4B.

1 pri nc ipl e of cla ss ific ati on :

( Biodiversity: )
tic differences.
Is a measure of variety of living organisms and their gene

: __)
E_vo_lu_t_io_n_:_
(__ _
abou t adaptation and
Process by which natural selection acts on variation to bring
eventually speciation.
•'

Variation Natur~I Ada ptatjon More _n atura l , rNew speci;,s

....__ _.,, selec tion selec tion

o_
(__ _'TI_a_! _ _m
no _ Y_==__]
s and putting them into groups.
Science of describing, classifying , naming living organism
relation ship.
To accu ratel y identify them and repr esen t their ancestral

Arlstole
Gre ek phil osop her who classified living
orga nism s acco rdin g to Morphology (physical
appe aran ce) looking for analqgous
fea ture s* ( whi ch are feat ~re s tha t
loo k sim ilar or hav e sim ilar
fun ctio n but not from sam. e
biological orig in)
exa mp le wings

Inac cura te way

so used the homotoious structure b

Stru ctur es that genuinely show com mon ance stry
re slm llar Inte rna l one
Exa mp le: wings o( bat and arm s of hum an sha
nt exte rna lly.
stru ctu re eve n tho ugh the y loo k ver y diff ere

126
Dr.Nihal Gabr
 Ma in ta xo no mi c
groups::

Carlwoese
Div ide d living organisms int o
3 main domains

. . .
~
C:rttM~Ifol
Co nta ins Co nta ins fou r kingdoms
on ly on e
Contains
kin gd om
only one
[ Plantae kingdom
Archaebacterta Fungi ]
All heterotrophs. Almost all Eubacterla
Mostly living in
Most are saprophytic autotrophs,
extreme conditions. making Bacteria cause disease,
and some are their own food by
Extremophiles. some are useful In
parasitic. photosyn thesis
Reproduce Chitin in cell wall. digestive systems of
asexually. Ex: ferns, mosses. organisms and In
Reproduce sexually
&asexually. recycling nutrients In the
environment.
Protista
Include true bacteria
&cyanobacterla.
Some are heterotrophs, others Animalla Reproduce asexually
are autotrophs.
Some are animal like , some are All heterotrophs, that move their
plants like and some are fungi whole body body around during
like. at least one stage of their life
Example: amoeba, cycle.
chlamydomonas. These include the invertebrates -
Mainly reproduce asexually. and vertebrates.
Mostly sexual reproduction bu t
some asexually.

Archaeabacteria
Eu bacteria
extreme
conditions
-salty
-hot temperature
foods/ vitamin s/
-methane
nutrients
sing le cell ed
Have different
chem ical
 Th e bin om ial
sy st em Exam hint:
Remember tha t all
was ori gin all y devised by members of the sam e
Th e binomial naming system genus have the same first
d universally. name. Two species wit h
Linnaeus. Wh ich is no w use
lat in names, firs t na me is the the same sec on d name
Th e organism is given tw o do n't belong to the same
s name.
genus, second name is specie genus.
e let ter and the species They ma y be tot ally
Th e genus has an up pe r cas unrelated .
name a low er case let ter . Example:
sapiens , Bellis perennisl 8. A.m eta a an d P.M tallies.
llic
Example: Homo sapiensl H.
perennis.

share common
Genus: is a group of species that all
characteristics .
roduce/ breed
Species: a group of ocg.anisms that can rep
iprin~
with each other to produce fertile off

. . ·· (HU ;

SPECIES

4B.2 w h a t is a species:
(_ _ _A_._S_p_e_c_ie_s_:_ _)
measure biodiversity.
W e use species numbers to bo th natural
k for cha nges in spec ies to help us mo nit or the effect of
W e also loo .
l changes and cha ng es tha t results fro m human activity
environmenta

I r
I ~

l
r 2. Reproductive or biologica
1. Morphological species species co nc ep t:
concept:

128
Dr. Niha/ Cabr
 [..____1_._M
_o __o_1oe
_rph _ 1c
_a_1_s_pec
__1e_s_c_o_n_ce
_ p_
t_: ___]

Mainly based on appearance of organism.

Organisms are grouped according to physical
characteristics.
Limitations: sexual dimorphism, in which there is a
great deal of difference between male and female of same
species, to the extent they can be categorized as 2
different species-based on morphological species model.
r

2. Reproductive or biological species concept::

T\ ..,.
A group of organisms with similar characteristics interbreed to ·produce fertile
offsprings allowing gene flow from parent to the offspring. ,
<Ill ...._ \ ,· i.,.•t
~ ~

Adyantq es:over come the issue of sexual dimorphism . .;u

'
""
, ~ ""'
Limitatio ns: organisms in a species can't atte~p~ to interbreed to produce fertile
1
offspring as they are not all living in :
same area.
Example:
x
horse donkey ) Mule ~-
( infertile offspring/sterile) where genes
didn't flow from pa~nt to offspring so
they are not same species.
Yet if mating a Hon X tiger.--- ) t¥1ost (I) (b)
• fflC Who,, d<11\tt')'\ bil'<.~I 11,~y p h )<l\Jl~ Y'-'ll''l:l dcnl..ys (aJ, \'""" ~"'-"' uµ 1,, ,w,..Ju<t' n1t•h· -tonl.-y• '-'
of the offsprings will be fertile l\!lr,,>n llrf,ild \hky ,, rodu(II [t1,1I: (b), l\htdl w,11 pr,i.11 11;~ tro\)t~ "" '"" '" th,• 111111, .. au, ,r,1 l,c,11•: :11\tl I .~ ,,,l
ll•IX!d lhtiy ptlltlutO JI! 1t1f~1 ,,1.. lllttk• (C) . l-0 tfll)\• a•~ ,ir-1,,,,,..,.., '-"rw,1c ''"" ,(',

Overconie by
using another
definition

I. A group of organisms w similar characteristics that are potentially capable of

breeding to produce fertile offspring.

2. A group of organisms in which gene can flow between individuals.

129
or.Nihal Gabr
 Other
definitions of
species.

Ecological species model Mate recognition species Genetic species model

model

Based on ecological Based on mating behaviour Based on DNA analysis which

niche( role in environment)
occupied by organism.
Disadvantage is that many Disadvantage: many species
organisms occupy more than will mate with or / cross
one niche. pollinate other species and
may even produce fertile
offspring In spite of being
different species
Limitations of
reproduction species
models
is getting faster and cheaper.
Beside being so reliable.
Disadvantages:
1. They have to decide how
much genetic differences
is needed for two
organisms to be members
Qf, different species.
2. Fossil organisms can't
repro'duce and don't
"'ust ally have any
accessible DNA , but they
still need to be classified.

I . Have to carry interbreedin g to produce fertile ·offspring as they are not all living in
same area.
2. Finding evidence- many living species haven't been observed mating .Setting up
breeding programme is time consuming , expensive and may not prove anything .
3. Plants of different but closely related species frequently interbreed and produce
fertile hybrids.when should the hybrids themselves be regarded as a separate speciesl
4. Many organisms don't reproduce sexually.Any definition involving reproductio n or
reproductiv e behaviour is irrelevant for bacteria, and the many protists, fungi and
others that mainly reproduce asexually.
5. Fossil organisms can't reproduce and don't usually have any accessible DNA, but
the still need to be classified.

B. Identifying species::

..
.:.
t •••
•t• I

I. Which provides an ideal tool to help scientist

answer questions about species from simple
identificatio n apps.
130
Or.Nihal Cabr
 Examp le

· • I d n most of the species were identified by their

I h. cory museum ,n on o •
I. In Natura ,s were details were recor ded on hand writt en and type
extern al features years ago • . .
. d cards and stored in museums time archives.
written ,n ex
l. New specimens ate regularly sent to the museum for identification.

J Sowtion
the university of
• To reduce the time spent searching the cards, scientists at muse um and
Essex are developing a system to scan and read the card archieves
and conv ert them into
an internet-based database and a paper based catalogue.
give scien tists
• This will make searching for a particular organism much easie r and also
around the world access to classification while working in field~

• The analysis of the genetic material of orpf\i$m to

establish their evolutionary relationships.
• Where th e closer the sequences , the closer the
relation ship , . _ ~,
• Usi~
I. DNA profilinr ( the process by which
non codine areas of DNA are analysed to A fll E Tht>l.(> cultur~ m.iy .ill I()( ~ •I . .
th/It they ar~ distmn s I I ) ','t' ,.ir111•. li11t DNA ••v1dt1'1l t• ~hm;,,,
\ttlltlM d1~0Jw
identiO' patterns, these patterns are J)QC t>S o fur,J.!1, ,111 of wh,ch
111 plants C,Hl\\'

unique to individuals .
2. Sequences of bases in PNN RNA
3. Proteomic ( lacu-scale study of Proteins.) / A . .
, romo ac,ds sequences,
limita tions &
t
soluti on

• So much data so hard to searc h or patter b . , ,

• So the solution is blolnfor " Y 1nd1v1dual scientist
rnatlcs which i I
ware and computing tools need d nc udes development of ft
.. e to organ· so
quantities of raw biological data. ise and analyse enor mou s

Dr. Niha/ Gabr 131

4B.3 Domains, kingdoms or both?
• For centuries classification has been based on morphology
• Now molecular phylogeny (for biochemical relationships) are being used to support
or clarify classification based on morphology .
Ex;:imple of one w<1ys of
biocilernicQI Q11-1lys1s 1s

Gel Electrophoresis:
• A method of separating fragments of
proteins (or amino acid) or nucleic
acids(DNA/RNA) based on their
electrical charge and size.
• This can help to determine both the
species different organisms belong to
and their evolutionary links.

• A combination of DNA analysis , protein analysis, and anatomical observations can bring
some unlikely relationships to light for example the closest living relative to the
hippopotamus appears to be the whale.

"Polygenetic analysis
• A model used to show the relationships hsgfiSl l

between different groups of organisms. lampreys

vertebral es
...---------1 sharks aM roys
• It may show the relationships between all
ray -finned fish
living organisms or just the relationships
coe1acan111
between a particular group of animals or
lungfish
plants.
omphibla
• These trees were built on basis of mainly
rtiptlles
morphology but now scientists use DNA
mammals
and amino acids evidence as major t ool t o
Hg C l h1 ~ phylog\..'11t :11l 111•,· \ll ~w, ~ tl w ll'l,111omh'1)\ lll•twet' ll d 1..1n1;t' of
help them understand the relationships d1lf1•1l'nt .1111111.i ls
between organisms.

Dr.Nihal Gabr 132

 (..___'TI_w_o_o_r_t_
h re
_e_ D_o_m
_ a_i_n_s_ _ J
What makes way of taxonomy c ont inuously changing over years?
Linnaeus classified living organisms according to morphology (using
physical structure) into two groups.
i i
(__
Plants_) ( Animals )
! Later on they
used
Classification based mainly on morphology (Using microscope
( especially electron microscope) resulting In 5 kingdoms
.
r r .... r ... !"!'
, ' .... ....
Monera
Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
'\.
( prokaryotes) ... '\. ... '\. '\.

Later on
U_s lng mQlecular
phylogeny so
they started to
flntl new species
. -
So they started find new species
So living organisms are classified into 3 domains
...

.... "'I r ....,

Domain Domain
Domain
Bacteria Eukaryote
Archaea
\.. . '\.
"" (Eukaryotes) .
With six kingdom classlflcatlon

Archaebact
Eubacteria Protista Fungi
eria Plantae Animalia

133
Dr. Nihal Gabr
 anism into three domains
Evi den ce on wh ich the y divided org
rat her than 2 domains

1. Archaea replicate by bina ry fission

which is controlled within cell cycle.
cells but is different in bacteria.
It is very similar to cell cycle in eukaryotic
unique (being
Con vers ely, the mem brane stru cture and the membrane proteins of Archaea are
2.
tes).
different from both bacteria and eukaryo provide extra
ere Arc hae a have an ester link in their lipids , giving branched molecules that may
Wh
strength in extreme environments .

• absent I ptese nt
membrane-enclosed nucleus ! abs~ m I prese nt
• , membrane-enclosed orga nelle~ I
• , pep11doglycan in cell wall
present , nbse rit
I

~ster-hnkc?d, unbranched I cster-hnke

..-
d. branc hed ester lt nked , unbranched
\ :ibsent
-' - -

► -

•
1 membrane hp1ds
70S
- sos I

-I
l 70S ~
- rr- -- --

i nbosomes . '
I rn~lh1or1lne
.._.
\ ~1e~hlor",ne
~ rormylmeth1onme

•,•.
1 in,t1ator tRNA I
no
l
L
op~ron!I
yes
i ye~ ' y~
y~
.... ·- ;
l rare - -- \
! plasmids
i - - -
! -
l
t, - 13
I
I

, RNA polymerases Ino 'I no \

•• 1yes _, I
I •
nbosomes sens ttive to chlo ramphen1 col and I

I
~ ye~
\ stree 1omr-:in_ _
1toxin
. no \ves .
I

I
. no
I nbosomes sensitive to d1ph thcm I yes
ft · 1no I
:~ome are metha~ogens 1yes I"O
{t yes I
I - -

l some fix nitrogen -- no I yes

•
1
-- - ,..
is
- - --
y~
• so;;,.e cond~ct ~hlo rophyll · based photosynthes-·-
l

I CS of the th~ dom.'lins ol lift1 on E,u1h

{(t ~ A Some o~the cel;ular :ind molOCtJ!ar 'h<11actet~t•

«t
0 Archaea and Eukaryota share a
more rec'ent common .ances~or with
-0 each other than Bacteria .

..
-0

-0
Very ancient

.-;-
proka\ryote:,s__ . ;.-;.-;.-;_-;.-;.-;:_;
. :.:_-
. ); --.-.-.-.-. 1l BA CTERI A J

--
-0

A
~
Ori gin .,...'- -••
of life •
,.., 3.5 billion
years ago
~ - - - - - -li l l ARC HA [A

~ - - - - - - -· ( EUKARYA \
A
~ Prcscn~
Ancient - - - - - - - -- - ~
~ Tim e
~
134
I ~

ence
)
paper. ~
ev id p ecific
e new iinn atos look for ~
to validat .tt;e;,n~ d
How
-:;;;-;:-~ . we
~- s:h- =
n
(
: : . : ~ o~/d beeerwrev,e ~F7
..____ N_ e
evidenc per ts p
1. heewscience pa ~
2. T f metho
d
ity o
• Valid y o f results
bilit d or n
ot. ~+c
• Relia m exclusion
ris e r e p l i c a t e
h r o u g h c~ a s s @..;
• Plagia include ld b ce t
w hich r e s u l ts w o u l e c t e viden
ion he col ~
ritic al evaluat to c h eck i f t a l l o ws to
3. C ent s thi s
experim tudies, ~
• Repe
at ing all
sults too t he r s
th e in ternet.
o m pargin.g th
e re
fere n c e ' on ~
C
• checkin
cientif ic con
journal, s ~
c ientific
ublishing in s ~
4. P
~

•
~
~
8=

~
•
&=
fJF
~
l}j=-
~

••
••.
.._._
~

._
~

135 ~
 - .. .,,.,.,rsi!Y-
4C,1 ~
..
. differences .
arieWof nvinQ orQ
anismsandth~
n.
fferences ~
Measure of t~e ~i
Notice that t e . ·
~
1. Individuals in so~
~s o f 1es
08
2. Betw 0 ~~~r ~
3. Between ~ m nunities 4 -
s .
tw n 1es of biod
e all exee
arn iversity
·rn ortant defin r
Some I
itions to m e m ~t isaend: rep .
roduction ( bree
1. !:IJ!h. ttllPIace where orgaann1.s ms seek food ' she er ding site}
:z. P2D1datiOnJlumr,' /sms in a certaJ!.]..8
f88 .
~
3. of::
_com111uoity"._al/ ,vin Snisms (manY populations) i~ ain area o f hab .
~ I ommunity w c e itat .
FCQSYotem : b/o/og,c here organisms ~ w ith one another and w
,n era d on /ivin s,. it h
4• e,r s, a environ a c . . 1/V ,,4-,.,.,,.c o f the
env, · m ent. .e inte r: fn an n
s. l!iche ;JOle of living . -
o.lQRPiSW 10 its- ~ab · the '1!!1PCiSW in
tw;iC ts wi f:l .th 1.
environment ( inclu itat 8;;d~~~ives
des type of fo od it where ft rep rod
eats, w ! uce , ~ /ation
( ship with ~
~ Gib\-\, ~c,l. (l ~ IO cies) '
~ 'fi'C. ~ c jO "
Im ortance of
mainta
Rich biodiversity a inin io d iv
11 biodiversity is rellows large scale ecosystems toe r s it
duced in one area fu
, this might desntrction and self regulate •
E oy natural balan
1.xa
Am pleds:wate
ir an ce else where.
r of th
e planet are purttie
Waste is decom d by the actio
pose d and made non to ns of a wide ran
fungi, where micro
organisms in soil x ic by ma ny o rganisms , incluge o f organisms .
and water conve ding b a c te ri a a
taken up and used rt ammonia into nd
by plants. nitrate ions, w h
ic h are
2._ Photosynthesis
by plants is import
climate. Where la ant in sta
produced by burnnd plants alone absorb m bilising the atmosphere and th
ing fossil fuels. ore than one thir e w o rl d 's
d of all carbo
d' 'd h .
3. Pl~ts ~lso a n 1ox1 e t a t 1s
transp b so rb w a
1ratron forming clo ter from soil which
uds that will prod then ev
uce rain. aporate .
s into atmosph
4. _P lant use anim ere through
a
animals use plan ls for pollination and se
ts for shelters an
d food (fee~din. ~e.rsa
l and soil fertilit
y by manure,
5. Also biod ivers and
of alleles of gene ity provides genetic vari
cha~acterist!c su pool which inc
l~ad,~g to higher
qh ai. dii.ease reS::s ation ' genetic . .
the Qhance Qf fadv1Qyersi~) a
flsherres. Also e
nables further Im n~~
i.urv ival. In additi
on •thus loQre®lng ac
rab\0 al~e%h.ich
laptati
~ e have a var_
iety
11e can cope with r ' Is allowed o s i::o d m g fo a
problems a ri s i~ us
~ :; e ~ t by cros to devetoQ n tQ t~e environ
_r desirable
c ,mate chasngbereeding an~ rgops, ment
s and di e h ve s to c k s ,a
sease.netlc engineerinngdth u s

Dr. Niha / Gabr

137
 of maintainin biodiversi .
. Im ortance plants to pro du ce ch em ica ls that are important in
of
contmue
Pl nt biodiversity P'?vid~s f:~~ f1al
new medicine. -1,. Mtrlj w-e.d
iC.il\tJ "10.1- c.-e. UJed
\'\ W ,lo .d ~ S ne,.t... 0 f\'S(noJw
~a n: areas of huma!J:11fe ' ,nc
l- v~ iJ \Ct'\~.s ' W"\ ~ i ~ ck bo.C,lt,;0.
-:::-
~ . . diversi at s ecies level when measurin biodiversi
~ Assess1n bl~ t t needed to be considered
J/1 Two main ac ors
.·.: Rel~tive ·species
J/1 · ··t ·~ ab~n-~~f'.'ICP-
Species richness an area
Relative nu mb er of species in
Number of different species in a .,.r tof pk> tA plot B un00< o ouadrot - a Imme
p~itain area or habitat \ . 1JSM ro n1atk out ,1sampling area
Doesn't take abundance into
( consideration ~ IBEII
Measured by random sampling .
Examples read book page 267 liP.1111
111■
l ■a
Importance of high species
richnesslbiodiversityJ? 1n1.-d lvr table A
flt G Sect,ons or plots A d11d Bt''-'.m
Plant use animals for
PQJlination and seed
d~pe~al and ~i f fertility by 1X,
~u re , and ammals use .. S% I2% , 1%
I 15~ 20%
plants for shelters and food 0% j 20% 15%
(f~ ing ) , S__Q_ high
b.lQ~ersiMallow eguilibrium} nce of different
~n an ce by self An area showing an even abunda1
~ species ts ~onsideredjo be more btQso d1vers§l rhan
regulation eciesWb
one containing The same number of
dom/,ajlted QY one or two of those speci~ .sQEJ
this case plot B Is more biodlverse than plot A
ecies are more
because number of different sp
--
evenly spacea~r1~- - - - - -
<
 Endemism · at number of endemic
Another im ortant wa

End mi s
Qne place . . b eding..
so they toUQw,ophgatgry in re, trn
Endemic species are ~rroroao Y
pd in islands as they might haye evolved ao it and
failed to migrate.

To highlight endemic species to ce · ·. ·. . e identified some biodiversity

hots ots of unusual b1od1vers1
l.e biodiversity hotspot means an area with a particularly high level of b iodiversity.

Why some areas have more biodive,:sity t han 2thers? S: ~

1. Very stable ecosystem allows many co~m ~= le~x~r;~e~la~t~i ~~~f:
to~ d~e;..
ve ; l;o;p~s
;; ~p;;e;;;;
cie~s,
example not exposed to sever climate chan
2. H~ h level of ~roductivify ( when photosynthesis rates are very higfi) can support
EiiQre niches)
3. When organisms can gmw and reproduce ragidly, it is more likely that ro1 1tafioo
<>?curs , leading to adaptation which allow o rganisms to exp loit (make full use) more
niches. '-=======:--------
"'
Read example in book paQe 268 ,271.
.~
.-- -

~
~ 4C .2 M ea su re Bi od iv er si ty
:---@
different habitat
ent to compare biodiversity In
~ Diversity index is a measurem
.....
-e
..•
-e

€,
D= div ers ity ind ex
N= total number of organism
of org ani
s of all species
\ot-c,l n lN\
s - the abundanc
sms of each individual specie te n(n- ) for eac~ 01 th ~ different species .
n= the total number cuf'a 1
,,__
,•
tha t follow ( you need to cal species and then add them
together). :=:::::::::::::::=::
I= the sum of all the values
r\( h• \)

►
• WORKED EXAMPLE
A simp!tJ e\Jmple b,,~ed on some
fr~ ~ J loc:I ~
/ Sl'fCIES
·-
MMi8SI Of
Ofl6'NISMS
sam ples of Jn,m,11/1 I~ collccwd

Ob\J_td0)1f,,,e_ 11-~"'•-- 1,~ - ~ l .; "'· -;

~ik
.,,,;
.

In c1 kno wn.. 01v

.. -'l b',: ." .
'--,/~l\l~:-; Co~,n.veri 1n_let.~Yq[;,~~R~e~.r~Shrat!tnge-•~-= I. .
en areaJof land
:.-·-· . ~- · ,• , ~ - -·-;· .,
,· •..
?,

COlLECl'EO(IIJ ,
·•
.
Mli(\t urc the genetic a1vers1ty,
.
/-;,rag;,,fly larvae 1 4 - ·- ]3-T4;3: 12_4 -, •
.( nwn !Jer·ofdlffeient:alleles)) ffa
12 11 J12 )( 11 • 132 / · spec ies (in fg~~r,~ipo_?•'!~~ ~;. ·
.
·,•·~;._~~•....-i--.-~----:·· -.---.-~' -,·;:··.r
, mosqw ro , 1 1
1larvae
1

,
'
J ·f
/
3 ii 2 6
-~f,
water bo,mnan 3 !2 i
4

I
I I
tadpole s/lr, mp 4
/3 / 4 1d ia l 2

i / 16 17 ,d 6 " 272 -
copepods 17
- - f -- - --
~ e
39 / 40 ,. 3~ '" 156 .
0 ~
Tou1 I number of I 40 __ ·-
, org,m,smsJ!:!) ; = I _!
d, ttw speoes shown above
~ Atn a~ mpl~ f1om a small pon
Wt' ft tound
i.1s follows:
e the d1vers11y 111dex for th1s pond
You Cdn calcula c
N(N - 1)
D- _, ;. --
- }:n(n - l) Reme mber that big Is
1560 better: it is always
D= 12 + 132 + 6 + 12 +- 272 better· to h,we a high
valu e of blodlvers,ty.
D= J560
434

Dive,:,'ity Index = 3.60

u L n en-I)

140
 . diversi .
.
·th· s e c ie s .
B10 WI 1n e n e ti c d1vers1 7
• . f d if fe re n t· -==k
Genetic d,yers~ . e 1c m a e u p ~
easure o f the leve I ce s in th e g e n -----
[_ §pu la ti §<(nu
. Am .
mber o f d1ffer~n
t a
o
lleles in a s p e c ie
.
s ).
- - -= - -
{) ~
o f a

Gene pool!\Virfetycrl allele§.. certain p o p ulation . ~

Genetic diversity
is Measura y d
in a DNA analys
is . l J
Importance of gen f divers~•~ . t·ic va ri a ti o n ( g
e n e ti c d iv e rs it
e ,c g e n
h.' h~.:.:.
n e y ) a t w h ic h w e
variety of aIIeIes o f gene pool w :
c..
r:.
e .-
a s
_ e_s_t -:-h-e-c h a n c e o f fa have a
. . h ic I v o ra b le a ll e le s c o d in g fo
a desirable charac disease re si st a r
tenst1c sue as n ce , th u s in c re
environ ment lead a s in g a d ap ta ti o n to th
ing to higher surv e
~ ival.
Allele trea encv:
The fre ueu ncy by which a p
p p e a rs w it. h in
articular allele a .
a p o p u la ti.o n .

Mutation can incr

ease th e gene p
o o l o f a p o p u la
available. ti o n b y in c re a s
The change in al in g th e n u m b e
lele frequency ( r o f a ll e le s
become an adva a d is a d va n ta g e o u s
ntageous allele a lle le in o n e s e
new species em if co n d it io n s ch a n g e t o f c o n d it io n s
ergin_g . ) d u e to n a tu ra may
l s e le c ti o n m a
y le a d to

1. Gene~c variatio
n in
2. mutation as a so a population( .......... mention)
urce of genetic va
for desirable trait riation occurs in
which is X tr o d u ci n g n e w
fa vo u ra b le alle
3· De~c~be 8 le c o d in g
re~evant s e le c tl
o n ~ s si!!!J (as p
4. lnd1v~d_ua1~ w'.t~ o is o n / p re d a ti o
desirable trait su n /v e ry c o ld te m
5. Survivin g md1v1 rv ive more ( s~lect p e ra tu re ).
~ ming genera duals reproduce/b iao o f th e fi tt e s t alle
tion s ) reed passin th le / p h e n o ty p e )
9 e allel
e s o f · ........... •.. .
6. This i~crease in
ad
...to th e ir o ff s p n.n. g s /
generations).
- --
vant
-============-
ageous allele fre
quency (
ch a n g e in allele
fr e q u e n c y o v e
r
How does natura
Due to natural se l selection leads to eyolu
~
~ P to th
Th ' .
l •
e extent b • the members -- --
tio ?
-- D -
0f
is is knowrt,__as re ein g un ab ce rt a in sp e ci.e s
le
productiv e isolatl- to reorOd may become m
-- =~ - .: ;; ~ ~=~ s u ce ·w lth th e o ri arke d\..l)
~ ~n~2 wh !lch leads to s p g in a l m e m b e rs
e c la~ tro':=:n~ = = ~- o f th is sp e ci e s.
--

Dr.Nihal Cabr
141
 Measuring genetic ~•versrcy Me.us~ ~ 9~c. cl i' ~st,.. , ., 1j,o\_
po~~ cl U ~ I f'.9 \e : ~~ Cv\..:; '°"" I 1 n ffl Q..
Genetic diversity is Measured bJ DNA analysis\
Scientists look at the proportion of a population which is heterozygo f .
us or a given
feature.
When DNA is anal sed , onl one band will show if th or anism is a h
----
omoz got
~ -
For heterozygous 2 bands appear , one for each allele.
This can be used to calculate the heterozygosity index ( a useful measure Qf
genetic diversity w ithin a population) for the population for the particular DNA
sequence. _
Heterozygositylndex= _ _ _ _ ___
Number of_ _ _..;..;;;______
heterozygotes
Number of individuals in the population ,

A high heterozygosity index in a population reflects a high level of genetic variation

and a potentially healthy population, where as a low index suggests a population is
in trouble.

15 18 ~ 19 20 21 22
1 3 4 s e 12 13

- ht- ONA anJlys,s or 23

-
Eu 1opeJ n toad\ fo, 3 ~,ngle gene ~how) ionH:
I11•
tt>iu;y~ L
)\
n ,~ ,nd1111du.1 I, t,ul 1110~1,irl' liv ll.ll'\'R\. u

1
L[!:1 frlli}l?\l •1 ns b"ttcr genetic d1vers1ty
f h terozygotes rnea "
Remember big is better. a higher proport1on e ° d In ~been unatyscd.
. . . , ics of European toa '' 11 le 01
In the dat.a in ft& C, the DNA of 23 1nd1v1 dual~to~r°1~~ n~~uln1ion ig homozygous for one n c
Five of the toads are heterozygous. and the re.
another. So:
Heterozygosity index = 253 = 0.2 17 veral ht!althv o ula1ions of ~ f'
I• he heteroiygoH1lVol se I regions. However. ,
This is not particularly high - for examp e t Io 774 tor two illenmt genet c ied to ~omc or the
Siberian apricot trees in China was 0,639 anc ·b ery healthy when comra
. of the toad populatlon seems
heterozygos1h1 . to. e v-1 - - -[- -
., bl f genetic d1vcrs1 y. - -
animals with the biggest pro ems O _ _ - --

142
Dr.Nihal Cabr
 ships between re
t'lat ed organisms based on
• . . .
hylogenet,c re1a ,on measuring b1od1vers1ty.
Models of molecular p
tul t I tor
~ '-t -_-_-_-_-_-_-_-
DNA and other eviden~ e are use

Na tu ra l M us eu m in Lo nd on , UK , ha ve bu ilt up
. • t t the
Example: sc1ent1s s a d on bo th nu m be r of
. g maps of bio div er sit y ba se
con tras t m d DNA sim ila rit y.
species(species richness) an

fo r bees are
Figure E: show be e population
s- the most biodiverse areas
ies richnes s) and Kashmi r (highest genetic diversity) .
Ecuador (highest spec

nt tor conservation wo rk. as if you are (

e of study is hugely importa
This typ ed to be
ited funding- so yo u ne
trying to co nserve bio divers ity wi th lim
with highest biodiversity.
'
confident that you ha
It can be done for the
ve
wh
be
ole
en
wo
ch os
rld
en
or
the
for a
are
pa
a
rticu lar country , it highlights '
~

f
areas need protection.
ted , it ca n pro vid es a wa y of monitoring changes . f
~so. it re?ulady up da rn
b,odryers,ty anywhere.
,
f

~
e
lo
tlJ;
a
•
'I!
q
llj-

...
lJj-

~
98neric vanotaon

,
itE n,
nla)C r:,-- ...._ ___ _ .

e* maps sh
t...:...:.. -' I
n1in
..•.
~
mt!.isureo by spec,e ow nellth~ b,,:x.1,ve,s, 1(
s , ic.h s and IJ ry r. b1..1Qs ,ty
lHoumJ rhtl world ~
Ygrnl!11c rl,ver~
e 4
e fl

•
e T h e is o la te d is la n d o f H a w a ii ( iu st read to understanc

•
r,
Th is is la nd sh ow s cl ea rl y h o w liv in g
9 ni sm s ad ap t tq a pa rt ic ul ar ni ch e
r, or ga
un ity•
o r ro le in th e co m m

I• S ho w s w hy sc ie nt is ts ne ed to lo ok a
bi od iv er si ty in le ve
l of
t

••
ss )
S pe ci es nu m be rs ( sp ec ie s ri ch ne
1. e.
2. S pe ci es ab un da nc
en t
tic di ve rs ity ( di ff er

~
• 3. Le ve l o f ge ne
al le le s in ge ne po
ol }

•• Showing endemic

• richness
populations (endem
is common)
ism

t
t
~
km fro m
ne ar es t
c) (
Is ol at ed ( 4000
Have hi gh species

( ex am pl e :1000 sp
ecie
ies),
large nu m be r of spec s of
sp ec ie s of
Where in this isolated
conditions , the founde
organisms have adap
r
ted
na tiv e flo w er s, 100 and evolved to take

•, co nt in en ta l
la nd mass)
bi rd s bu t no re pt ile
on e sp ec ie s of mam
s and on ly
mal. advantage of different
ecological niches that
were

' available to them .

,,• m is common
Places where Endemis ie s nu m be rs, bu t lo w
in te rm s of sp ec
U,._/)

R ic h in bi od iv ersi ty
p ge ne tic di ve rs ity .
ad to in br ee di ng
._ ~ ~ c .u l
As endemism Will le gene
n of new alleles
1. S o no introductio
versity
Lowering genetic di
ygosity
2. Promoting homoz pear.
k of ge ne tic di so rd er s/ diseases to ap,_ . l~,CA 0
Higher ris
/' - ere
b dingL
Notice
re la te d individuals): by out _ree
Inbreeding ef fe ct ( m
a tin g cl o se ly
tr eles
oduction of new aU
e is no in
1- Low genetic diversity as ther h 1 , M ..:.) s~
recess
· e _,, ~,...
,v
interbreed ing . •
1s a
h'
,g er
r ·sk tor
1
"" '' t ~ n-
that there
h mozygosity, this means tu.J~ /OSJ oJ. lr9tJY1tS
2 · Prom~teo CO\.t l 131K
so rder to appear_ _.
genetic di ~d \ue

ha/ Gabr
144 • ~
 an o ther an d to
•
. : . o f organ1.s ms to one
. n ships
4C.3 . e studY 0 f ,e/at10
1 ~~ environment .. m in ;ts habitat.
• their phys, f living organts
. h e . role o
~
2.

. ; ,.-~ ~-- ,·
.: ®
>111-"fi)
0
: ··:;~>,
. Aflatorn al adaPt~iio ij'
., c-::.·-~~---i~
-: _:~,_.....---,----~--~:·:.~ f:f ·.' '. (!_)
5tructuraI features
. and S..;t ®
ruotu re
- ·n s an
Adaptation _that The broad w, or are dthJar; e win s an of
e
of an orga!]§.01 ·
are physical ~ea_ -- ,; "i'
. , na
of an orgamsm s a tom~ ?condhtch enableanitattoomtraical
vel great
The 58 irt teacorlu~ adaptaf1ons W,hermsls
that helo ,t s1 distances on wh ile se ar ching for
• ~ " d
,'0 0 .
Physiolog1•ca 1a da pt at io n

r metabo r,c rea

Biochemical features fo ct1ons
the b o d ; of the organ ism
Adaptation that involves
the the way works, inclu d'mg
differences in biochemic
al pathways
or enzymes.
Refers to the metab · .
.
IC
a us ment within the ce .
, or tissues, of
an organism in msaaose
envimnroeataf sfiro 11 ft 1s reta a~ . th
sult~ng m e
im roved ability of that
o amsm to
cope w, , s c angmg en
vironment.
~m•:
Diving mammals, can st
ay under water for muc ~
without drowning , as di h longer than non di
ving mammals when ving mammals
under water , their he I
significantly so blood pu art rate d ro p s
m ped arou nd their bo f
blood is used _less r~pid_ dy less often and o xy gen in
ly.where the(mam boCX th e I.
us'.ng anaerobi c resp1rat m uscl es\ can work more effectiv
10n than those of land
living mammals . (_ ely If oJ-don ~
This means th at the ox
ygen carrying blood is .e .Y \~ r,e.S~ CIH:) ~
where it is still needed directed to th e brain
( this is called the mam and the heart
malian divin f
g responses)
•
;
,
t,
Dr.Niha/ Cabr
 ~--
-~~ --~eh avio ral adap tatio n

1 Behavioral features
1
Adaptations involving programmed or instinctive
behavior making organisms better adapted for
survival
Exam ples :
1. Many insects and reptiles orient themselves to
get the maximum sunli ht on their bodies when
t e a,r temperat1 ,re is relat ively low , w ,c allows
them to warm up and and move fast enough to
@ and fo escape predators. When _they get C'!urtship, in animals,
hot , they change their orientation to minimize the behaviour that resulJsin mating
exposure to sun . and e~entual reproduction.
Co_urtshzp may be rather simple,
2. Hunting as a team or huddling together for warmth znvol~mg a smallmim6ei- of
can improve survival chances of both individuals and
1
c~emzcal, vzsua i, or auditory
groups. stimuli,· or 1t mczybe highly a
com lex series o acts b ~
3. Migrating to avoid harsh conditions , courtship more zn s usmg several
rituals and using tools . modes of communication.

4C.4 Ge net ic poo l and gen etic ~ive rsit y

1. Population a breeding group of individuals of the same
species occu pyin g a particular habitat and a particular
niche.
.....
WARfARIN
RAT I MOIISf Klllfll NEAi.
2. Gene pool: the sum total of all genes in a population at a MCO!f AIIII CMtlN ,uVOU!liO

given time . -
JIOIT (I IIUIIT WI

3. Selection pressu'! : the effec t of one or more

environmental factors that determine whether an organism
will be more or less successful at surviving and
reproducing ; selection pressure drives speciation.

~m--==--,-'- -
4. Example: pois on warfarin increases bleeding in rats so 0
becomes resistant This is the fa vourable atlAfe.

Cha n es in Alle le .....,,. . . . uen c ,......

o.~
Can occu r as resu lt of muta tion and na ura se ection
with weth er it code s for dominan or recessJVe phen~ e.
And not corre lated
Speciation involves a cha nge ;; the allele frequencies
w,m,napopulatioq.

and is driven by selection pressure overtime-1-

=

146
Dr.Nihal Gabr
 .
.. . e frequen cy of alleles in a populat ion
• ___..!::---= :-~~ :.: -:":"';r,';:fij
nchangmg or Is evolving
. . te
,nd1ca , will change from generation
-- -- allele frequencies . equilibrium to
~ .
the the ~ not m ecau
• • . be reduce se there will be no more
e flow WI 1 ·g·,nal population.
• When a new spec,· breeding be
' th et wo o::
n~
tween - : -3 .:--~~--=--=--

. uation Is Mathematica relat10 a me

• Hardy-Weinberg eq c
Q.
n ship that allow scientists to
an of measurin and stu
late the
ul
allele

• I

~~~~o work out the stable allele frequen a population .

cies

p = frequency of dominant allele

q = frequency of recessive allele
This very simple equation is not ve
ry useful be
c~use Its usually almost impo
distinguish between heterozygotes an ssibl7to
d clorom aof hgmgzygotes based on the,r

So measuring the population of

het$rozygotes and homozygo
tes in the population is not
possible.
However, we can readily observe
the distribution of the recessiv
population and from this we can e phenotype in a
calculate all the genotype frequ
encies from this
equation . (i)Mulo,l"\Ot'\
@ rd\11'00 y\ ee h't n
'1 ):> ~' (X X) ~Q )\C I\
© f\t .n -tu ld ct n 'r('lCJJi~
P = frequ~ncy of homozygous domina
genotyp~ ,n population . nt
-,,_

2pq= frequency of hetero

population. zygous genotype in a

Q2= frequency of homoz

genotype in a p~
uo.uOn. --- _ essive

Dr.Nihal Gabr
147
 USING Tt'E HAROY-WE1JJBERG cnu'\TIU~
re ll , rte _ .
Since recess i~ phenotypes are easily observable (see ft& B). we can measu
equati ieir quency and
calculate allele frequencies that \.-\le can then use in the Hardy- Weinberg on to eSlimate genotype
frequencies.
From th'15 . .
The freque ncy of homozygous recessive individuals is repres ented as tf.
easily obtained
l "m e result gives the frequency of the recessive 11q1is 8nd
by finding the square mot of <
of th ad e e_ by
subsrituring rhis figure into our initial formula of p + q = 1, the frequency e om1nant allele P
d
can be I•oun . .

inherit the allele for th

In Sectio n 2C.3 you !.tudiecl the 1nhe1 itance of the albino tra1t P~ople who
albino are homo e
dominant pigmented trait may have the genotype AA o, Aa. People who are
North Am~ h~!~~s - ~~I ~
for the allele d~ter rnin,ng the recessive phenotype aa. f<.'Sts on a sample of
that the frequency of c1lbinos in the population wc1s 1 ,n 20000. TT-11~ tells
us that tho frequent ( 2) ot th \Z.
. so we calculnte lhc vt1lue of <f. yq e
homozygous recess1w trait is I / 20 000 ~
r- q ' .. 00000 5 <\~
?o q .. \ 0.00005 (§I§1J
Always chock that the numbers you have
we know p + CJ " 1 calculated make sense.
so /J .. 1 - 0.007 - 0.993
on, the frequency of
By subst,tuung these values into the express,ons from th<.: Hardy-Weinbc•rg equati
homozygous AA and h~tcroiygou!. Aa genotypes Cdn be calculatc."Cl!
p +2.pq + c/- ., 1
Frequenc.y of homozygous AA .. Jr '
p .:r 0.9932 et O986
frequency of heterozygous Aa • 2pq r.

4J</ 2(0.986 X 0,007) .r 0.014

11

the North Amettcan

This gives us the frequencies for each of the three genotypes for albinisrn in
allele. 1.4% are ht?terol)'gotes
populauon. 98 6% of the popula tion are homozygous for the dominant A
frequencies must add up to
and 0.005'6 are homozygous for the recess ive trait and arc albinos. The t1llele
l. and the populauon percentages to 100%.

.
Conditions of the Har dy -Weinberg equilibrium
e the relative frequencies
It describes a situation in a theoretical stable equilibrium , wher
of alleles and geno types stay the same over time .
conditions:
So it makes unrealistic assu mptio n as it involves the following
• There Is no mutation , yet usually muta tion occurs
• random mating , usually happ ens non randomly.
• Population Is large, population Is Isolated ( no imm lgratIon
r emigration)
°
s )
• There is no selection pressure ( all geno type s are succes ful
Whic h are never met in real world
148
Dr. Niha/ Gabr
 Factorsa1tff(!;e~c OT a11 e1e ,n u1at1 o n :
~till]n!.9-!~~- a
•
o M u ta ti o n

• Changes in f material ;-
- = - -g·-ene ,c -
• So c h a n g e
.
• Only inherit.
s
e d
in alleles
if it ta
. .
kes place 1n g
r~
~ •
• Although m tation occurs conti.nu sly they
Ruby red gra
pefruit results
the growing
u ou ' cells o f g ra p f~ m tw o separate muta
en don't affec . rapidly. fleshed fruit . e fr w t trees.
One p ro d u ce
tions in
oft t a population • Several year s pink
• Usually give v ery s later. a n o th e
rise to a rece . a n d m u ch sw r m u ta ti o n p
• Favorable a ssive a \lele . • In b o th case
e e te r flesh. ro d u ce d a re
dder
s, th e m u ta ti
llele arise, the o n p ro d u ce d .
n it will beco a n e w domin
ant
established w me
ithin gene po
ol·
0 N o n ra n d o m
m a ti n g
.

• One of the
most important req
uirements fo
pool to remain r a gene
in equilibrium • a e magni ,cen
i.e any two in is random m • n ,,, s ,s p a y
dividuals in p a tm g to occu th ro at s to at tr ac t a m e,r
opulation ca r, m os t im at e. feroate se
pressive on e. tecfs thA
genetic make n m a t in d e p S o m at in g is
no t ran dom
up so the fr e e n d e n tl y o f
quency o f a\\ th e ir
same .{stable eles in p o p u
/unchanging la ti o n wi\\ s ta
population). y th e

o f tw o o
p p o rt u · s mating
re likelv to ca to m a te
rry th e allele ass on their
s o f these a
s e e c t, o n ttractive

• The male p
eacock with
the m o s t im
antlers an d m p es s iv e tai\
, th e b u c k w
ost aggressiv it h th e la rg e
average to fe e nature- th e st
males of the s e will a p p e
s p e c a r to b e m o
• Conseque ie s a n d th is a re a tt ra c ti v e th
n tl y , they wi\ p p li e s a s e le an
ensuring th a
\ b e m o re likely to m a c ti o n p re s s u re ·
t their offspri te a n d p a s s
c h a ra c te ri s ti n gs are likely o n th e ir g e n e s
c s . This is n to c a rr y th e ,
atural s e le c ti a ll e le s fo r th e s e
o n in a c ti o n a tt ra c ti v e
.
Dr.Nihal Ga br
149
~
t
!
P op ul at io n si ze :
t •
uilibrium.
~ ol is ne ed ed to maintain genetic eq
po
n with large gene n
I • Large po pu la tio ly va lid if its ap pl ied to large populatio
on
einberg eq ua tio n is om assortment of th
e
t • Where Hardy-W pe nd s on a ra nd
rium de
ng ge ne tic equilib
D because maintaini ration to generation)
.

,,' n g e fr om ge ne
~a
alleles (i.e freque
ncy o f allele d o e

, th e ch an ce o f lo si ng an al le le by random events is re
duced in

• Where by hi s way,
• large population.
• E xa m pl e

'
I
•

~ opulation 10
of th e
If al le le Z is in 10 %
population. vantageous allele,
dual will ca rr y If 50 0 ca rry the ad
Th en on ly 1 indivi so higher chance fo
r the allele being
allele. maintained
is lo st th ro ug h
S o if th is individual
....so allele is ·1ost
pr ed at io n/ disease
r ad va nt ag eo us ·
ev en if it co de s fo
ch ar ac te ris tic s

ng large
So advantages of havi
population:
rsity
o disadvan tages o f having small 1. Large genetic dive ning
S maint ai
population : so. ••• ••• 1
1 I I I I I I I
I I •

ady
ity as they alre biodiversity
1. Low genetic divers
a sm all ge ne po ol and underg o
have
ng 9 m a ting with
obligatory inbreedi
viduals).
closely related indi
d ri ft w hi ch is a pe rmenant loss o f
_2. Genetic n an organi sm d ies
favourab le al le le w he
p b ol
out, reducing gene
. In cr ea se homozy.gosity.
3.

150
D r.Nih a/ C ab r
 ex ist
. . ed the po pulation mu st
b ma1nta1n ,
t:D, •~nration . uilibriurTI to e
. berg genetic eq rare
t f population , wh ich is very
• For Hardy-Wein . ·nto or ou o
. •sms erther r
in ;so/at1on.
igration of organr
• Where no m
earch for a mate. .
n- their families and go s
to happe . . arry po llen from one po pu lation to
many animals leave miles ,nsect can c .
A• a5
B. Wind can carry pollen for ,
ed great
h . ametes directly into wa te r to be ca rri
another. g
C. Simple organisms can release t e1r
distance before fertilisation. ~

Consequently gene flow occurs.

pop ulations becom e mo re sim ilar but constantly changes allele
So differe nt pulation.
frequencies within each individual po
flow bet we en two popu lation s is red uced , they become effectively
When gene
isolated and this is when speciation
is more likely to occur.

G Selection pressure . :
' '

a new ~election .
• If environmental conditions chan
ge '
eressu~ will be exerted .
• As a result, an alleles which ha b ~Ye ~0 en neutral in th · ·
~
- _e,r 1moa.2 t ma y be co me
advantageous or ~ advantageou; )
• So fit ones will surv·
rve ~nd pass on their succ
cha ng e ov er tim b es sfuLa lleles ' so genetic make up of
the P0pulation will
• So selection pressured . -
e y natural selection
- _r-=
,v-= SaidLUt_io~n
e_s-=._s~p~e~c_J.;_ as ~~
: ~~ ~- on me--nt s c· h
envir an ges.

Dr.Nihal Cab,