHERE
 Solid portion of the earth that includes the interior structure,
rocks and minerals, landforms, all the continents, ocean floors
, down to the deep depth of the core, and the processes that
shape earth’s surface.
 Lithosphere- covers only the crustal part and upper mantle of
earth.
 Geologist-scientists that study this part of the earth.
 EARTH SYSTEM
 Geosphere’s Internal Structure and
Surface Features
 Has three main layers, the crust, mantle
and core.
 Different layers change in density, mineral
composition, and thickness with depth.
 Two types of waves:
 p-waves- travels fast through both solid
and liquids.
 s-waves- travels slower through solid
alone.
CRUST
 Great variety of igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks.
 Composed of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium & magnesium.
 Oceanic crust
 5 to 10km thick
 Composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and gabbro.
CRUST
 Continental crust
 30 to 50km thick
 Composed of less dense rocks, such as granite.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity- the velocity of the seismic
waves behaved differently as they traveled through the
layer before the mantle.
CRUST
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity
 Andrija Mohorovicic (1857-1936) croation
seismologist who discovered the moho discontinuity
in 1909.
 Recognized as the transitional boundary that divides
the crust from the mantle.
POST IT!
MANTLE
 84% of the earth’s volume.
 Consist of olivines, pyroxenes and
garnet.
Higher portion of iron &
magnesium.
Smaller portion of silicon &
aluminum.
MANTLE
 Anthenosphere
 Lieson the upper part of the mantle
and is directly below the crust.
 Occurrence of earthquakes and
seismic activities.
 Extreme temperature and pressure
causes rocks to become ductile.
MANTLE
 Gutenburg Discontinuity
 Beno Gutenburg (1889-1960)
discovered in 1913.
 Transitional boundary between the
lower mantle and outer core.
 Heat in the mantle dissipates, the
molten core gradually solidifies and
shrink, moving this boundary deeper
in the core.
CORE
 Iron in the outer core is in liquid form,
and inner core is in solid form.
 Flowing iron and nickel in the outer
core resulted to the formation of the
magnetic field that further protects the
earth.
CORE
 Lehmann Discontinuity
 Inge Lehmann (1888-1993) Danish
seismologist, discovered in 1929.
 Shock waves travels some distance in to
the core and then bounced off some kind
of boundary.
 Lehmann believed that there indeed lies
a unique layer that separates the liquid
inner core from the solid outer core.
EXTEND YOUR
KNOWLEDGE!
 HYDROSPHERE
 Encompasses all the water found on earth.
 Covers 70% on earth’s surface.
 Includes the permanently frozen parts called
cryosphere.
 HYDROSPHERE
 Importance of water
 Water can be in liquid form, not just solid or gas.
 Water has a neutral pH.
 Water is a good conductor of heat and energy.
 Water has specific heat.
 Water is a universal solvent.
 HYDROSPHERE
 Distribution of Water on Earth
 Surface Water
Fresh water- lower salt content,
best for drinking water, accounts
only 2% of world’s water.
Marine Water- higher salt content,

accounts 98% of world’s water.

 HYDROSPHERE
 Distribution
of Water on Earth
 Underground Water
Aquifer- acts as reservoir for
groundwater and may contain large
amounts of minerals such as
magnesium, calcium etc..
REFLECT UPON
 ATMOSPHERE
 Mixture of gases that surround the
planet such as nitrogen, oxygen,
argon, carbon dioxide, and water
vapor.
 Composed of 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen, 0.9% argon, remaining 1/10
% different traces of gases.
 ATMOSPHERE
 Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere
 Troposphere
 Stratopshere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
IN A NUTSHELL
 BIOSPHERE
 Includes all life forms and even
organic matter that has not yet
decomposed.
 Most life on earth exists within a zone
less than 20km wide.
 Interaction between the litosphere,
hydrosphere ant atmosphere create a
habitable environment.
 BIOSPHERE
 Theorigin of the Biospshere
 Theory of primordial soup
 Deep-sea vent theory
 Panspermia
REFLECT UPON
 THE EVOLUTION
 The earth is a very complex system
with many other system operating
within it. All these system work
because of the presence of the
fundamental materials that make up
earth. Driven by various geologic
process, the diversity of these
materials has grown as Earth continues
to develop and evolve.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 COLOR
 Usually the property used to identify minerals
easily
 A result of the way minerals absorb light.

 May not be used in identifying translucent to

transparent minerals due to the presence of
trace amounts of minerals in them.
 Considered the least reliable means of
identifying minerals.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
Augite (brown, green, black, purple)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Biotite (black, brown or green)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Calcite ( Pearlescent and pale colors)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Dolomite (Colorless, pale pink, brown or
gray)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Feldspar (Yellow, white, pink, green or gray)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Hematite (Metallic gray or black)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Hornblende (Green, yellow, brown or black)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Limonite (Black, brown, or yellow)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
 Sulfur (Pale gold )
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
STREAK Test
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 HARDNESS
 Refers to the measures of the mineral’s
resistance to scratching.
 To measure the relative hardness of minerals,
the Mohs scale is used.
 The harder the minerals, the greater is its
resistance to scratching.
 FREDERICK MOHS (1773-1839) German
Minerologist.
 MOHS
Relative
Hardness MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

1
TALC POWDER

2
GYPSUM FINGERNAIL
 MOHS
Relative
Hardness MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

3
CALCITE TOOTH

4
FLUORITE IRON NAIL
 MOHS
Relative
Hardness MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

5
APATITE WINDOW GLASS

6
ORTHOCLASE STEEL FILE
 MOHS
Relative
Hardness MINERAL COMMON OBJECT

7
QUARTZ PORCELAIN TILE

8
TOPAZ HARDENED STEEL
 MOHS MINERAL COMMON OBJECT
Relative
Hardness

9
CORUNDUM SAPPHIRE, RUBY

10
DIAMOND NONE
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CLEAVAGE & FRACTURE
Are used to describe how minerals

break into pieces.

Minerals are crystalline structures

and breakage may take place in weak

parts of the structures.
The breakage along the crystalline

structure where a mineral is likely to

break smoothly- Cleavage.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 CLEAVAGE & FRACTURE
Are used to describe how minerals break
into pieces.
Minerals are crystalline structures and
breakage may take place in weak parts of
the structures.
Cleavage- breakage along the crystalline
structure where a mineral is likely to break
smoothly.
Fracture- breakage is in a direction where
there is no cleavage.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CLEAVAGE FRACTURE
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE or CRYSTAL
LATTICE
Tells how a mineral’s crystals are
arranged.
Crystal Solid- form a regular
repeating three-dimensional crystal
lattice.
Amorphous Solid- forms aggregates
that have no particular order or
arrangement.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE or CRYSTAL
LATTICE

Hand Lens
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
TRANSPARENCY or DIAPHANEITY
Indicates the extent of light that can

pass through the mineral.

Depends on the thickness of the

mineral.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
TRANSPARENCY or DIAPHANEITY
Transparent Topaz Translucent Corundum

Opaque Stibnite
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
MAGNETISM
Indicates the ability of a mineral to

attract or repel other minerals.

Lodestone
attracting
paperclips
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
TENACITY
The level of resistance or reaction of

minerals to stress such as crushing,

bending, breaking, or tearing.
It can tell if the mineral is brittle,

malleable, and elastic.

 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
LUSTER
Refers to the reaction of mineral to

light.
Determines how brilliant or dull the

mineral is.

Logan Sapphire
 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
ODOR
A distinct smell of a mineral that is

usually released from a chemical

reaction when subjected to water,
heat, air, or friction.

Sulfur (lit match)

 EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of
Minerals
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
A measure of the

density of a mineral.
Determines how

heavy the mineral is

by its weight to water.
video clip(physical properties of minerals)
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SILICATE CLASS
The largest and most abundant group

containing silicon and oxygen with

some aluminum, magnesium, iron, and
calcium.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SILICATE CLASS: examples
Feldspar Pyroxene Olivine

Quartz
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
CARBONATE CLASS
Mostly found deposited in marine

environments.
Minerals belonging to this group are

formed from the shells of dead

plankton and other marine organism.
 Foundin areas where high rates of
evaporation takes place.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
CARBONATE CLASS: examples

Aragonite Calcite Malachite

 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SULPHATE CLASS
Forms in areas with high evaporation

rates and where salty waters slowly

evaporate.
Process: the formation of sulphates

and halides in water-sediments

interface occurs.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SULPHATE CLASS: examples

Anhydrite Blue barite Gypsum

 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
HALIDE CLASS
Contains natural salt, these minerals

usually forms in lakes, ponds, and

other landlocked seas such as the
dead sea and great salt lake.
Have low hardness, may be

transparent, have good cleavage, have

low specific gravity, and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
HALIDE CLASS: examples

Halite Sylvite Fluorite

 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
OXIDE CLASS
Diverse class, these minerals are

important as they carry histories of

changes in Earth’s magnetic field.
Formed as precipitates close to

Earth’s surface or as oxidation

products of minerals during the
process of weathering.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
OXIDE CLASS: examples

Chrysoberyl Hematite Spinel

 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SULPHIDE CLASS
Has important metals such as copper,

lead, and silver, which are considered

economically significant.
These metals are found in electrical

wires industrial materials, and other

things that are needed in
construction.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SULPHIDE CLASS: examples

Copper Silver Lead

 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
PHOSPHATE CLASS
Considered an important biological

mineral found in teeth and bones of

many animals.
Contains phosphorus.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
PHOSPHATE CLASS: examples

Arsenic Phosphate Vanadium

 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 NATIVE ELEMENT CLASS
Contains metals and intermetallic

(gold, silver, copper) elements,

semimetals, nonmetals (antimony,
bismuth, graphite, sulphur) or natural
alloys, and constituents of few rare
meteorites.
 EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
 NATIVE ELEMENT CLASS: examples
Gold Silver Copper

Antimony Bismuth Graphite