EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi is undertaking the construction
of a new 800-bed teaching hospital located near Boadi Junction-Emena Road in Kumasi. The purpose
of the Teaching Hospital is to help in the training of the medical personnel that graduate from the
university as well as offer medical help to the general public in the environs of the hospital and
beyond.

This report takes care of the civil engineering design aspects of this teaching hospital project.

For the road network, we took a look at the geometric design. The geometric design entails the
adequacy of the geometry of the road in the terrain to meet the needs of road users. In geometric
design, the minimum stopping distance, length of horizontal curves and vertical curves, radii of the
horizontal and vertical curves as well as the cross-section elements of the road to ensure safe, smooth
flow of traffic. The report takes into account the needed traffic designs for safety. The Environmental
Impact Assessment is also presented to notify the client of the possible positive and negative impacts
during the project implementation on the environment.

Next, in handling vehicular parking, we classified the subgrade through lab analysis of its Atterberg
limits, according to AASHTO, to know its viability for the project and found the design ESALs
(Equivalent Single Axial Loading) to help determine the thickness of the surfacing and base courses
of each parking slot. The Environmental Impact Analysis for this is also presented.

For the water supply and distribution systems of the project, the sources of water were first
determined. By taking into consideration, the World Health Organisation (WHO) standard
requirements, the best option to be used as the source is groundwater. The other sources; water from
the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) and rainwater, can be used to supplement the water
supplied to meet demand requirements. The transmission and distribution systems are then designed
to meet all the necessary requirements.

To ensure proper waste management, a sample waste management system in another teaching hospital
(Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital) was considered in designing one for the project. Designs were
then made for the most viable and efficient mode of storage, collection, transport and disposal of
waste generated from the site without disturbing the environment. The Environmental Impact
Assessment was also done for this aspect.
1. BACKGROUND

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi (KNUST) is undertaking

the construction of a new 800-bed teaching hospital. The KNUST Teaching Hospital is to
become a referral centre for hospitals in the Ashanti Region in order to ease the pressure
currently on the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi. The new hospital is being
constructed in two phases.

Phase One was awarded on contract and construction is in progress at the site. Phase two,
which is at the design stage comprises staff accommodation, ancillary support facilities, as
well as drainage, water supply and waste management for the entire Teaching Hospital.

We (civil3 students) have been assigned to undertake the design of the Transportation
Engineering Infrastructure Works.

The Management of KNUST, the Client, commissioned the Development Office of the
university to undertake the general planning and the design of the architectural aspects of the

Teaching Hospital scheme. Similarly the Client engaged the services of Engineering
Consultants for the design of the mechanical and the electrical engineering aspects of the
proposed Teaching Hospital scheme. Preliminary planning and designs of the various units
for the Phase Two scheme have been completed and approved by the Client.
Civil Engineering 3 students have now been commissioned to undertake the design of the
Transportation Engineering Infrastructure Works for the said Phase Two of the new Teaching
Hospital project for the University in Kumasi, with a view to equipping students with the
knowledge and skill that will enable them better manage a road network.
2. OBJECTIVES

The objective of the assignment is to provide engineering designs for components of

transportation infrastructure works required for ensuring the efficient functioning of the
Teaching Hospital PHASE TWO project including the following:
 Road Network;
 Vehicular Parking
 Drainage
 Solid and Liquid Waste Management
 Water Supply and Distribution3.0 Progress of Work, and Work Schedule
Our group (group24) comprising five (5) civil engineering students has familiarized itself
with the Terms of Reference and the project site.

A desk study of available project drawings, standards and specifications has been performed.

Detailed engineering studies have also begun.

3. SITE LOCATION

The site for the new Teaching Hospital is located near Boadi, and opposite the Ghana Telecom
Exchange Station, along the Boadi Junction- Emena Road. This location is not far from the Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. The site is enclosed in the red polygon shown in the
map below.

Fig 1. Map showing the location of the site relative to the University and the Accra- Kumasi Highway

The land earmarked for the phase II development of the project has a total surface area of
approximately 75,000km2 .

The land slopes towards the west and towards the south east. Currently the land comprises of
vegetative cover and a portion has been cleared to allow for the construction of the first phase which
is already in progress.

The Topographical survey map of the site is attached herewith.

Figure 2- Topographical survey map of site
4. WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION

4.1BASELINE ASSESSMENT

The project consultants gathered information on the location of the site from previous site visits. This
information was made available to the group.

First of all, the project site is not a built-up residential area. The nearest residential settlement from
the site is the Boadi Township.

Also, located about 200 meters away from the Western side of the hospital under construction, is a
vegetable farm.

Consultants visited the farm to make some enquiries from the farmers. Upon enquiring from
the farmers, it was revealed that their major source of water for irrigation was underground
water. Hand dug pits were found on the farm with water in them which farmers fetched to
water their crops using watering cans. Crops that were being grown on the farm were
cabbage, lettuce and spring onions.

The availability of groundwater for crop irrigation indicates the possibility of gaining access to
underground water as a source of water for drinking and other medical purposes although appropriate
tests would be carried out to determine the water quality.

From the Geotechnical Engineer, the general soil formation of site is mainly a sandy material with
some part containing silt well as lateritic hard pan.

4.2 STUDY METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN STEPS

The following processes are considered in the design of water distribution systems:

Population projections which help determine the amount of water required thus is required for the
Demand Estimation.

Ultimately, water availability can be regarded as a function of the costs of its delivery to the required
place at the right time. These costs are greatly affected by the water demand, hence, the importance of
estimating population.
Also, the susceptibility of the flow patterns and chemical properties of water to easily alter is greatly
affected by human population. This is reason behind the forecasting of human population during the
design period.

After population projection, the next step is the design of transmission mains for tapping into the
available groundwater. Gate valves would be situated at the beginning of the line, at reservoirs and at
places where there will be a need for isolation of sections of the line for repair or routine testing.

Valve enclosures would also be provided at the highest elevations of the transmission lines for
vacuum and air-release valves. This is due to the fact that the high areas are places where excess air
accumulates and the presence of air at these locations creates resistance to water flow.

Pumping stations would be provided since water will be pumped to places of higher elevations in the
network. They will be situated in buildings where it will be easy to carry out maintenance works and
also to muffle the pump’s noise.

After the water demand is known, distribution lines are then designed for. Drawings are then provided
for construction purposes.

4.3 FLOW CHART OF DESIGN STEPS

Population Demand
Projections Estimation

Design of Design of
Transmission Distribution
Mains Lines

Sizing of Submission of
Storage Tank Drawing

Figure 3- Flow chart of design steps

4.4 DATA COLLECTION METHOD FOR ENGINEERING

4.4.1 DESIGN STUDIES

Data was collected by various means such as:

 Available Information from the terms of reference

 Reconnaissance survey information
 Consultations with various parties who have knowledge related to the project. For
instance the project manager on site, town and country planners.

4.4.2 ENGINEERING STUDIES

Engineering studies carried out include demand estimation which requires the projected population at
the end of the design life of the project.

Design life to be assumed is 10 years. According to the Design guide provided by the Community
Water and sanitation Agency (CWSA), basic design period is 10 years for transmission mains.

4.5. PROJECTED POPULATION AND DEMAND ESTIMATION

4.5.1. DOMESTIC DEMANDS

Assumptions:

 Average of 5 people per bungalow for ‘12 number of two bedroom type bungalows’.

Hence total number of people = 12*5 = 60 people.

 Average of 6 people per bungalow for ‘4 number of three bedroom type bungalows’.

Hence total number of people = 4*6 = 24 people.

 Average of 5 people per bungalow for ’30 number of two bedroom flats’.

Hence total number of people = 30*5 = 150 people.

Basis of the assumptions

For the number of people, average family size in the Kumasi Metropolis is 5.1.

Also, considering the fact that bungalows would be slightly bigger than flats, hence the decrease in
number of people living in the flats although they have the same number of bedrooms.
For the average water Demand, 90 l/c/d was chosen because the KMA Development plan for Kumasi
Metropolitan Area indicated the water demand for the various income groups in Kumasi as 60 l/c/d
for low income, 90 l/c/d for middle income and 120 l/c/d for high income.

Total number of people in the residential facilities = 24 +60 +150 =234 people.

Total Domestic Demand = 234*90 =21060 l/d.

4.5.2. ADMINISTRATION BLOCK

This unit contains 8 offices per floor. The whole unit has 3 floors.

Assumptions

There are 127 people on each floor. Breakdown is as bellow:

OFFICE ASSUMED NUMBER OF PEOPLE.

Conference room 100
Medical Superintendent’s office 1
Secretary’s office 1
Reception 2
Finance manager’s office 1
Accountant’s office 2
AD 16 office 1
NHIS office 10
AD 07 office 1
General office 8

Total number of people in the Administration block = 127 people * 3 floors = 381 people.

Assume 25 l/c/d for water demand per capita for the administration block.

Total water demand from the Administration block = 381 people * 25 l/c/d = 9525l/d.

4.5.3. VISITING STUDENTS

Assume 250 students visit the hospital per day. This is to cater for the medical students who visit the
hospital for their clinical works.

Assume 15 l/c/d water demand.

Total water demand for visiting students = 250*15 =3750 l/d.

4.5.4 MAIN HOSPITAL
Assume 300 l/bed. Assumption was made from the World Health Organisation Standards /(220-300
litres per bed for hospitals with laundry facilities).

Basis of Assumptions

300 l/bed was chosen because the entire domestic, laundry, water used for medical purposes have
been factored in hence there will be no need to calculate water demand for all those units in the
hospital.

The demand for the mortuary will be considered as part of others.

The chart below indicates the various allocations for the total demand per bed.

Demand for Patients = 800*300 =240,000 l/d

Demand for staff = 200*250 = 50,000 l/d.

Total water demand for the main Hospital = 240,000 + 50,000 =290,000 l/d.

TOTAL AVERAGE WATER DEMAND = 290,000 + 20000 + 20000 + 3750 + 9525 + 21060 =
344335 l/d.

4.5.5. SUMMARY OF POPULATION AND WATER DEMAND

CATEGORY POPULATION AVERAGE AVERAGE
DEMAND (l/d) DEMAND (m3/d)
Residential 234 21,060 21.06
Administration 381 9,525 9.525
Visiting Students 250 3750 3.75
Out-Patients & Visitors 1000 20,000 20.0
Main Hospital 800 290,000 290.0
TOTAL 2665 344335 344.335
4.6. DESIGN CRITERIA
Hydraulic design basically deals with pressures and hydraulic gradients. Flow velocities, pressure and
flow fluctuations are also important design factors that will be considered.

The pressure criterion is usually formulated as the minimum or maximum pressure required at the
most critical point of the system.

The distribution network and storage system would be designed to ensure minimum residual pressures
at all fittings for their optimum functioning as indicated in the Terms of Reference.

The starting point while setting the minimum pressure will be the height of the tallest building on the
site which is the administration block.

Maximum pressure limits will be considered as a requirement to reduce the additional cost of pipe
strengthening. Since very high pressures contribute to leakages in the system, the maximum pressure
will be considered so as to reduce head losses.

The design criteria for the hydraulic gradients will depend on the minimum and maximum pressures
that will be used in the design, the distance over which the water will be transported, the topography
of the site and the size of the water supply network. Possible future extensions will also be considered.

Velocity range can also be adopted as a design criterion. Low velocities are usually not considered
due to hygienic reasons, whereas high velocities also cause exceptional head losses. Standard design
velocities are:

 ± 1 m/s in distribution lines

 ± 1.5 m/s in transportation pipes
 ± 1-2 m/s in pumping stations.

4.7. WATER TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION

Transportation pipes that supply balancing reservoirs in the system are commonly designed for
average flow conditions on the maximum consumption day. In this distribution system where 24-hour
supply is the target, the network will be sized for the maximum consumption hour of the maximum
consumption day.

The transmission line is usually under pressure hence water is not served off it.
Non-return valves are located on each pipe at a junction to prevent water from moving back into the
pipes at the outlets especially during maintenance works.

Wash-out valves are also located at all the dead-ends in the system to flush the pipelines.

4.8. VARIATIONS IN DEMAND

Water consumption varies depending on the season or the month, day and hour. Maximum
consumption month will be during the dry season when there is an increase in water usage.

Daily and Hourly variations depend on various factors such as general habits of the consumers, nature
of the area and climatic conditions.

Peak factors for Maximum Daily Demand and Peak Hourly Demand given by Community Water and
Sanitation Agency (CWSA) design manual are 1.5 and 2.5 respectively and will be used in their
estimations.

Average Water Demand = 344335 l/d ≈ 344.34m3/d.

Maximum Daily Demand = Peak factor × Average Water Demand

Maximum Daily Demand = 1.2 × 344.34 = 413.21 m3/d.

2.5× 1.2× 344.34

Peak Hourly Demand = = 43.04 m3/hr.
24
4.9. WATER SOURCE EVALUATION

4.9.1. GHANA WATER COMPANY LIMITED

Figure 4-Existing Network from GWCL in the area.

The map above indicates the existing distribution network around the project site. Considerations
have been made, appropriate stakeholders have been met and conclusions have been made regarding
the availability of water from the Ghana Water Company Limited Transmission Mains that runs along
the Boadi Junction- Emena Road.

Flow of water through the closest pipe is 6.04 m3/h, available for 12hours of the day, which will not
be adequate to meet the demands of the entire hospital. Hence ground water will be extracted to
complement the water from Ghana Water Company Limited.

Assuming water will be pumped for the entire 12 hours, the maximum quantity of water which will be
available will be 72.48m3. The remaining 444 m3 will be supplied by boreholes.
4.9.2. GROUNDWATER
Groundwater has many characteristics that make it preferable as a water supply.

 Groundwater is less subject to seasonal fluctuations and long-term droughts.

 The aquifer provides natural storage that eliminates the need for an impoundment.
 The groundwater source is mostly available near the point of demand, making the cost
of transmission is low.
 Natural geologic materials filter the water making groundwater, often, more
aesthetically pleasing and to some extent protected from contamination.

Pumping tests were performed on already existing boreholes around KNUST and values obtained
were 417 l/min, 30 l/min, and 42 l/min. The borehole at the veterinary School opposite the Teaching
Hospital site had a yield of 30 l/min.

On the west side of the project site where the vegetable farms are located, elevations are low, almost
the same levels as the elevations of the other borehole at KNUST SHS which has a yield of 417 l/min.
This implies there is a high probability of encountering ground water close to the ground surface.

The farmers sourcing water from underground also indicates the high probability of getting
groundwater.

Also the vegetation at that part of the site, particularly at the time of the site visit indicates that the is a
high water table at that point. Hence, the boreholes drilled, will be sited there.

4.9.2.1. BOREHOLE CHARACTERISTICS

Assume a yield of 200 l/min for the borehole and safe yield of 94%.

water Demand
Number of boreholes =
safe yield of boreholes

Safe yield = 90% × (0.20×60 ×24) m3/d

Safe yield ≈ 259.2 m3/d ≈ 10.8 m3/hr.

2× 444 m 3/d
Number of boreholes = = 3.4 ≈ 4
259.2 m3 /d

Therefore four boreholes will be drilled to satisfy the demand left.

4.9.3. RAIN WATER HARVESTING.
Rainwater tanks collecting runoff from roofs or impervious surfaces form a useful source of water for
domestic activities sans as a source of drinking water where daily rainfall is frequent especially in
Kumasi where high amounts of rainfall is recorded. The supply is particularly useful if local sources
are polluted, since only simple precautions are necessary to keep the rainwater free of pollution.

For single-house rainwater collecting tanks, the principal constraint is usually the size of tank;
affordability and practicality in installation.

For harvesting, there is usually an area of roof, which can discharge to guttering along one side,
perhaps with a return along another side.

4.9.4. EVALUATION OF PROCESS OPTIONS

After careful evaluation of the options available, main source of water will be underground water (two
boreholes) and will be complemented with water from the Ghana Water Company Ltd. Mains and
rainwater. This choice will be adequate enough to meet the demand from the hospital.

4.10. DESIGN METHOD

The Epanet software was used in the hydraulic design and analysis.

Standards that are being used by Ghana Water Company Limited and the Community Water and
Sanitation Agency were used in the elevated and ground level tank sizing. 35% of the total average
water demand was used.

4.11. DESIGNS

4.11.1. STORAGE TANK DESIGN

For 5 days peak:

Volume of water to be stored = 444 × 5 =2220 m3

Dimensions of the Elevated Tank

For the Elevated Tank, since it supplies water per day:

Volume of Elevated tank = 2220

Using two elevated tanks, volume of 1 tank is 740m3

Total Volume of tank = π×r2h

740m3 =π r2× 5
Therefore radius= 7m and height is 5m..

The highest structure on the site is the Administration block which is about 12.847m. Based on this,
the height of the elevated tank will be 25m above ground level to be able deliver water to every part
of the hospital.

This is to ensure that minimum velocities as well as adequate pressure requirements are met in the
system.

Reasons for choosing shorter heights are for maintenance purposes. Very high storage reservoirs are
very difficult to maintain mainly due to the difficulty in reaching the tank.

As a result, ladders will be provided both on the outside and the inside of the storage reservoirs to
allow for easy access for maintenance works to be done.

4.11.2. FIRE DEMAND

For fire demand, demand calculations have been factored in the five-day peak storage. As a result,
should there be a fire outbreak; there will be adequate water in storage to fight it. Therefore, further
calculation of fire demand will only be an over estimation.

4.11.3. PUMP DESIGN

Volume = 740m3

Pumping Time= 008 hours

Volume 740 m 3
Flow Rate (Q) = = = 0.0257 m3/s.
Pumping Time 8 ×60 ×60

Specific Weight ( γ ) × Pump Head ( H ) × Flow Rate (Q)

Pump Power =
efficiency ( μ)

9810 ×20 ×0.0257

Pump Power = = 6723.1W
0.75

Pump Power = 6.8 kW ≈ 7kW.

Two additional 6.8kW pumps will be provided for the two boreholes. This will be adequate to meet
the demand.
4.11.4. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LINES DESIGN
Epanet software was used in the design of the transmission and distribution lines. Results from the
analysis have been included in the appendix section of the report.

Transmission and Distribution lines will be laid at a depth of 0.7 m. Pipes would be buried at that
depth due to the higher strength of the HDPE pipe material and its ability to withstand higher loads.

4.12. RECOMMENDATIONS

4.12.1 RECOMMENDED MATERIAL FOR STORAGE TANKS

Braithwaite Pressed Steel Section is the recommended material for the storage tanks.

4.12.1.1. The Design

Sectional tanks are a series of modular panels bolted together on site to give an infinite range of sizes
and capacities. They are particularly functional in confined spaces, and can be easily transported to
remote areas conveniently packed and erected simply under skilled supervision.

Braithwaite pressed steel sectional tank panels are manufactured from mild steel using the hot press
process. The panels are manufactured in 1m² and 1.22m² modules and bolted together on site using a
sealant.

The modular concept and bolted construction allows for high speed assembly utilising semi-skilled
labour. This provides cost benefits when considered against traditional concrete tanks. Nominal
capacities can be supplied in the range of 1m³- 15000m³, a notable advantage of modular construction.

Through a variety of flanging arrangements Braithwaite tanks can be designed to be supported on

Structural steel towers or at ground level on dwarf walls or piers.

4.12.1.2. Features of Braithwaite Steel Sectional Tanks:

 Infinite range of sizes and configurations

 Excellent flexibility to adapt as storage requirements change
 Ability to be installed in areas with restricted access
 Quick and easy assembly using hand tools
  Highly economical transportation
 Inherent strength and durability of the raw material
 Excellent substrate for a wide range of finishes
 Long term life expectancy

With the appropriate combination from different panel designs, units of any capacity from 1 to
15,000m³ or over may be constructed, in a configuration to respect any existing site restrictions
(maximum height not exceeding 6.10m).

4.12.2. RECOMMENDED MATERIAL FOR PIPES

HDPE pipes are recommended for both Transmission and Distribution lines.

Some distinctive advantages of HDPE pipe that provide important benefits for water applications are
listed below:

 Heat fused Joints. HDPE pipes can be heat fused together to form a joint that is as
strong as the pipe itself and is leak free.
 Flexible and Fatigue resistant. HDPE pipe can be bent to a radius 25 times the
nominal pipe diameter. This can eliminate many fittings required for directional
changes in a piping system where fittings and thrust blocks or restraints are required
with alternate materials.
 Construction Advantages. The combination of flexibility and leak free joints allow
for unique and cost effective types of installation methods that the rigid PVC and
Ductile Iron pipes can't use. Polyethylene is about one-eighth the density of steel; it
does not require the use of heavy lifting equipment for installation.
 Cost Effective and Long Term. Polyethylene pipe installations are cost effective and
have long term cost advantages due to its physical properties, leak free joints and
reduced maintenance costs.
 Corrosion and Chemical Resistant. HDPE pipes do not corrode or support
biological growth.
 Handling. It is much easier to handle and install HDPE pipes as compared to a much
heavier, rigid, metallic or concrete pipe segments, allowing for huge cost advantages
in the construction process. Polyethylene pipe is better able to structurally withstand
an impact than PVC pipe, especially in cold weather installations when other pipes are
more prone to cracks and breaks.
4.13. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Water will be pumped from the ground tank into the elevated tank for 8 hours every day, from 10 pm
till 6 am when demand is lowest.

Routine survey and maintenance of the network should be carried out. These include:
 Reservoir levels are known at all times of day and night. A gauge/float has been
provided to transmit wanted information.
 Backfilling of exposed pipelines to prevent pipe burst from heavy loads coming onto
it.
 Maps and record keeping of pipes and appurtenances, to ensure efficient operation
and maintenance of distribution system.
 Flow measuring devices should be housed to prevent them from being damaged.
 Leakages must be repaired immediately to ensure minimum loss of water.
 Maintenance must be carried out in the whole system after the design period to ensure
efficient operation.
5. DESIGN OF PARKING FACILITIES

In order to obtain the necessary information required for the design of the parking lot at the teaching
hospital, a survey of the parking facilities at the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital was undertaken.
This survey was meant to serve as a proxy for the designing of the parking facilities at the KNUST
hospital. The data obtained from this survey include:

 Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility.

 Type of ownership (i.e. Public)
 Free and charging parking facilities.
 Users of parking facilities (i.e. hospital staff and visitors)
 Type of parking facilities (i.e. permanent)

5.1. PARKING DATA

The parking data obtained for the various blocks are as follows:

BLOCK TYPE NUMBER OF PARKING LOTS

ADMINISTRATION 160
DIAGNOSTIC UNIT AND LABORATORIES 200
WARDS 200

From the above obtained spaces for parking, the expected demand of 100 vehicles a
day can be catered for. The excess parking spaces will cater for future increment in
demand.

5.2. METHOD OF PARKING

The method of parking to be used for this facility would be Advance- Reverse with parking angles of
60 degrees and 90 degrees. The method of Advance-Reverse is virtually identical to the parallel
parking procedure. The driver approaches the parking space, moving forward and turning, positioning
the car in place for backing into the reverse parking spot, allowing the backup camera to see the
parking area.
The most common angle for parking is the 60 degrees angle because of the ease of operation it
provides. This permits reasonable traffic lane widths and eases entry and exit of the parking stall.

The 90 degress angle provides the most parking spaces for a given area. The high degree of difficulty
for entering and leaving these parking stalls makes this type of parking more suited to all-day parking,
such as employee parking.

5.3. MATERIALS FOR PARKING LOT CONSTRUCTION

Several materials were considered for the construction of the pavement for the parking lots. This
include a subgrade and sub-base material with asphalt surfacing and also by the use of pavement
blocks.

Considering the two alternatives, the pavement blocks with bedding sand and a geo-textile material
will be used in the construction of the parking lot and the sidewalk.

Since small vehicles and pedestrians which have little effect on the structural deformation of the
pavement would use the parking lot and the sidewalk respectively, the 200mm base course should be
replaced with bedding sand layer and 80mm block surfacing.

The block pavements must be constructed on a layer of bedding sand. This is necessary because:

 It serves as a regulating layer to provide an even surface on which to lay the blocks
 It accommodates the manufacturing tolerance on block height.
 It acts as a stress reducing layer.

The geo-textile material acts as a root barrier and helps to keep the overlaying from
sinking into the underlying layer.

Pavement blocks should be 80mm thick with dimension 100mm*100mm. Pattern of

laying of the blocks should be herringbone 45 degrees. This pattern promotes even
load bearing and reduces the possibility of movement of pavement blocks.
Jointing sand must be used to ensure vertical and horizontal interlocking since it is
possible for the blocks to act as a coherent layer.
5.4. PARKING LOTS MARKING
Markings in lots are a very important element of a good parking lot. The parking lots provided at the
various lots will be marked to designate parking spaces and to direct traffic flow. As specified in the
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), the parking lots will be marked out using
white traffic paint.

5.5. CALCULATION FOR AREAS FOR THE VARIOUS BLOCKS

5.5.1. ADMINISTRATION
Total number of parking spaces= 160

Total length = 82m

Total width=10m

Total area= 2(82*10)

= 1640m2

5.5.2. DIAGNOSTIC UNIT AND LABORATORIES

Total number of parking spaces= 200

Total length =104

Total width=10

Total area=104*10

=1040m2

5.5.3. WARDS
Total number of parking spaces=200

Total length =104m

Total width=10m

Total area= 2(104*10)

=1040m2
6. ROAD DESIGN

The site layout proposed by the Project Architect is incomplete. It lacks a road layout and
other facilities such as drains. That is where the team comes in. We conducted site visits to
observe the condition of existing roads, both traffic-wise and physical-wise. Our proposed
layout, although originally intended to be for the whole road network, will be for a selected
intersection. The layout should include a longitudinal section, details around the road and a
design for the pavement. Drains will be underground pipes where the water is directed by
concealed gutters.

6.1. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

6.1.1. INTRODUCTION
The scope of the survey work required and undertaken for the project includes the
following:
 Establishment of control points for primary network.
 Establishment of benchmarks along the entire length of the road network which
constitutes the secondary network.
 Total station survey of the stations and benchmarks
 Direct levelling of control points
 Direct levelling of benchmarks
 Survey of cross-section at recommended 50m intervals
 Production of maps in AutoCAD DWG format showing all features surveyed and
contour lines.

The field survey was started on the 18th of February, 2016 and progressed over the
weeks until 19th March, 2016.

A lot of the above activities were purely theoretical and could not be performed by
students, however their importance cannot be overlooked.

6.1.2. SURVEY EQUIPMENT AND STAFF

6.1.2.1. PERSONNEL
The survey party was as follows:
  Party Chief- Alhassan Basit Issah
 Instrument Man- Antwi Kwame
 Chainmen/Staff men- Anyidoho-Kumi Paul, Aboah Armstrong
 Recorder- Tokognon Vaneϛa

6.1.2.2. EQUIPMENT(REQUIRED BUT NOT PROVIDED)

 Theodolite
 Tape measure
 Ranging pole
 Levelling staff
 Total station
 Laptop computers

6.1.3. BENCH MARK/ SECONDARY NETWORK

The control points were constructed and positioned in accordance with the needs of the
survey and the nature of the terrain. The topographic sheets were then prepared. The team
thus, accessed the information and transferred the levels to the right of way and
established the alignment design.

6.2. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

6.2.1. INTRODUCTION
This involved the design of the road such that its layout and structure meets the needs of
the targeted road user. This should include both motorists and pedestrians.
It becomes necessary for the engineer to perform calculations and analyses to fit the road
layout to the topography of the site while meeting safety, service, performance and
environmental standards.
The aim of our geometric design is:
  To determine within allowance permitted by the design standards and right of
way, the routing of the proposed highway : This is one interface with location
survey
 Incorporate within the design standards various physical features of the road
alignment to ensure that drivers have sufficient view of the road (and obstacles)
ahead of them to adjust their speed of travel to maintain safety and ride quality
 Provide a basis for the highway engineer to evaluate and plan for the construction
of a section of the proposed highway

6.2.2. DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

The design of all roads under the GHA is governed by certain controls, which we were to
determine. The major ones were:

 Design Speed –
The speed considered safe at which most cars are commissioned to travel at. It was
obtained by inquiry at the nearest accessible DUR office.

 Traffic Volume-
The number of cars passing on the road over a time period. The time is usually one
day. The crucial value obtained here is the AADT. It was mined by a 12 hour traffic
count at the entrance to the site. It was conducted by the 5 team members. Data
obtained is provided in the appendix.

 Design Hour Volume-

The maximum traffic volume for a time period of an hour in the day. Determined
from our AADT.

 Directional Design Hour Volume-

The maximum traffic volume for a time period of an hour in the day, but only in one
direction. Determined from our AADT.

6.2.3. VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS GEOMETRIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

Major elements of the highway design include stopping sight distance, passing sight
distance, and horizontal and vertical alignment.
 Features which need to be considered in geometric design are:
 Horizontal Alignment,
 Vertical Alignment
 The cross-section elements (including noise barriers),
 Highway grades, and
 Layout of intersections

6.2.3.1. HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT DESIGN

The following elements must be determined in the course of the geometric design of
horizontal road alignment:

 Minimum curve radius,

 Minimum length of tangent between compound or reverse curves,
 Transition curve parameters
 Minimum passing sight distance and stopping sight distance on horizontal curves
where present.

Sight distances
▪ Stopping sight distance

▪ Meeting sight distance

▪ Passing sight distance

6.2.3.2. VERTICAL ALIGNMENT DESIGN

The vertical alignment of a road consists of straight sections known as grades, or tangents,
connected by vertical curves, where present. The design of the vertical alignment therefore
involves the selection of suitable grades for tangent sections and the design of the vertical
curves. The vertical alignment of a road has a strong influence upon the construction cost, the
operating cost of vehicles, and in combination with horizontal alignment also on the safety of
drivers and road users in general. Thus it should be designed to the highest standard
consistent with the topography and economy. We tried to make sure it met aesthetic
requirements as well.
6.3. DESIGN OF ROAD CROSS-SECTION
Cross section elements are those elements of the highway which form its effective width and
which affect vehicle movement. The principal elements are the:
o Width of traffic lanes

This is primarily affected by the width of vehicles that use the road, subsequently
affected by the traffic mix.ie. the type and distribution of cars using the road.
o Camber of the carriageway,

The slope of the lanes away from the centre line. This is governed by set standards
determined by the GHA. Generally a maximum gradient is set that must not be
exceeded for a given purpose.
o Shoulders

Serve as stopping areas for cars. Also loosely affected by the vehicle mix.
o Medians (central reservation).
The raised portion in the middle of the road. We have determined that one is not
necessary for the hospital roads.

6.3.1. GEOTECHNICAL SURVEY AND TESTS

Soil materials and foundation investigations

Soil samples are taken from different trial pits, at different depths, to test and determine the
suitability of the subgrade to support the load from the administration block and that from the
road itself.

During the soil investigation, tests are performed to determine the various essential
properties of the soil. The main ones conducted were the particle size distribution, Atterberg
limits, compaction test and the Carlifornia Bearing Ratio(CBR) test.
Other soil parameters determined which are relevant to the engineering of the projects are the
specific gravity test among others.
Subgrade and pavement layer investigation

Subgrade Engineering Properties:

This is the underlying soil upon which the road layers are built. It may be either the natural
soil or soil imported to form an embankment. The soil, if deemed unsuitable, may be
improved through stabilisation. The main engineering property required for the subgrade is
its RESILIENT MODULUS, which gives the resilient characteristic of the soil when it is
repeatedly loaded with an axial load. This is determined in the laboratory by loading specially
prepared samples of the soil with a deviator stress of fixed magnitude, frequency, and load
duration while the specimen is triaxially loaded in a triaxial chamber. To facilitate the use of
the more direct CBR, the Asphalt
Institute has determined conversion factors:
Mr (MPa) = 10.342 CBR; where Mr is the equivalent resilient modulus

6.4. PAVEMENT DESIGN

6.4.1. ELEMENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

6.4.1.1. Determination and computation of traffic loadings

Traffic volumes and characteristics

private cars 1927

pickup/van/4wd 962
small bus 135
edium bus/mw 12
large bus 12
light truck 35
medium truck 3
heavy truck 0
truck trailer 0
Others 4
total 12 hr. volume 3090
 private cars 2161
pickup/van/4wd 965
small bus 100
medium bus/mw 27
large bus 9
light truck 13
medium truck 5
heavy truck 1
truck trailer 0
Others 0
TOTAL 3281

Calculations Design ESAL

Using the average of the traffic count conducted at similar facility and using a design period
of 15year and 2.5% growth.

The design traffic volume, TDY = [

( 1+r )n −1
r ]
∗Ty

Ty=3281, r=0.025 and n=20

TDy = 58835

The asphalt institute recommend a TF of 0.06

ESAL= TDY xTF

=3530

Based on other considerations, we resort to use 25mm thick double bituminous slurry seal

6.4.2. ACTUAL PAVEMENT DESIGN

We have determined from our soil tests that the soil material is suitable to be used as subgrade
material. As such the only excavation needed would be that of the topsoil.

In the design of our pavement, we employed the AASHTO Structural Design Approach. The steps
we followed are outlined below.

6.4.2.1. AASHTO FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The following assumptions are followed to get the design we require:
  The characterization of subgrade support may be extended to other subgrade soils
by an abstract soil support scale.
 Loading can be applied to mixed traffic by use of ESALs.
 Material characterizations may be applied to other surfaces, bases, and subbases
by assigning appropriate layer coefficients.
 The accelerated testing done at the AASHTO Road Test (2-year period) can be
extended to a longer design period.

INPUTS
 Pavement structure: The pavement structure is characterized by the Structural Number
(SN). The Structural Number is an abstract number expressing the structural strength
of a pavement required for g given combinations of soil support (MR), total traffic
expressed in ESALs, terminal serviceability and environment.

 Reliability: The reliability of the pavement design-performance process is the

probability that a pavement section designed using the process will perform
satisfactorily over the traffic and environmental conditions for the design period
(AASHTO, 1993)

 Serviceable life: The difference in present serviceability index, PSI, between

construction and end-of-life (terminal serviceability).

 Subgrade support: Subgrade support is characterized by the subgrade’s resilient

modulos (MR). Intuitively, the amount of structural support offered by the subgrade
should be a large factor in determining the required pavement structure.

 The predicted loading: The predicted loading is simply the predicted number of 80kN
(18000 lb.) ESALs that the pavement will experience over its design lifetime.
6.4.3. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Esal Computation.

TYPE OF VEHICLE NUMBER DURING NUMBER DURING

WEEKENDS WEEKDAYS
Private cars 1927 2161
Pickup/van/4 wheel drives 965 968
Small bus 135 100
Medium bus/mw 12 27
Large bus 12 9
Total 3051 3266

Grand Total= 6317 vehicles

Truck factor=0.6

ESAL=6317x0.6x52

=197091 vehicles/year

=540 vehicles/day

Surface Course
From the AASHTO design chart, considering minimum range 75mm – 150mm

Use HDM= 75 mm for surfacing

Road Base
There is the need for a subbase course in addition to the subgrade, base and surface course.
Crushed stone or other granular material may be used for the subbase course. The base course
is constructed directly above this layer. Otherwise, it is built directly on top of the subgrade,
but that will not be needed here. Typical base course thickness ranges from 4-6 inches and is
governed by underlying properties.
AASHTO T-11

MDD=98%

ACV = 28

Thickness of 200mm is selected

Water absorption should not exceed 2% according to AASHTO T-85

6.5. ROAD MAINTENANCE

Pavement maintenance involves the process of preserving, repairing and restoring a
system of roadways and its elements to its designed or accepted configuration. The
engineer must spend his time in maintenance management which in very simple terms
aims

“to get the right people, materials and equipment, to the right place on the road
network, to carry out the right remedial or preventative work at the right time.”

CLASSIFICATION OF ROAD MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES TO BE CARRIED ON THE ROAD

PAVEMENT.

6.5.1. ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

These are activities that will be carried out frequently, i.e. once or more per year. They are
typically small scale, or simple and often widely dispersed (e.g. vegetation control, desilting
of drains, pothole patching.

6.5.2. PERIODIC MAINTENANCE

These are activities that will be required occasionally, i.e. after a period of some years.
Usually large scale and require more equipment and skilled labor.(they include surfacing
works)

6.5.3. URGENT MAINTENANCE

Hopefully there will be no need for this, since it is only required for unexpected sudden
occurences such as earthquakes and floods.
6.6. ROAD DEFECTS
Some of the road defects likely to occur in the road pavements are listed below and their
remedies are stated.

 PATCHING: Patching is the remedy and this involves squaring of a rectangular area
encompassing the sides of the hole, removal of all loose material, priming and
backfilling with premix dense asphalt.
 CRACKING: A bituminous surface will crack for a variety of reasons, the pattern of
cracking if observe at the onset might provide a clue to the cause. Could be due to
poor surfacing material (excessive fines) or excessive pavement deflection under
loading. In the former case the original cause has to be corrected first. Cracks can be
sealed with bitumen or bituminous slurry. The sealant must have such viscosity that it
can be poured into the cracks. Usually an overlay is required over filled cracks when
they are extensive.
 POTHOLES: When potholes are not accompanied by distortions of the adjacent
surface, it means they result from a cracked bituminous pavement which has allowed
moisture in to soften the pavement. The surface subsequently disintegrates and lift’s
off under the action of traffic, particularly after rain.
 SHOVING/SLIPPAGE: This is the horizontal transverse displacement of surfacing
material, mainly in the direction of traffic. It occurs at locations where vehicles
generate high shearing stresses when accelerating or braking (e.g at intersections and
on hills). Under these conditions the shear stress developed by traffic between two
contiguous layers is greater than the shear or bond strength holding them together.
Repair work usually involves removing the faulty material down to a firm base, and
replacing it with hot-mix patch that is well bound to the underlying material.
 BLEEDING: Also known as flushing, it is cause by a concentration of excess binder,
sometimes in longitudinal spots at the surface of the pavement. Usually found in wheel
tracks during hot weather, it may be due to too much binder content in wearing course,
increased compaction under traffic, too much binder in maintenance patches, upward
migration of binder from lower layers, or binder in wearing course being too soft. It
creates slipperiness. Slight to moderate bleeding is controlled by blotting with sand or
coarse aggregate. Large areas will require overlays to return the surface to desired
condition
 6.7. COSTING

Bill of Quantities

Item Code Unit Quantity Rate(Ghc Amount(GHc)

)
Provide cement and the hydraulically bound pavement, R136 m2 400
cement granular mixture, depth 200mm from 0+000m to
0+040m
Provide cement and the hydraulically bound pavement, R136 m2 400
cement granular mixture, depth 200mm from 0+040m to
0+080m
Provide bituminous bound pavement ; Hot, rolled asphalt R453 m2 400
surface course and binder course, depth 75mm for
0+000m to 0+040m
Provide bituminous bound pavement ; Hot, rolled asphalt R453 m2 400
surface course and binder course, depth 75mm for
0+040m to 0+080m
Fill to embankment with an excavated material other than E624 m3 344
topsoil
Excavation for cutting of material other than topsoil, rock E225.1 m3 218
or artificial hard material, max depth 2m-5m
Excavation for cutting of material other than topsoil, rock E225.2 m3 526
or artificial hard material, max depth 2m-5m
7. MANAGEMENT OF WASTE
The term waste management refers to all those activities and action required to manage waste
from its inception to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things, collection,
transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and regulation. It also
encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste management
encompassing guidance on recycling and so on. The term usually relates to all kinds of
waste , whether generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw
materials into the intermediate and final products or other human activities including
municipal, agricultural and special (health care, household hazardous waste, sewage sludge).
Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on health and the
environment. Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (developed and
developing nations); regions (urban and rural area) and sectors (residential and industrial).
These wastes (liquid, solid or semisolid materials) arising from human and animal activities
are useless, unwanted, or hazardous. The designed system also is to be economically feasible
and environmentally friendly. The waste management system is basically made up of two
aspects;

 Solid waste management.

 Liquid waste management.

7.1. GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE WASTE MANAGEMENT PROCESS

The basic components in the management of waste are shown in Figure 1. In order for the
new teaching hospital to effectively manage its waste, it must have the enthusiastic support of
its Head. Through his/her assignment of management responsibilities, accountability and
reporting can easily be established. Such a management system will strongly encourage or
boost improvements in waste management. Hence the unit responsible for waste
management and the Heads of the newly built teaching hospital must collaborate actively to
ensure adequate collection and disposal of the wastes in the hospital.
 Source of Radioactive waste
General waste to Radiation
(domestic ) waste
Protection Board

Recycling of Segregation  Storage (internal and external)

of other  Packaging/l abelling
selected wastes
wastes  Transport

Treatment
 On -site incineration
 Open air burning
 Chemical disinfection
 Autoclaving
 Sterilisation

Final Disposal
 Municipal landfill
 Off - site incineration
 Sewage treatment facility or
soakaway

Figure 1. Outline of the Waste Management Process

7.2. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE

Solid Waste Management can be well-defined as the discipline associated with the control of
generation, storage , collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal of solid wastes
in a manner that is in accord with the best principled of public health, economics,
engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental considerations and that is also
responsive to public attitudes. Solid waste is referred to as all waste arising from human and
animal activities that are normally solid and that are discarded as useless or unwanted.
Sources of solid waste in a community are generally related to land use and zoning. It is
comprised of domestic, commercial, institutional, construction and demolition solid waste
and hospital or clinical solid waste.

Liquid waste management is a systematic administration of activities that provide for the
proper handling, treatment and disposal of liquid waste/wastewater or sewage. Liquid waste
can also be defined as any waste emanating from the activities of both human and animal that
are normally liquid and that are discarded as useless or unwanted. Liquid waste management
therefore can be described as the process associated with the collection, treatment and
disposal and re-use of liquid waste.
Hospital waste also known as health care waste refers to any untreated solid and liquid waste
generated during the administration of medical care, veterinary care or the performance of
medical research involving humans and animals. These include infectious, pathological
radioactive and pharmaceutical wastes.
Generally, between 75-90% of the waste produced by health-care providers is non-risk or
“general” health-care waste, comparable to domestic waste. The remaining 10-25% of health
care waste is regarded as hazardous. The terms of reference identify two broad categories of
the health care waste namely:
▪ Domestic waste which refers to the general or non-hazardous waste not contaminated
with blood, body fluids, or other harmful agents or materials such as paper, fabrics,
glass, food residues and containers.
▪ Medical wastes are considered as any discarded biologic product such as blood or
tissue removed from operating rooms, morgues, laboratories and or other medical
facilities. The term may also be applied to bedding, bandages, syringes and similar
materials that have been used in treating patients

7.3. HOSPITAL UNITS

The departments or units found in a typical hospital include the following:
 Acute assessment unit.
 Burn center.
 Central sterile services department.
 Coronary care unit.
 Emergency department.
 Intensive-care unit.
 Medical records department.
 Neonatal intensive care unit.
 Pediatric intensive unit.
 Hospital pharmacy.
 Physical therapy.
 Post-anesthesia care unit.
 Psychiatric hospital.
 Release of information department.
 Hospital warehouse.
7.4. CLASSIFICATION OF HEALTH CARE WASTE
7.4.1. GENERAL/NORMAL WASTE
This type of hospital waste is similar to domestic waste. It is not harmful except for the fact
that it is produced within the hospital environment and therefore requires special handling. It
includes sweeping from lawns, corridors, offices, kitchen workshop, stores etc.
• Examples include: Paper, cardboard, plastic materials including those from points of
generation, kitchen waste, ash, saw dust, pieces of wood etc.

7.4.2. INFECTIOUS WASTE

This refers to waste generated by both inpatients/out-patients or animals which is known or
likely to contain pathogenic micro-organisms. It includes materials that can be dangerous or
infectious to patients, health care workers and the public. It therefore requires special
management both inside and outside the hospital until it is finally disposed of. This may
further be classified under the following sub classification:
 SHARPS
These are sharp-edged wastes stained or contaminated with blood or body fluids from
injection rooms, surgical equipment and so on.
 PATIENT OR ANIMAL WASTE
These are wastes generated from in or out-patient activities and may be contaminated
or stained with blood or body fluids from surgical operations, injection room (other
than sharps) etc.
 CULTURE/SPECIMEN
Clinical specimen, laboratory culture and human tissue.

7.4.3. PATHOLOGICAL/ORGANIC HUMAN/ANIMAL TISSUE

This type of waste includes amputations and other body tissues resulting from surgical
operations, autopsy (post- mortern), birth and requires special treatment for ethical and
aesthetic reasons.

7.4.4. HAZARDOUS WASTE

This type of waste from the hospital consists of physical and chemical characteristics similar
to industrial hazardous waste and therefore require special management.

 PHARMACEUTICAL WASTE
These are wastes generated from the pharmacy
 PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMICAL WASTE
Any waste material (solid or liquid) produced from image processing at the radiology
department.
 RADIOACTIVE WASTE
Any solid, liquid, or pathological waste contaminated with radioactive isotopes of any
kind.
  LABORATORY WASTE
This is basically made up of spent chemicals from research and analytical
laboratories, and pharmaceutical companies.
 Acids
 Alkalis
 Solvents
 Organic substances
 Heavy metals

7.4.5. INCINERATOR ASH AND SLUDGE

This is the waste generated from the combustion of hospital waste which will have to be
disposed of in a landfill site.

7.5. FINDINGS FROM SITE

A trip to the site introduced us to a number of findings including an existing toilet facility and
rubbish (polythene bags) on the site. Upon consulting the foreman of the site, we were made
aware of a stream out of site. The fore man also made it clear about them putting up a waste
treatment plant for the phase one project which I have considered in my design.
The site is covered with vegetation. The soil is reddish brown in colour. It is typically rocky
in some areas but sandy in other areas. The terrain also slopes towards the North-Western
direction and is surging from the North-Western to the South-Western part of the site.

7.5.1. EXISTING SITUATION

With the prevailing condition on site, part of the site presently serves as a small-scale farm
and is owned by the inhabitants of the area. Such crops as plantain, cabbages, and tomatoes,
maize are the major crops found, among vegetables. These farms serve as the main source of
revenue for some of the owners. The remaining portion of the land includes natural
vegetation of trees, shrubs and herb species. The area is yet to be developed to a level by the
instigation of this project.
The existing situation at the area of study also includes the following:

 Phase 1 section of the project which is under construction.

 Natural vegetation and farmlands with few footpaths which the farmers use to gain
access to their farms on the site.
 The soil type at the site is of reddish brown colour and sandy.
 An existing and abandoned toilet facility.
 A stream known as the Boko stream was located near the site.
7.6. DESIGN APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
7.6.1. DESK STUDY AND REVIEW OF DOCUMENTS
The desk study of solid and liquid waste management will be a descriptive one in a number
of selected hospitals currently operating. Thus, the Komfo Anokye teaching hospital and the
KNUST hospital. The site topography was studied thoroughly to know the areas that are of
use. A visit was made to KMA waste management office to obtain the needed standards for
the various designs. The desk study also includes the following:
 Interpretation of data obtained and assessment.
 Consideration of various options.
 Selection of appropriate technology.

7.6.2. DESIGN CRITERIA

The design criteria include the following:
a. Review of the solid waste system.
b. Proposed improved sanitation options to prevent any impact on the community
inhabitants.
c. Proposed and designed appropriate solid waste (domestic or medical) management
system (collection, treatment and disposal).
d. Review of the sanitation system in the environs of the hospital.
e. Provided bill of quantities and cost estimates.

7.6.3. DESIGN STANDARDS

The management system adopted will be in accordance with the design standards of:
 Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA).
 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
 World Health Organization (WHO).

The design standards include the following as well:

a. Minimum velocity flow of 0.90m/s
b. Maximum velocity of flow must be equal to or less than 3.0m/s.
c. Minimum slope for construction is 0.0008m/m.
d. Manholes.
e. Pipe materials.
f. Pipe sizes.

7.6.4. METHODOLOGY
a. Visit the solid and liquid waste management department of Kumasi Metropolitan
assembly (KMA) and also the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to gather
 relevant information about how waste is generated, stored, collected, transferred,
disposed and treated.
b. Visit hospitals in town like the Komfo Anokye teaching hospital and the KNUST
hospital to find out about their waste management systems, the kinds of solid and
liquid waste generated, their generation rates and volumes and analyse them. These
shall be used as proxies for the design of our waste management system.
c. Project the possible volumes of solid and liquid waste that will be generated in the
health facility to be constructed to help in the system design.
d. Analyse the cost of all possible waste management and maintenance systems.
e. Visit KMA and EPA to find out about how waste from the area is being manipulated
in order to know whether it would be feasible to hold that management system or
propose an improved one.
The four principal elements of any solid waste management system are the waste
storage, collection, transport and disposal systems. The efficiency and effectiveness of
a collection system are primarily determined by the equipment for waste transport,
they are nonetheless intimately related to the methods of waste storage and collection
adopted. The consultants therefore will make their analysis based on the four main
elements of waste management afore mentioned. The methodology for the completion
of the project has being outlined in the next chapter. The collection, handling and
disposal of domestic solid waste shall be done in accordance with the Kumasi
Municipal Assembly (KMA) method for solid waste disposal. Refuse collection
points to be located in such a way as to avoid odour invasion into the Nursing and
Treatment facilities. Appropriate facilities should be designed for the medical solid
waste. The solid waste from phases I and II as well as general public who will attend
to the hospital has to be estimated and facilities for managing the waste provided.
The wastewater from phases I and II as well as from the general public who will
attend to the hospital has to be estimated, collected and treated. The wastewater to be
generated at the proposed hospital has to be considered in two categories: domestic
and medical.
Domestic sewage would be collected from the inspection chambers at each facility
and transported through adequately sized sewers to a central sewage treatment plant.
An appropriate sewage treatment system should be designed to handle and treat all
domestic waste and the effluent discharged into the nearest natural water body in
accordance with the EPA guidelines for effluent discharge into natural water bodies.
The medical waste, to be generated from the operations of the various units of the
proposed hospital shall be disposed of in accordance with approved methods for
handling such wastes. However, where feasible and appropriate, the medical waste
shall be connected to the domestic sewers and treated at the treatment plant for
domestic waste.
7.7. ENGINEERING STUDIES AND DESIGN
7.7.1. ENGINEERING STUDIES
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste
materials from its generation site to its final disposal site. Disposal of waste in the Teaching
hospital will include the following:

 Waste generation and minimization.

 Waste segregation and removal.
 Waste storage
 Waste collection and transportation.
 Waste disposal
 Waste treatment.

7.7.2. DESIGN STANDARDS AND CRITERIA

The design of the solid waste system was based on the standards of:
o Environmental Protection Agency.
o Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly Waste Management Guidelines.

7.7.3. DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The figure below describes the methodology process for the design of the solid waste
management system in the new teaching hospital.
per capita
waste
generation
waste

population waste volume

projection generated

design criteria

sizing of
containers and
skips

Figure 2 Methodology Process

7.8. WASTE GENERATION
For effective planning and derivation of unit generation values, the following hospital
parameters need to be considered:
• Number of hospital beds.
• Number of in-patients and out-patients.
• Range of services provided.
• Any other activity that leads to the generation of health care waste

7.8.1. POPULATION PROJECTIONS

The waste generation rate will be affected by the projected population which will in effect
lead to the problem of waste management. The density of solid waste generated in either
Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital or KNUST Hospital will be used in the design of the solid
waste management facilities. This will also be used in determining the per capita waste
generation rate taking into account the types, volumes and generation points in the hospital.

 OUT-PATIENT DEPARTMENT (OPD)

From Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital (KATH), the number of beds as answered from our
questions to the waste management department is 1260 with an out-patient department of
1500 people per day. The new teaching hospital has a total number of 800 beds and a
percentage of fifty percent (50%) of the in-patient department (800) will be calculated as the
number for the out-patient department. This gives a total of four hundred (400) as our
assumed out-patients.

 VISITORS
The visitors have been considered to be a total of one hundred and forty-eight (148) as shown
in the appendix chapter.

 STAFF WORKERS
From the terms of reference, it is assumed that there will be one staff for every four patients.
Therefore taking the total number of in-patients and dividing by the four, the total number of
staff workers is then calculated as three hundred (300) as shown in the appendix chapter.

 OTHER EMPLOYERS
The other employers have been assumed to be a total of one hundred and sixty (160) as
shown in the appendix chapter.

 FAMILY AND RESIDENTIAL ACCOMMODATION

From the terms of reference, the staff residential accommodation comprises mainly blocks of
flats and bungalows as follows:
 30 No. 2-bedroom flats arranged in a total of 5 No. blocks. Each block is three storey
high with a total of six no. 2-bedroom flats (two flats per floor).
 12 No 2-bedroom type bungalows.
 4 No. 3-bedroom type bungalows.
This makes a total of ninety-two (92) rooms and forty-six (46) flats with a population of one
hundred and eighty-four (184). Hence the estimated total population is thousand nine hundred
and ninety (1990) which will be used in calculating the design population to be used in the
design of the waste units as calculated in the appendix chapter.

7.8.2. DESIGN LIFE

The design life for the solid waste management system is 15years since the optimum design
period is between five (5) and twenty (20) and must not exceed 20 years. The average
population growth rate is 2.7% per annum as according to the population growth rate from
the Demographic Statistics of Ghana. These were both factored into the design calculation of
the population estimation were factored in the determination of design life.

7.8.3. POPULATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The entire teaching hospital will have an estimated overall population of 2572 with an
average population growth rate of 2.9% per annum. Assuming a constant growth rate and a
20 year design period, the maximum possible population in the entire teaching hospital is
calculated as 4645 as shown in the appendix chapter.

7.8.4. WASTE GENERATION RATE FOR NEW TEACHING HOSPITAL

Per answers received from questions asked at KATH and KMA, the waste generation rate is
0.96 per capita per day for domestic and 0.62 per capita per day for medical. The density is
between 350 and 400 kg/m³ but 400 kg/m³ was considered to design for the worst case
possible.
From calculations it was estimated that the waste generation rate is 0.59 per capita per day for
domestic and 0.39 per capita per day for medical making a total generation rate of 0.98 per
capita per day as shown in the appendix chapter.

7.8.5. AMOUNT OF WASTE

The amount of waste for hospital was estimated to be approximately two thousand six
hundred and forty kilograms (2640kg) and that of the residential waste to be approximately
two hundred and sixty-nine kilograms (269kg) making a total of two thousand nine hundred
and ten kilograms (2910kg) as shown in the appendix chapter.

VOLUME OF WASTE
The volume of waste for the hospital is estimated to be 4.135m³ and that for the residential is
0.5m³ in total of 4.635m³.

7.8.6. WASTE SEGREGATION AND PACKAGING

There are differences in management methods of the various waste generated within facilities
and offices of the new teaching hospital. There is therefore the need to isolate infectious and
hazardous waste from others at the point of generation. The key to minimization and
effective management of the hospital waste is identification and segregation of the waste.
Appropriate handling, treatment and disposal of waste by type reduces costs and does much
to protect public health at large
 Segregation will always be the responsibility of the waste producer. It will take place as
close as possible to where the waste is generated and maintained in storage areas and during
transport. For a successful operation of waste segregation, the workers need to be well
educated on the definition and classification of hospital waste. The staff must also be aware
of the rational for segregation as well as colour codes for containers and bags used for
different types of wastes.
Colour coding of waste containers and plastic bags is one of the efficient ways of achieving
segregation of waste and for sorting out hospital waste.
The suggested colour coding scheme is as follows:
 Black; for general waste (e.g. kitchen waste, paper, cardboard, sweeping and so on).
 Yellow; for infectious waste (e.g. sharps, patient waste, human/animal tissue and
cultures/specimens).
 Brown; for hazardous waste (e.g. expired drugs, vaccines, chemicals and so on).

In broad terms, the waste (hospital waste) should be disposed in appropriately labelled and
color-coded containers according to the recommendations provided in Table 2 above. This is
also in accordance with the EPA standards. These containers must be strong and resistant to
corrosion. After use they must be hermetically sealed to prevent spilling during handling and
transportation.

7.9. WASTE STORAGE

Storage is the time interval between the productions of the waste until collection for final
disposal and is categorized into:
 Internal Storage.
 External Storage.
Consideration for storage must be based on the classification of waste being dealt with and
the potential risk of infection to staff workers especially the waste disposal staff. Labels on
containers should be permanent and legible for the entire storage period.

7.9.1. INTERNAL STORAGE

Internal storage is the temporary placement of waste at the point of generation before transfer
to external storage points and should not exceed twenty-four (24) hours. Its considerations
will be based on the classification of waste being dealt with and the potential risk of infection
to staff members especially the waste disposal staff. To ensure safe management at the points
of generation the following measures will be taken note of:
 Reduction in storage time as much as possible. Multiple daily removal of the waste is
recommended.
 Every site within the new teaching hospital such as the ward, theatre, laboratory
pharmacy, laundry and so one) must be provided with adequate number of appropriate
waste containers.
  Polythene bags must be placed in rigid containers with the opening folding outward
over the rim to curb the rate of contamination in the new teaching hospital. The top of
the container will be wider in dimension than the base.
 Disposable polythene bags must be of suitable sizes.
 Filled bags must be closed off using a plastic strip which when fastened cannot be
reopened.
 Sharps must be stored in puncture-resistant containers made of thick cardboard,
plywood or strong plastic/metal.
 Sharps must not be manipulated (breaking, bending) before disposal and shall not be
recapped before discarding since this is a common cause of puncture injury.
 Puncture resistant containers must be placed as close as possible to the area where
sharp items are used.
 Infectious and hazardous waste must be segregated at the point of origin rather than at
the transfer or external storage site to ease in appropriate packaging, colour coding
and transportation.
 Storage bins will be placed in roofed built-in areas protected from water, rain, wind,
animals and pests such as rodents, cockroaches and scavengers.
 Access to storage area must be securely locked when unattended.
 Storage areas shall have sufficient space to afford easy access for removal of waste.
 Transfer of waste bags or bins from internal to external storage must be done with
care to prevent rupturing or opening of bags which can pollute the environment.
 Vehicles (carts etc.) used for transporting waste from internal to external storage sites
shall be made of a smooth surface material (e.g. plastic) for easy cleansing and
disinfection.

7.9.1.1. ESTIMATION OF CAPACITY OF STORAGE.

Total volume of waste generated = (4.635*1000) litres/day for a hospital

= 4635 litres per day

Using the standard bin types with 240 litres.
4635 litres
=154.5 Bins, thus 155 in number of the standard 60 litre bins.
30 litres

4635 litres
=¿ 19.31 Bins, approximately 19 in number of the standard 240 litre bins with wheels.
240 litres

For the staff residential houses, 23 bins in number of the standard 120 litre bins. Thus, one (1) 120
litre bin per flat.
For the administration, 3 bins in number of the standard 120 litre bins. Thus, one (1) 120 litre bin per
storey.
The simplified table and drawings showing the distribution of the bins is carefully structured in the
appendix chapter and on the site layout.
7.9.2. EXTERNAL STORAGE
External storage can be described as the period and transit point where waste is stored after
removal from internal storage to the time it is collected and transported for treatment and
final disposal. The external storage will be typically positioned within the new teaching
hospital whiles treatment and disposal sites will either be on-site or outside the hospital. The
regularity of removal of waste that will be stored depends on the volume and nature of waste
generated. To ensure the safe disposal of waste the following measures are considered:
 Amenities for external storage will not be placed in wards and so on but within the
confines of the new teaching hospital and will be easily available to collection
vehicles.
 The facility will be fenced and bounded by an impervious wall of suitable height and
provided with a gate and lock.
 The walls and floors will be smooth, without cracks, impervious, easy to clean and
disinfect.
 Site will be large enough and well ventilated to prevent odour or bad smell in the
teaching hospital and surroundings.
 All loading and unloading of waste will take place within the designated collection
area around the storage point.
 Larger volume waste bins – 240 litres – will be available at the external storage
facility to receive waste containers from the internal storage points. These bins shall
be marked for ease of identification of content and the markings must correspond with
the colour code used for polythene bags in internal storage.
 The waste will not be compressed during collection.
 Waste bins will be washed and disinfected on regular basis
 Waste water from the storage area will be drained into septic tanks and soakaways
and must not be allowed to drain off into storm water drainage or streams.
 Adequate spill kit and protective clothing such as disposable gloves, overall, nose
mask and so on must be provided at the storage sites. The kit will include absorbent
materials, disinfectant, buckets, shovels and so on for staff to clean up any spills and
must be easily accessible.
 Provision will be made for washroom facilities in the teaching hospital for those who
handle these wastes such as basins, shower, water and soap/detergents and so on.

7.9.2.1. STORAGE OPTIONS

The type of skips available are:
 10 cubic metre skip.
 12 cubic metre skip.
 14 cubic metre skip.
 23 cubic metre skip.
Per the volume of waste generated in the hospital and residential homes, the size of skip
considered for the hospital design is a ten cube metre skip container (10m³) as shown below.
Total volume of waste generated = 4635 litres per day
 4635
= m³ per day
1000
= 4.635 m³ per day, hence a 10 m³ skip container
will be suitable.

7.10. WASTE COLLECTION

Two types of vehicles are being considered for collection process. Thus one for primary
collection and another for secondary collection. Selection of collection vehicles is based on:
 Haul distance.
 Road width and condition.
 Traffic density.
 Total quantity of waste.

7.10.1. PROPOSED WASTE DISPOSAL VEHICLES

 Skip loaders.
 Truck Mounted Rear-Loading Container-Handling Vehicle.
The skip loader is the vehicle that lifts the skips into a vehicle for disposal.
The truck mounted rear-loading container-handling vehicle is used to pick the skip from the
waste site to the landfill site at Dompoase. The provision of one truck mounted rear-loading
container-handling vehicle will be effectively enough to thoroughly deal with the collection
of the skips to the final disposal site at Dompoase with the help of the Zoomlion company of
Ghana. The pickup schedule is such that the truck deposits an empty skip to replace the one
filled up before sending to the landfill site. Hence the need for an extra 10 m³ for the
replacement exercise.
At the secondary point of collection, a skip loader will be used to haul. This type of vehicle
will be most suitable since a skip container is used as the secondary storage of the waste
generated in the new teaching hospital. The frequency and collection of waste from the new
teaching hospital to the skips and further on to the disposal site will be done on a daily
regular basis schedule.

7.10.2. REQUIREMENTS FOR WASTE COLLECTION CONTAINERS

Containers for waste collection requirements for design includes the following:
 Non-transparent.
 Impervious to moisture.
 Sufficient strength to prevent easy damage during handling or use.
 Leak resistant.
 Close fitted lids.
 Fitted with handles for easy manipulation.
 Light weight and convenient.
 Designed to minimize physical contact.
7.11. WASTE TRANSFER AND TRANSPORTATION
Transfers and Transport refers to the means, facilities and accessories used in the transfer of
wastes from relatively small vehicles and to transport them over extended distances to either
processing centres or disposal sites. The waste will be sorted on site before collection and
transportation. The process will be simplified by adopting a colour code for the various
containers. This will hopefully bring about easy identification of content of containers which
helps in the prevention of careless handling and the risk of minor infection. Collection and
transportation of waste from hospital and residential homes must merge into the general
waste management plan of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly (KMA).
The waste transportation must also satisfy the following conditions:
▪ The needed care will be taken to prevent odour nuisance to the surrounding areas
during transportation.
▪ Where infectious wastes and other wastes have been mixed together, they will be
considered infectious and managed as such.
▪ The waste will be transported straight to the disposal or treatment site within the
shortest possible time.
▪ Vehicles that are going to be used for transportation of the waste will be constructed
in such a way to prevent the scattering of packaged wastes, odour nuisance and must be
leak proof.
▪ The waste materials will not be subjected to any other treatment that could cause bags
or containers to rapture.
▪ All vehicles that will be used for the transportation of the waste materials will carry
the bio-hazard mark on all sides of it.
▪ The labels will be firmly attached to the containers so that they do not become
disconnected during transportation and handling.

7.12. WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL SYSTEM

For treatment and controlled the disposal of waste is essential to ensure that its effect on the
staff workers, waste collectors, the public and the environment at large is reduced. Proper
treatment of solid waste also ensures that harmful properties of these materials are eradicated
and the risk of contamination and infection curtailed. The treatment and disposal will be
monitored and documented for future reference.
The best disposal means for treated the waste will be the controlled disposal at a proper
sanitary landfill and burial in cemeteries or crematorium.
Controlled disposal of waste will ease the risk of contamination of the surroundings.
7.12.1. TREATMENT ALTERNATIVE.
The treatment and disposal options taken into consideration are:
▪ Incineration.
▪ Dry Heat Sterilization.
▪
▪ High Pressure Steam Disinfection.
▪ Chemical Disinfection.
The recommended treatment and disposal preference that will be considered for the design is
the incineration.

INCINERATION.
Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances
contained in waste materials. It is a high-temperature dry oxidation process that reduces
organic and combustible waste to inorganic, incombustible matter and results in a very
important reduction of waste volume and weight. Incineration requires no pre-treatment and
should be carried out sanitarily, with the whole container (plastic bags) so as to prevent
contagion. The incinerator will be equipped with exhaust and gas treatment units to remove
gases discharged from the chimney so that they do not contaminate the environment. Figure 3
below shows the process flow scheme of a characteristic incinerator.
Incineration equipment will be carefully chosen on the basis of the available resources and
the local situation and of risk-benefit considerations balancing the public health benefits of
pathogen elimination against the potential risks of air or groundwater pollution caused by
inadequate destruction of certain wastes. The technical and spare parts requirements will be
carefully evaluated and will not be undervalued.
Figure 3 : Simplified Flow Scheme of Incinerator
The kind of incineration technology which will be designed for the treatment of the medical
waste is the Double-chamber pyrolytic incinerator; which will be designed to burn infectious
medical waste. The incinerator used must meet the following requirements:
 Temperature at the outlet of the main incinerator will be an average temperature of
12000C.
 Combustion will be complete.
 The combustion process will be automated and exhaust gas quality will meet
Environmental Protection Act (EPA) recommended guideline values.
 It will have an automatically charging closing sluice.

7.12.2. DISPOSAL OPTION.

The safest disposal method for the treated hospital or medical waste is controlled disposal at a
properly engineered sanitary landfill site. Other waste such as human parts may be buried
directly at cemeteries or after incineration. The choice of disposal option will depend
significantly on the availability of space and adequate facilities to ensure the minimization of
risk to public health and the environment.

Controlled Disposal At Sanitary Landfill.

As a minimum requirement treated hospital waste will be disposed of at designated and
engineered sanitary landfill sites. The waste to be disposed of will not be mixed with the
general municipal waste. At the sanitary landfill site, a specially engineered cell will be
designated for the disposal of treated hospital and other hazardous waste in accordance with
the Ghana landfill and EPA guidelines.

Disposal will conform to the basic principles of sanitary landfill operations which includes
the following:
• Chlorinated lime must be poured on the waste immediately it is dumped in the cell.
• Waste must be covered immediately with 30cm thickness of cover material.
• Access to this special cell must be restricted and closely supervised by the responsible
staff to prevent scavenging.
• The location of the cell must be clearly marked on a map of the landfill site and batches
of waste disposed of must be documented for future reference.

The final disposal of the solid waste generated in the hospital and residential houses is at
landfill site at Dompoase. This is the designated site by the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly
(KMA) for the final disposal of all the solid waste generated in the Kumasi Metropolis.
7.13.WASTE MINIMIZATION
Approaches to effective reduction in waste generation include improved management
oversight, tracking, inventory control, and computerized data base tracking systems.
Important measures to be specified includes the following:
▪ Keep individual waste streams segregated
 Keep hazardous waste segregated from non-hazardous waste. All waste
contaminated with a hazardous substance becomes hazardous.
 Keep hazardous chemical wastes segregated from infectious wastes.
 Keep recyclable waste segregated from non-recyclable waste.
 Minimize dilution of hazardous waste.
▪ Ensure that all chemical identities and wastes are clearly marked on all containers.
▪ Centralize procuring and dispensing of drugs and other hazardous chemicals.
▪ Monitor drug and chemical flows within the facility from receipt as raw materials to
disposal as hazardous wastes. This will be fully programmed by the use of computer
systems.
▪ Improve inventory control by:
 Requiring users of chemicals with limited shelf life to use up old stock before
ordering or using new stock.
 Ordering hazardous chemicals only when needed and in minimal quantities to
avoid outdated inventor.
▪ Provide employee training in hazardous materials management and waste
minimization. The major generating departments should have a training program for
all staff who may generate or handle hazardous materials. Training should include:
 Chemical hazards.
 Spill prevention.
 Preventive maintenance.
 Emergency preparedness and response, including spill clean up.
▪ Implement an institution-wide waste reduction programme.
▪ Plastic bins should have covers to prevent the spillage of waste material. If the bins
have lever arms especially on fixed stand bins it should be checked regularly and
tightened if loose. Fixing bins around the compound prevents theft of bins.
▪ The plastic bins should be cleaned periodically.
▪ Skips should be handled properly and carefully by hauling truck drivers to prevent
any damage.
▪ In place of a skip pad the area in concern would be paved to ensure that the soil
underneath the skip containers would not unduly be affected structurally. Moreover it
enhances the aesthetics of the depot during and after rainfall.
▪ The bins should be handled by assigned labourers only.
8. SEWERAGE SYSTEM
Waste water is collected into a system of sewers. Sewers are underground conduits used for
the collection and transportation of sewage. In other words they are used to convey liquid
waste from one point to another. For design of sewerage systems, there are two types,
namely:

 The separate sewer system.

In this system sewage and storm water are transported in separate sewers. Sewage is carried
to treatment plant and storm water and sullage are discharged into nearby watercourse.

 The combined sewer system.

In this system, one set of sewers is used for collecting and conveyance of both the storm
water and sanitary sewage. This has the advantage of being cheaper than the separate system.
The type of sewerage system used in this design is the separate sewer system where sanitary
sewer waste is collected separately from storm water, the sizes of sewers are small and
relatively easier to construct. The sewage load on treatment plant is small. river and stream
water is not polluted and when the sewage needs to be lifted, this system is more economical
as smaller amount of sewage will have to be handled.
Hence the separate sewer system is recommended.

8.1. SEWERS
These are underground pipes, which carry sewage to the point of disposal.
Materials Considered For Use in Pipes

 Cast iron
 Stone ware (clay)
 Plastic (PVC)

8.1.1. REVIEW OF MATERIALS USED IN PIPES

1. Cast Iron
These types of sewers are used when the sewers would be required to withstand high internal pressure
and external loads.

Advantages

 When sewer lines have to be carried in exposed conditions such as those to be carried
over bridges and piers.
 Where high vibration is expected.
 Where there is danger of contamination.
 They withstand heavy corrosive effect of sewage.
Disadvantages

 They are relatively very expensive.

 2. Stone Ware Pipes
These are pipes that are made with clay by grinding, moulding, and burning in a kiln at a very
high temperature.
Advantages

 They are cheap and easily available.

 They are durable and resistance to corrosion.
 They are smooth on the inside and impervious.
 If they are properly laid, they are strong enough to carry external load.
Disadvantages

 They cannot be used when sewage is under pressure.

 They are likely to be destroyed during transportation

3. Plastic (PVC) Pipes

These plastic pipes use for the design of sewage systems, however they are still in
experimental stages. Its use for sewage is not practicable but increasing in the usage of water
supply mains.
Advantages

 Easily transportable.
 Readily available on the market.
 They are easy to work with.
 They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages

 They cannot withstand heat and likely to bend or affect the slope at high temperatures.
 They are fragile.
 They cannot be laid at places where high pressure is expected.

8.1.2. CHOICE OF SEWERS

Factors considered

 Cost.
 Durability.
 Imperviousness.
 Resistance to corrosion.
 Resistance to abrasion.
 Weight.
 Strength.
With the above options stated, the plastic (PVC) pipes should be considered in the design of
the sewer pipeline to convey black water and grey water from each facility to the treatment
systems and over to the disposal site (Boko stream).

8.1.3. MAINTENANCE OF SEWER TRENCHES

Trees and shrubs should not be permitted to grow into trenches.
Once a year, about 2 to 3 pounds of copper sulphate should be flushed from toilet bowls to
destroy tree roots which penetrate pipes.
Any excavation done on site 3 ft or more in depth needs side-wall protection to prevent
caving in.

8.1.4. SEWER NETWORK DESIGN

Sewer network for administration

2 1
1
V = ×R 3 ×S 2
The total waste water/day is 5.75 m³/d. The use of the Manning’s equation n and
2 1 2
A A π×D
Q= ×R 3 ×S 2 R= A=
n Also P 4 , P=π×D with peak factor of 2.
Where:

Q = flow rate (m³/s)

D = diameter of the pipe (m)

S = slope of the pipe

n = roughness coefficient of the pipe

Choosing 100mm Ø P.V.C pipes should be selected for the design of all PVC pipe line coming from
the administration as per our calculations.

For slope determination, the manning formulae is employed

S=
√( 0 . 312× D
Qn
8
3 )
Sewer network for staff residential accommodation
 2 1
1
V = ×R 3 ×S 2
The total waste water/day is 13.536 m³/d. The use of the Manning’s equation n and
2 1 2
A A π×D
Q= ×R 3 ×S 2 R= A=
n Also P 4 , P=π×D with peak factor of 2.
Where:

Q = flow rate (m³/s)

D = diameter of the pipe (m)

S = slope of the pipe

n = roughness coefficient of the pipe

Choosing 100mm Ø P.V.C pipes should be selected for the design of all PVC pipe line coming from
the administration as per our calculations.

For slope determination, the manning formulae is employed

S=
√( 0 . 312× D
Qn
8
3 )

Sewer network for hospital

2 1
1
V = ×R 3 ×S 2
The total waste water/day is 291.2 m³/day The use of the Manning’s equation n and
2 1 2
A A π×D
Q= ×R 3 ×S 2 R= A=
n Also P 4 , P=π×D with peak factor of 2.
Where:

Q = flow rate (m³/s)

D = diameter of the pipe (m)

S = slope of the pipe

n = roughness coefficient of the pipe

Choosing 100mm Ø P.V.C pipes should be selected for the design of all PVC pipe line coming from
the administration as per our calculations.

For slope determination, the manning formulae is employed

S=
√( 0 . 312× D
Qn
8
3 )

8.2. STORM DRAINAGE

8.2.1. DESIGN APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
Provision must be made for protecting the road from surface water or ground water. If water
is allowed to enter the structure of the road, the pavement will be weakened and it will be
much more susceptible to damage by traffic. Water can enter roads as a result of rain
penetrating the surface or as a result of the infiltration of ground water.
All buildings are designed with drains that are channelled towards the major outlets sited
beside the road networks. Grass lands and lawns have minimum water flowing over them due
to infiltration.
The land slopes downwards towards the south. There are two catchment points with a little
heel of land in between Flow in the conduit are due to gravity and conduits are self-cleansing
and covered. Desired velocity of flow within conduits is 1m/s.
Area of the channel and longitudinal slopes are then computed with maximum expected
discharge.
The average rainfall of Kumasi is 124mm monthly

Description Percentage Area (%) Coefficient CA

Roof 17.4 0.9 15.66

Roads 10.6 0.3 3.18

Paved Yards 13.5 0.8 10.8

Grass lands 58.5 0.1 5.85

∑CA = 35.49

1.77× 50 ×20 4.92 3

Q= = m /s = 2.46m3/s
360 2
Velocity (actual) = 2.46/2.57 = 0.957m/s

Slope to achieve velocity

0.957 × 0.014
S=√ = 0.15499
( 0.4165)
=15499/100000 = 1/6.45
 9. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

The environmental impact assessment details the various ways the environment can be
affected by the facility during the construction process and after the construction process.

Studies have indicated that most of the negative impacts will occur during the construction
process while most of the positive impacts occur during the operation phase.

9.1. EIA FOR THE ROAD DESIGN

9.1.1. POSITIVE IMPACT

 The time of travel is greatly reduced.
 Driving conditions are improved.
 There is reduction in vehicle operating cost.
 Conflicts between vehicles and pedestrians are reduced.
 There is reduction in traffic congestion.
 The road becomes safer to use.

9.1.2. NEGATIVE IMPACTS

 During the period of construction, residents nearby suffer from air pollution.
 Noise pollution due to equipment vibration or ongoing work
 Deforestation of tress near the site.
 Nearby streams are polluted due to excavation

9.1.3. MITIGATION MEASURES

 Construction activities will be scheduled to minimize disturbance to the wildlife in the
area.
 Noise control measures will be put in place to avoid disturbing the people in the
community.
 Compensate staff and residents who have farms or agricultural product on the land.

9.2. EIA FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT

This is concern about the effect of the waste management system on the environment, be it good
or bad.
The activities that will be undertaken in the waste management project are given below:
 Septic tank construction.
 Distribution mains installation
 Excavation of drainage trenches
 Laying out of connecting pipes
 Effluent disposal into the subsurface soil. The

Environmental setting prior to the proposed project is such that,

1. Most of the area is covered by vegetation

2. Natural drains carry storm water to their outfalls
3. Minimal dust level in the air.
4. The soils are naturally compact

9.2.1. IMPACT OF THE PROPOSED PROJECT on the environment is outlined below:

 Soil heaps would create conditions such that pools or shallow pits would develop which
could collect water when it rains and thus breed mosquitoes.
 Possible noise from excavating machinery
 Possible employment for people in the surrounding areas 6) Good management of
waste in the community would enhance good health

9.2.2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS MEASURES

 All soil heaps after excavation would be used in filling the trenches. This could ensure
that no soil heaps are left to create nuisance.
 Dust in the atmosphere is only temporal during excavation, but after works, this will
cease. It is required that nose mask should be given to anyone who visits the site.
 Afforestation of trees to replace cut ones

9.3. EIA FOR WATER SUPPLY

The development of civil engineering infrastructures such as a water supply and distribution are
expected to have both direct and indirect impacts on the natural environment.
The potential environmental impacts from the construction of the facilities can be due to the
following;
 9.3.1. AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution arises as a result of the removal of the top soil during site clearance. It affects
both workers on site and residents nearby.

9.3.2. GROUND AND SURFACE WATER CONTAMINATION

Oil spills from operational equipment may leach and contaminate ground water.
Contaminated ground and surface water holds potential health hazards since the contaminated
water is exploited for drinking purposes.

9.3.3. NOISE POLLUTION

Noises which are generated from the drilling of boreholes disturb surrounding offices and
residential areas. The noise produced, also affect the workers on site and lead to hearing
problems.

9.3.4. SOCIAL IMPACTS

The potential social impacts from the construction of the facilities can be due to the
following;

9.3.5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Directly, the infrastructures are expected to provide for the water needs of the 800 bed hospital.
Employment will also be created during the construction and operation phase of the project.
Indirectly, the project is expected to stimulate the participation of private businesses. For example
taxi services to and fro hospital.

9.4. EIA FOR GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS

This includes the effect the project will have on the ground and the underlying layers, including
the flora fauna. The effects of site investigation on them will be studied. Positive and Negative
Impacts

9.4.1. POSITIVE IMPACTS:

 Improvement in the Healthcare sector.
 The project will serve as a source of employment to people in the locality.
 The project will boost the number of Doctors the country produces
9.4.2. NEGATIVE IMPACTS:
 Noise pollution cause by mechanical equipment affects the auditory nerves of workers
and those within the area.
 Air pollution which results from dust particles emitted during the digging of trial pits.
Inhalation of dust can go a long way to cause respiratory diseases.
 Land pollution: Deforestation due to the removal of trees and shrubs during field
explorations. Removal of surface vegetation leads to erosion.
 Destruction of the habitats of living organisms. Also some organisms living in the soil
may lose their lives.
 Water may be retained in dug pits and this serves as a breeding site for harmful
organisms like mosquitoes (vector of malaria) and snakes which pose danger to
humans.

9.4.3. MITIGATION MEASURES

Below are the mitigation measures to be taken during site investigation:

 Temporary drains should be created to direct unwanted water in order to prevent the
retention of water.
 Dug holes should be filled immediately after tests have been carried out.
 Operators of mechanical equipment should put on protective equipment (PPEs) like
safety boots, over coats and ear.

9.4.4. NEGATIVE IMPACTS

 Noise pollution cause by mechanical equipment affects the auditory nerves of workers
and those within the area.
 Air pollution which results from dust particles emitted during the digging of trial pits.
Inhalation of dust can go a long way to cause respiratory diseases.
 Land pollution: Deforestation due to the removal of trees and shrubs during field
explorations. Removal of surface vegetation leads to erosion.
 Destruction of the habitats of living organisms. Also some organisms living in the soil
may lose their lives.
 Water may be retained in dug pits and this serves as a breeding site for harmful
organisms like mosquitoes (vector of malaria) and snakes which pose danger to
humans.
 9.4.5. MITIGATION MEASURES
Below are the mitigation measures to be taken during site investigation:

 Temporary drains should be created to direct unwanted water in order to prevent the
retention of water.
 Dug holes should be filled immediately after tests have been carried out.
 Operators of mechanical equipment should put on protective equipment (PPEs) like
safety boots, over coats and ear.

9.5. PLAN FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MITIGATION MEASURES.

Environmental Management Traditional construction environmental mitigation and management
including awareness building for health and safety at work sites are regarded as significant
adverse environmental impacts mitigation measures. There are obvious advantages to ensuring
construction sites are properly managed and that there is limited off site pollution. These
measures can be very effective in mitigating environmental impacts for sustainable infrastructural
and economic development. The following measures geared towards environmental mitigation
and management is recommended to be implemented during and after construction work to
address the various impacts highlighted above.
9.5.1. AIR POLLUTION MITIGATION
The spraying of water around the areas of the construction site, during construction work must be
done to mitigate the escape of dust particles to the atmosphere.
 9.5.2. WATER CONTAMINATION MITIGATION MEASURE
The development of the landscape and planting of trees and vegetative cover should be carried out
after construction work. This is to avoid oil contaminant into water bodies, a system for the proper
collection and disposal of lubricants at both site and maintenance depot should be maintained.
There should be waste control measures to help minimize littering.

9.5.3. NOISE MITIGATION MEASURE

Mitigation measures are taken to reduce noise pollution. Therefore the following measures are put
in place to check the impact of noise to the surrounding environment
 All machinery and vehicles are to be fitted with appropriate mufflers, and that all mufflers
and acoustic treatments are in good working order
 The use of hearing protection gears by workers when exposed to noise levels above 85
decibels.

9.6. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

Top priority for management of environmental impact on the surroundings due to the project will
be mitigation through day to day review of environmental performance at work sites by
supervisors and at the contractor’s workshops. The major concerns will be in the areas of health
and safety, pollution mitigation and natural resource conservation.
Throughout the period of construction, site inspections will be made to monitor the
effectiveness of environmental protection measures, as well as to check that no unforeseen
adverse effects occur.

9.6.1. REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTRACTOR FACILITIES, PLANT AND OPERATIONS.

Any facilities installed by the Contractor for the purpose of conducting construction works should
meet appropriate standards of responsible environmental management and safety practice. These
include:
  Safe location and protection of fuel facilities, safe storage of hydrocarbons and other
chemicals, re-use/disposal of used oil at approved sites.
 Environmentally sensitive location of temporary construction yard sites and space for
plant and materials storage.
 Noise abatement on construction sites should minimize avoidable inconvenience to
local populations.
 There should be no disposal of non-biodegradable materials on site without the
expressed permission of the Supervising Engineer’s Representative local authorities.
Oil collection traps should be in use in workshop areas.
 Adequate facilities for collection and treatment of wastewater (as required), storage and
legal disposal of general construction waste, solid waste, chemicals etc. Discharge of
dust and fumes should be minimized and there should be no burning of toxic
substances.
 Used oils should be containerized and transported to an approved local agent for safe
disposal or transported with other scrap equipment to an approved facility elsewhere.
 The contractor should remove all construction equipment and scrap waste from his sites
on completion.
 There should be no disposal of material in environmentally sensitive areas, e.g
wetlands, protected vegetation

9.7. HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT

During the construction period there should be efforts made to increase awareness of health and
safety issues and implement appropriate standards of performance. Occupational and
environmental health in and around the contractor’s camps and facilities should be subject to
careful examination. It should be a requirement that the contractors supervising foremen and all
foremen will have basic First Aid training which should be available from hospitals and medical
NGOs. There should also be plans for coping with emergencies. A fully stocked First Aid kit (and
set of emergency numbers) will be available at each worksite and workshop.
Appropriate safety clothes and equipment should be warn at all workshops, yards and
construction sites to conform with national regulations and/or as specified by the Supervising
Engineer’s Representative. This should be made a policy in all contract documents. Protective
equipment includes hard boots and hats, protection for eyes and ear mufflers (when using
pneumatic drills, grinders, etc.). Fire prevention measures should be in place, including the
deployment of adequate functional extinguishers and simple dry sand buckets. All the equipment
mentioned above should be regularly checked for defects and refilled or replaced if necessary.
The project monitoring programme should include inspection of safety equipment use.
Basic hygiene standards should be required at all facilities, including residential and others
such as offices, with approved waste disposal arrangements. Contact with appropriate specialists
to conduct basic training and awareness among workers should be facilitated.