FTB CO1 CLONAL FORESTRY (1+1)

Lecture Schedule
1. Clonal forestry – Importance – Operational Use
Introduction
Clonal Forestry in tree breeding programmes has been emerging as a strong
attraction to the traditional seed orchard breeding system. The use of propagation of trees
clonally is rapidly increasing and is of vital importance to tree improvement. It has been
widely used for the preservation of genotypes in clonal banks and for clonal seed orchard
establishment. Clonal forestry has been practiced mainly with angiosperms but in the recent
past, the use of clonal forestry with conifer species has generated worldwide interest. This is
primarily due to improvement in vegetative propagation techniques in particular, the
refinement of the procedures for rooting of cutting and other methods of somatic
propagation (Park et al, 1995). Propagation of trees vegetatively was originally used for the
species which reproduced vegetatively under natural condition such as Poplars, Cryptomeria
etc., Later on, many researchers multiplied the selected superior trees, mostly through
cuttings and grafting for use in seed orchard and also to preserve germplasm in banks.
Recently, techniques have been developed in many forest tree species for large-scale
propagation from cuttings at costs similar to those of seedlings. There has been growing
interest in using the techniques of clonal forestry and there by, exploiting the considerable
amount of genetic variability already existing in the natural populations of forest tree species
that have been amenable to vegetative propagation (Nanda, 1970; Leaky, 1987; and Pal,
1991) and partly because of tremendous yield improvement by adopting the clonal forestry
approaches (Leaky, 1987).
 Clonal selection and deployment is receiving attention as an intensive forest
management tool for increased wood production. Many pulp, paper and other wood based
industries are now establishing clonal forestry programme after the promulgation of 1988
National Forest Policy. The new policy under para 4.9 has given clear indication that the
forest based industries must prefer to raise required raw materials by themselves. The
industries should establish direct relationship with individual growers of raw material by
providing them credit, technical advice, harvesting and transport services. The policy also
indicated that small and marginal farmers have to be encouraged to grow wood species
required in forest based industries in their marginal and submarginal lands. This has created
excellent scope for establishing plantations of industrial importance using clonal
propagation. Many wood based industries in particular, Pulp and paper industries are
involved in plantation establishment programme using clonal forestry approaches in the
recent past. However, there is no systematic approach for clonal forestry establishment and
also there is growing interest to develop in future industrial wood plantations through clonal
forestry approaches. The need to all stakeholders is a readymade reference material
incorporating the strategies, methods, and experiences of stakeholders in the area of clonal
forestry.
As on now, there is no scientific document incorporating the issues raised earlier is
available and hence, the present compendium is prepared incorporating all the necessary
issues and experiences for use by all levels of stake holders to promote, popularize and
increase productivity of tree species through clonal forestry.
Utility of clonal propagation in trees
a) Production of quality planting stock
In the intensive management of forests it is very important to develop fast and
economical methods of raising superior planting stock. The somatic propagation of trees
has an edge over raising of stock through seeds. These techniques have also become
important in forestry owing to their potential in propagating trees, which possess superior
traits, in an effort to increase volume and quality of production.
b) Propagation of problem trees
There are many tree species, which normally produce little or no viable seeds, and
some tree seeds have poor germination capacity. Such trees can easily be propagated
vegetatively. Propagation by vegetative means is easy, more rapid and economical than by
seed. In some tree species, germination is very poor or slow or there may exist complex
dormancy problems or the seed may lose its viability very quickly. Moreover, seedlings of
many species grow slowly and take a long time to reach marketable size. In all these cases,
use of vegetative multiplication is a more convenient method of propagation.
c) Maintenance of genetic uniformity
Most of the tree species are cross-pollinated and naturally they are highly
heterozygous. The progenies of such cross-pollinated trees are not true to type and loose
many of their unique characteristics. Hence, asexual clonal propagation helps in maintaining
the genetic characteristics of each species.
d) Production of disease free plants
Certain tree species are often susceptible to some pests and diseases and others may
be partially or entirely resistant. Vegetative approaches using grafting will help to produce
resistant clones.
e) Early flower induction
Vegetatively propagated plants are precocious in bearing i.e. Flower earlier than seed
propagated plants. This will help to reduce the rotation of the tree species and also to
increase the productivity. This will ultimately help to speed up the reproductive cycle for
accelerated breeding and testing.
f) Clonal repository
Vegetative propagation helps to preserve the genotypes in clonal banks. This will
also help to evaluate genotypes and their interaction with the environment through clonal
testing. This method of propagation will help to conserve and multiply the valuable trees in
a centralized area such as in a laboratory or green house for intensive study and breeding.
g) Maintenance of genetic gain
Vegetative propagation ultimately helps to capture maximum genetic gains when
used for regeneration in operational planting programme.
Limitations of clonal propagation
Clonal propagation in many forestry tree species is more expensive than seed
propagation. It is a specialist’s job and requires special training and knowledge on the
part of the propagator.
 Vegetatively propagated plants are comparatively short lived. Lack of tap root
system in vegetatively propagated trees results in poor anchorage in the soil; consequently
such trees are easily uprooted during heavy winds or storms.
Operational use of clonal propagation
The clonal multiplication reproduces clones, which contain all the genetic
information of the parent tree. The term clone is used to mean a genetically uniform plant
material derived from a single individual and propagated exclusively by vegetative means.
Before going for clonal propagation, the first step is selection of genetically superior tree or
elite tree or mother tree. The selection guidelines for various tree species are discussed in
chapter II. After selecting the trees, the clonal materials are collected and used for
propagation. The cultural requirements of all the individual members of a clone are under a
particular site of environmental conditions. Environment can modify the growth and
development of individual members of a clone. Clones are less broadly adopted.
Eventhough each members of a clone has the same genotypes, the individual genotypes can
possess a considerable ability for adoption to differing adverse environments. It is possible
to select clones that possess greater adoptability than that possessed by the seedling. A forest
tree needs great adaptability mainly to survive and to reproduce.
Production and Maintenance of a clone
The production and maintenance of a clone has the following requirements.
a) Selection of a clone
The first step in selection of a clone is correct identification, proper labeling and
selecting genetically true to type. A dominant tree with good apical dominance, free
from pests and diseases and free from genetical disorders with a history of superior
phenotypic performance is generally selected. The selection criterion varies with species,
object of management and also the end use.
b) Number of clones to be selected:
There is no absolute answer, although a good attempt can be made based on
experience and knowledge of the variation of the species used.
The question again relates to reduced risk, that is how one can achieve the
greatest improvement by selecting only the best clones while staying within acceptable
limits of the dangers of destructive losses in the forest. Usually biologists are cautious
and they sacrifice too much gain to be certain that they take little risk, whereas financially
oriented people often emphasize gain to the point of real dangers from destruction by
pests and diseases or adverse environments.
The important question is the number of clones necessary to assure reasonable
safety and to make optimal gain. It all depends on rotation age, intensity of forest
management, genetic variability of the species and clones involved, the likely risks and
the acceptable loss levels (Libby, 1987). It is also recommended that 7 to 30 clones
should be used, which would be a safe and reasonable number.
Generally, the more severe the stress a given species or provenance may face, the
greater the number of clones, that should be used. There are special conditions such as,
severe insect or disease infested areas or very severe environment where in, very few
clones may be justified (Zobel and Talbert, 1984).
Maintenance of a clone
Once a disease free, true to type tree has been selected, it must be maintained and
multiplied under strict sanitary conditions to prevent reinfection. Measures should also
be taken for immediate detection of any reinfection or any change in the original stock.
Propagation stocks can be maintained pathogen free by
 Maintaining proper isolation distance
 Observing strict sanitary measures during propagation
 Periodic inspection and testing to ensure that, it does not become infected again.
Multiplication of a clone
Clones of proven superior quality are assembled in an isolated area and properly
labeled. Clones are then multiplied on a large scale vegetatively, once the planted ramets are
well established. Large-scale plantations can be raised from clones obtained from clonal
multiplication area. The CMA can be established near to the propagation unit, so that
collection and multiplication is easy to carryout. Similarly CMA can be established in the
form of hedges with high density of ramets in each clone. In each CMA, as many number of
clones can be included which will increase the broad genetic base in each species. These
CMA can be periodically irrigated and all tending operations must be carried out to enhance
more of vegetative growth. This will help the propagation to harvest maximum propagules.
e) Testing of a clone
Testing of clones is absolutely necessary for systematic screening of clones for
productivity attributes and their adoptability to adverse environment. Clonal testing
should be done as multi location trails with sufficient number of ramets from each clone.
This should be designed statistically to avoid experimental errors.
The general principles of genetic testing in seedling forestry are applicable to
clonal forestry and issues such as mating designs, statistical consideration of plots and
interpretation of estimated parameters have been described by many workers (Anon,
1983; Libby, 1987; Park, 1988). However, the inclusion of a vegetative propagation step
requires additional testing to determine the clonal fidelity. There are also benefits of
using clonally replicated trees in genetic tests even for programmes using seedling based
deployment such as obtaining additional genetic information and increased precision of
estimates (Park et al., 1998).
The primary reason for clonal testing is to identify suitable clones for deployment.
Clonal testing generally involves several candidate clones evaluated at several different
locations with respect to traits of interests. The clones may be vegetatively propagat ed
from breed, selected trees or crosses of such trees. Testing of multiple test sites provides
information on adoptability of clones in varying environmental conditions known as
genotype x environment interactions. Normally, testing of a large number of clones will
result in larger genetic gain than testing of a small number. However testing is
constrained by limitations in operation and resources. Thus there is a need to decide the
optimal number of clones, test sites and number of ramets per clone. Russel and Libby
(1986) explored clonal selection and test efficiencies as a function of the number of
clones in the test, ramets per clone and clones selected. They concluded that expect at
very low heritabilities and high selection intensities, the optimum number of ramets per
clone per test site is usually six or less, which is much less than 10-20 trees per family as
suggested by Cotterill and James (1984) for family ranking. The results of Russell and
Libby (1986) indicate that a large number of candidate clones can be tested by using only
a few ramets per clone. However our experiences clearly indicated that 20-30 clones is
enough to establish a systematic clonal evaluation trial. Similarly, these clonal testing
trials must be carried out in a minimum of 3 locations to select efficient clones suitable to
all area or screen site specific clones.
2) Basic concepts in clonal forestry – selection – of CPTs – Candidate – superior –
Elite – Comparison and check selection
The objective of a selection programme is to obtain significant amounts of genetic gain
quickly and inexpensively while maintaining a broad genetic base. Selection is a key part of
all applied tree improvement programmes. The gains can be no greater than the quality of
the parents used and the way to obtain best parents is through intensive selection. Selection
is normally the first step in a tree improvement programme and will determine how much
gain will be obtained, both in first and succeeding generations. Occasionally, where there is
little urgency for production of improved propagules for reforestation and when time
permits the establishment of genetic tests, such methods as progeny test selection or family
and within family selection may be used to establish seedling seed orchard or clonal seed
orchard.
To help avoid the confusion in terminologies that is generally evident when selection
is discussed, the following terms are defined in reference to a selection programme (Zobel
and Talbert, 1984).
2.1. Definitions
a) Candidate tree
A tree that has been selected for grading because of its desirable phenotypic qualities
but has not been graded or tested.
b) Select, superior or plus tree
A tree that has been recommended for production or breeding following grading. It
has a superior phenotype for growth, form, wood quality or other desired characteristics and
appears to be adaptable. It is yet to be tested for its genetic superiority, although the chance
of it having a good genotype is high with a reasonable heritability.

*Professor and Head **Research Fellow (Forestry) ***Assistant Professor (Forestry),

Department of Tree Breeding, Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam – 641
301
c) Elite tree
A term reserved for selected trees that have proven to be genetically superior by
means of progeny testing. An elite tree is the "winner" from a selection programme and is
the kind of tree that is most desired for use in mass production of seeds or vegetative
propagules.
d) Comparison or check tree
Trees that are located in the same stand, which are of the same age growing on the
same or better site as the select tree and against which the select tree is graded. Trees chosen
as comparison trees are the best in the stand, with characteristics similar to "crop" trees that
would be chosen in a silvicultural operation.
e) Advanced – Generation selection
A tree selected from genetic tests of crosses among parents from the previous
generation. Some form of family and within family selection is usually used to choose
advanced-generation selections.
2.2. Selection criteria
Different species have by nature different architecture. Selection traits may vary
between different species and improvement programmes. The ideal plus tree has the
following characteristics.
 Straight, cylindrical, non-forking, non-twisting bole
 Fast growth
 Narrow crown
 Thin branches with wide branch angles
 High wood density and long fiber
 Resistance to pests and diseases
a) Effects of the Environment
Most characters are strongly influenced by the environment. Examples of such
environmental factors that influence desired characteristics are as follows:
b) Size and Volume
A tree in a stand may be tall and voluminous because,
 It is older than the other trees in the stand
 It is growing on a better micro site than the surrounding trees
  It has more space i.e. less competition from other trees
c) Crown diameter
A tree may have a large, wide crown if it,
 Overgrows the other trees
 It grows with wide spacing, i.e. little competition
d) Bole form
A tree may have a poor bole form because of,
 Adverse light conditions and and/or competition during juvenile growth
 Mechanical or other damage to top shoot during juvenile growth
 Damage of bole by lightning, cyclones or other strong environmental factors
e) Wood quality
 High wood density may be due to slow growth
2.3. Where to select?
Selection is carried out in natural stands or preferable in plantations. Certain
considerations as importance in the choice of the site for selection are identified as below
 Selection should be made from stands that are as pure in species composition as
possible.
 Selection should be concentrated on stands or plantations that are average or better
in traits of interest.
 Selection work is better in an even aged stand, since age difference can then be
eliminated from the evaluation.
 Selection is best carried out in a nature stand, i.e. near to maximum height
 Selection in natural forests where selective logging has taken place should be avoided
since that may imply that the best trees have been logged, leaving the poorer (genetic
material) behind. Logging may also have influenced crown competition.
2.4. Criteria of selection for non-wood Products (Tewari, 1994)
 Tannin content
 Resin content
 Gum yield
 Seed oil content
 Seed protein content
2.5. Criteria of selection for wood characters (Tewari, 1994)
 Specific gravity
 Lumen diameter
 Cell wall thickness
 Fiber length
 Cellulose
 Hemi cellulose
 Lignin
 Other extractives
2.6. How many trees per stand?
The number of selects in a stand is evaluated after grading. The candidates should
not be selected too close to each other, since closely growing trees may be related, e.g. same
parents. Selection depends on the variation of the stand. A rule of thumb suggests 1
tree/hectare, i.e. one per 1000 trees with initial spacing of 3x3 m.
2.7. Steps in plus tree selection
Plus trees are individual trees of outstanding merits, initially selected on the basis of
superior phenotypic characteristics like height, diameter, clean bole etc. Selection of plus
trees involves
 Preliminary reporting of the outstanding trees called candidate trees
 Final phenotypic appraisal and approval as plus trees.
a) Preliminary reporting
The preliminary reporting of the candidate trees serves the purpose of screening of
as large as possible. This initial survey for candidate trees can be done even by the junior
staffs who are more familiar with the field and plantation with in their jurisdictions. The
criteria for screening trees are as follow,
i) Age
 More than half the rotation age
ii) Growth
 Vigorous, healthy and showing superiority in height and diameter when
compared with surrounding trees.
 Dominants or codominants, having height more than 15 m
 iii) Stem form
 Straight stem
 Stem cylindrical, circular in cross section, without excessive taper
 Absence of spiral grain and if present not to exceed five degrees.
 Free from pronounced buttress and fluting
iv) Crown and Branching
 Narrow to intermediate in width
 Not suppressed either from the top or from the sides any time
 Light and spreading branches which are either flat or moderately ascending
 Good natural pruning, none or few epicormic branches
 Dense mass of healthy foliage.
v) Free from insect and disease attack
vi) Moderate to good flowering and fruiting
The selected trees are marked with yellow band of 5cm width, 5 cm above the breast
height and given a candidate tree number of the range.
b) Final phenotypic appraisal
The final phenotypic appraisal is done jointly by the Forest Geneticist, Silviculturist
and other members of tree improvement group, so that the candidate's superiority of the
phenotypic expression is critically analyzed and discussed without any bias going in favour or
against the selection. For height, clean bole and diameter the actual measurement are taken
but for other characteristics scoring is done with the help of ocular estimates. The details of
scoring are provided in the plus tree scoring form (Table 1) and the data are entered in plus
tree identification data sheet (Table 2).

Table 1. PLUS TREE – SCORING FORM (OCULAR ESTIMATES)

1. VIGOUR
a) Total height
0-Shorter than shortest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to tallest
3-Taller than tallest
b) Bole height
0-Shorter than shortest
1-Equal to tallest
2-Taller than tallest

c) Diameter
0-Shorter than shortest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to tallest
3-Taller than tallest

2. FORM
a) Bole straightness
0-Less straight than poorest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to the straightest
3-Better than straightest

b) Tapering (longitudinal section)

0-More than most tapering
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to least tapering
3-Less than least tapering
c) Shape (Cross Section)
0-Less circular than poorest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to best
3-Better than best

d) Straight grain
0-Less straight grain than poorest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to best
 3-Better than the best

e) Fluting
0-More fluted than poorest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to least fluted
3-Less than least fluted

3. CROWN
a) Epicormic branches
0-Denser than tree worst
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to lightest
3-Lighter than lightest

b) Natural pruning
0-Not as good as poorest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to best pruned
3-Better than best pruned
4. PESTS
0-More than worst infested
1-Intermediate
2-Equal to least infested
3-Less than least infested

5. FRUITING
0-Less bearing than poorest
1-Intermediate
2-Equal bearing to best fruiting
3-Heavier than best fruiting

6. OTHER TRAITS

Total points scored

Scored and approved as a plus tree by

Name

Designation

Name

Designation

Date

Plus tree identification sheet

(Data Sheet)

Location details

Place

Range

Division

Circle

Date of survey

Tree located by

Trees marked with

 Table 2. Plus tree identification sheet

Tree Girth Height Tree Stem Age Straightness Crown Seed

no at of the volume volume structure crop
ground tree Lean Sweep
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

ACTION

Initial screening
Final screening
Candidate Accepted Rejected Candidate Accepted Rejected
Examined by : Examined by :
Date Date
REMARKS REMARKS

Candidate plus Clump (CPC) Record Form

Detail of site

a) Species -----------------------------
b) Location -----------------------------
c) C.P.C.No -----------------------------

(Indicate on map also)

d) State ------------------- B. Forest Division /Range/Coup

e) Dist..--------------------- Town /Village / Locality
2. Topography : Flat/Gentle slope / Medium slope / Hilly/ Steep slope
3. Aspect : N/NE/NW/E/SE/S/SW/W
4. Stand : Natural plantation
: Natural – site quality
-- Year of previous gregarious flowering
: Plantation – seed source

--- Year of planting

5. Clumps per ha :

6. Wind condition : Protected/ Intermediate/ Exposed

7. Rain fall : ( Mean monthly average for the last 10 years)
8. Temperature : mean monthly maximum and minimum temperature for the
last 10 years
9. Grazing Intensity : Light /Moderate/Heavy

2.8. Methods of plus tree selection

Evaluation of these trees is carried out depending on the location of candidate trees
whether in plantation or in natural stand. There are basically two methods applied for the
selection.
 Comparison tree selection
 Base line selection
a) Comparison tree method
The comparison tree selection or check tree selection is commonly used in even aged
stands for a species (Cech, 1959, Pitcher and Dorn, 1967). The first step is the selection of
the candidate trees. Once the candidate trees are selected, they are screened for traits as in
relation to few surrounding trees called comparison tree or check tree. If the candidate tree
exceeds the comparison tree, it is selected as " PLUS TREE." The objective behind
comparison tree is to adjust or correct the phenotypic value of the candidate tree for
environmental effects common to that particular stand. It is presumed that environmental
differences between stands or areas that vary in soil, climate or stand history would make it
difficult to evaluate breeding value on the basis of phenotype. The environmental check
through the use of comparison trees is believed to result in an improvement in the accuracy
of recognizing individuals with good genotypes and not good phenotypes.
b) Base line selection
While selecting plus tree in an uneven aged stand with mixed species, the method
adopted is the base line selection. In this method the individuals are located and their value
for traits of interest is compared to the average of the region in which the selection is made.
The average is a "base line" giving the system its more common name " base line selection".
If the candidate tree exceeds the base line by a considerable amount, it is selected and
incorporated in the breeding population. The base may take the form of a regression
equation that takes into account physical factors of the site. The tree in this case is not
compared to surrounding trees.
c) Other method
i) Regression selection system
The regression selection is employed for grading of uneven aged or mixed species
type stands. A regression selection is built by sampling a number of trees for a desired
character, such as volume growth on a given site, and then plotting them against age. A
reliable regression curve for height or volume can be made with about 50 trees, if there is a
reasonable age-class distribution. Once the curve has been developed, the regression is used
as follows,
 A candidate tree is chosen, based on the judgement of the selector and measured for
the characteristics desired, such as height or volume.
 The trait is plotted on the regression graph using the proper age and site. If the
candidate tree falls above the curve, it has the desired growth for its age whereas
some may fall on the line i.e. average, therefore, its use depends on other
characteristics and some fall below the curve, therefore it has inferior growth for its
age and should not be used.
ii) Mother tree system
Where there is no immediate urgency to obtain large amounts of improved seed, the
mother tree system of selection may be the best. It consists of locating "good" trees that are
usually not as good as select trees in the comparison tree or regression system. Then, one
must obtain seed from these and establish seedlings in genetic tests. After this, either the
best parent trees or the best trees of the best families can be used in a vegetative orchard. If
suitably laid out, the progeny test may be thinned to create a seedling seed orchard.
The main disadvantage of the mother tree system is that time is lot before
commercial quantities of seed are needed for planting programmes. However, this can be
used for hardwoods for which planting programmes are small and seeds are not immediately
needed. It also works well for species that are grown on very short rotations, such as the
Eucalyptus.
iii) The subjective grading system
The subjective grading system is frequently used for hardwoods but is successful
only if the grader is experienced and dedicated to find out the best tree possible. Here the
times spend for seeking the candidate trees is less, which results in choosing less outstanding
trees with smaller selection differentials.
2.9. Marking of plus trees
When the candidate trees are finally approved as plus tree, another yellow band as 5
cm width, 5 cm below the breast height is marked. In between the yellow bands plus trees
number is written, for example TN NS C2. here the first set of two letters indicates State
(Tamilnadu), the second set of two letters indicates division (Nilgiris South), the third letter
represents the range (Coonoor) and the number represents the plus tree number in the
range.
The genetic gain expected from such selection is 15 or 20 percent. The seeds
collected from these plus trees can be considered under " Selected reproductive material" of
seed certification scheme.
List of plus trees selected in Tamil Nadu
Species
No. of plus trees
34
Acacia mearnsii
Casuarina equisetifolia Male 36
Casuarina equisetifolia Female 115
Eucalyptus globules 40
Pinus patula 56
Tectona grandis 24
Santalum album 30
(Tiwari, 1994)
2.10. Criteria for selection of plus trees of some species
a) Eucalyptus spp. (Jayaraj, 1997)
 Age should be 5-10 years
 High growth rate viz., superior height and diameter at breast height
 Straight stem
 Apical dominance i.e. the leader shoot still making new growth
 Free from bends and twists
 Utilizable stem cylindrical with out marked taper
 Crown narrow to intermediate in width
 Crown relatively long i.e. not more than one-fourth and one-third of the total
height of the tree
 Crown with dense healthy foliage
 Branches small in relation to stem at the point of origin
 Branch angle flattened to moderately ascending or descending
 Good natural self pruning of branches
 Well healed knot scars
 Free from pests and diseases
 Wood density should be 0.5-0.6 gm/cm for pulp processing, high density is
preferred for fuel wood and poles
 Fiber length
 Chemical constituents in the wood and bark
 Pulping and curing properties
 Amount of compression wood
 Propensity of interlocked grain
 Capable of producing good crop or well filled seed having good germination ad
vigour

b) Azadirachta indica (Tewari, 1992 a)

 Age should be 10-12 years
 Clean bole height 3.0 m – 7.5 m
 Broad rounded crown
  Free from insect pests viz., Halopeltis antonii, Ascotis selenaria, Boarnia
variegata, Cleora cornaria etc.
 Free from diseases viz., Rhizoctonia, leaf web blight, Colletotrichum leaf spot and
blight, pink disease etc
 Alcoholic content of stem bark viz., nimbin – 0.04%, Nimbidin – 0.002%
 Fatty oil content of seed 40-48.9%
 Specific gravity of wood 0.72-0.83 (air dry)
 Tree height 12-15m with the girth of 1.8-2.8m
 Tannin content of bark 12-14%
c) Shorea robusta
 Age of the tree should be 15-20 years
 Tree height should be 30-40m with the girth of 2-3m
 The bole should be straight and cylindrical but absence of epicormic branches
 Spherical crown
 Dark, thick and gnarled bark
 Free from diseases of Polyporous root rot, stem canker and witches broom
(Bagchee, 1953); phanerogamic parasites (Davidson, 1945)
 Free from insect pests of Lepidoptera defoliators (Singh and Thapa, 1988),
Coleopterous defoliators (Beeson, 1941), stem borers and sap suckers
 Specific gravity of wood 0.735 – 0.805 (air dry)
 Oil content of kernels 10.5-17.1% (Swaleh et al., 1975)
d) Pinus roxburghii (Singh et al., 1970)
 The age of the stand should be between 40 and 60 years
 Vigorously growing trees exhibiting superior phenotypic characteristics
 It produces reasonable quantities of seed in successive years
 Tree height should be 35-40m with girth of 1.4-1.6m (Khosla et al., 1980)
 Clean bole length should be 20-25 m
 Resin yield from 6.5 kg to 12.7 kg during one tapping season chemical
composition (Uriyal and Rawat, 1986)
  Free from insect pests viz., Chrysomelid leaf beetle, painted grass hopper,
chirpine defoliators (Lebeda nobilis), shoot borer (Diorycria abietella), sap
suckers (Icerya purchasi) etc (Beeson, 1941)
 Free from diseases, viz., stem rust (Bagchee, 1929); heart rot, red band disease,
Trimmatostrona needle blight and Lophodermium needle cast (Bakshi et al.,
1972)
 Specific gravity of wood 0.47 (air dry)
 The average fiber length should be 3.60 mm and fiber diameter 0.052 mm
(Bhandari and Chand, 1989)

e) Tectona grandis (Emmanuvel and Bagchi, 1989)

 Age should be more than thirty years
 Vigorous, healthy and showing superiority in height and diameter when
compared with surrounding trees
 The girth should be more than 120 cm
 Dominants or co-dominants height being more than 15 m
 Straight, cylindrical clean bole without too much of taper, bumps, epicormic
shoots, flutes and buttresses
 Absence of spiral grain, if present not to exceed 5 degrees
 Narrow or compact crown with light branching
 Dense mass of healthy foliage
 The branching angle should be 75 - 900
 Free from leaf skeletonizer and leaf defoliator
 Moderate to good flowering and fruiting
 Specific gravity of the wood 0.51-0.77 (air dry)
 Good natural pruning of branches

f) Santalum album (Srimathi et al., 1995)

Selection of superior trees in sandal will be carried out for the following desirable
characteristics
 Fast growth
  Maximum heartwood, oil, santalal formation
 Resistance to spike disease, freedom from pest especially the heart wood borer
 Straight long bole and compact narrow crown

i) Fast growth
This is primarily judged by ocular estimation in plantations of known age. The
superiority in terms of height and diameter of the tree be measured and compared with at
least 5 co dominant check trees growing in the vicinity of the plus trees. 25 to 50 trees
for this character alone are selected from different areas in each state. Periodically more
trees should be selected and added to the plus tree list.
ii) Maximum heartwood, oil and santalal formation
Selection for this character shall be carried out both in the plantation of known
age and natural stands. Parameters for finding maximum heartwood shall be the depth at
which the heartwood is formed by taking a few core samples with the help of Pressler's
increment borer at different heights. The depth shall not exceed more than 3 cm in a
given dominant diameter class.
A non-tandem selection for this character shall also be made for fast growth in the
plantation of known age.
iii) Resistance to spike disease
Selection for these criteria shall be carried out in diseased area and areas where
the disease is originally formed but subsequently become disease free.
a) Selection to spike disease
Select trees of sufficiently matured or aged which can withstand the disease
considerably for a long time and are apparently healthy.
The trees selected under this category will be for disease resistant but non-tandem
selection shall be made if available for fast growth and heartwood formation.
b) Disease free areas
A minimum of 25 and maximum of 50 trees shall be selected for each of the
character. Such trees shall be called, as Candidate Plus Trees (CPT) and numbering of
the trees will be made by state wise.
iv) Absence of bore holes in trees
v) So far in India selections were carried out in plantation after 20 years

g) Bamboos (Tewari, 1992 b)

The important traits for selection in bamboo species can be growth behaviour
considerations such as length of culm, length of internode, hollowness or solidness of
culm and number of branches at node total number of culms per clump, hairy and non
hairy leaves, sheath and anatomical features.
 Resistance against pest and disease and durability is also to be considered for
selection
  The selection parameters may be different for paper and pulp than small scale
industries
 For paper and pulp making the morphological characters of fibres and the rate of
fiber tissue formation should be considered.
 For timber industries, the mechanical strength and durability of bamboo should be
the major criteria for selection
h) Dalbergia sissoo (Tewari, 1994)
 The age should be 7-8 years
 Height of the tree should be 15-30 and 2-4 m in girth at base
 Clean bole without forking
 Compact crown, low branching angle, heartwood and sapwood ratio
 Free from leaf defoliator Placoptera reflexa
 Free from wilt (Fusarium solani) and root disease (Ganoderma lucidem)
 Wood density should be 785 kg/m3 at 12 % moisture content
i) Casuarina equisetifolia
 Age should be 10 to 15 years
 Tree height should be 30-40m with forking branches
 Girth increment should not be less than 1 cm per month at breast height (kondas,
1986) during the first 6-8 years
 Specific gravity of the wood should be 0.88 – 0.95 and weight should be 897.12-
977.22 kg/m3
 The calorific value should be 4950 cals, 8910 B.T.U. when green and the ashes
retain heat for long time
 Tannin content of the bark should be 6-18 percent
 Free from stem wilt caused by Trichosporium vesiculosum and pink disease
caused by Corticium salmonicolor
 Free from defoliators viz., Eumeta crameri
Summary
Selection of superior tree or clone is necessary for any improved forest production
programme. Selection of plus trees will also help to establish seed orchards computing
desirable genotypes and subsequently desirable genotypes assembled together by
provenance for the purpose of seed production for specified steps and given end uses,
should be combined with measures to counted the negative effects of reduced population
size. Hence, selection is the key to all applied tree improvement programmes. The gains
can be no greater than the quality of parents used and the way of obtain the best parents is
through intensive selection.
Potting media in clonal propagation – Physical and chemical properties – Organic and
inorganic component – Vermiculture – Perlite – Styrofoam
The purpose of a potting media is to satisfy the needs of good growth of seedlings within
the limited space of container and to prepare itself for the successful transplanting to the
main field. The media physically support a growing seedling, stores and supplied nutrient,
water and air to the root system. The better the media, the better will be the development of
a healthy, fibrous root system and subsequently, better will be the quality of seedling which
will survive after transplanting and commence growth quickly.
A rooting media should have the following characteristics
1. Light weight
2. Good porosity
3. Well drained but with good water holding capacity
4. Slightly acidic with good Cation Exchange Capacity
5. Able to maintain a constant volume when wet or dry
6. Free from insects, diseases and other weed seeds
7. Low in silt, clay and ash content
8. Easily stored for long period of time without changes in physical and chemical
properties
9. Easily handled and blended
Physical properties of the potting media
Porosity is one of the important physical properties in a growing media because it
determines the space available in a container for air, water and root growth (Leigal and
Venator, 1987).
Aeration is important because the root system breathes (exchanges O2 and Co2 )
in the large, air filled pores (macropores). Poor aeration will adversely affect root form
and structure and will lead to decreased seedling vigour (Scagel and Davis, 1988). The
growing

media must allow adequate drainage. The total porosity of a good growing media should
not exceed 50% and the aeration porosity should range from 20-35% depending on the
media.
Chemical properties of the potting media
The chemical properties that determine suitability of a growing media are pH, Cation
Exchange Capacity (CEC) and fertility.
a) pH
The desired pH of most growing media is slightly acidic, ranging from 5.5 – 6.5,
but the pH levels of the potting media can be controlled by chemical additives.
b) Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
It is a measure of soil or potting media’s ability to hold nutrient. A low CEC (<
10 meq/100 g in sand) means that nutrients will not be retained, and the nutrients will be
washed out from the mix during watering. A high CEC (140 meq/100g) results in
nutrient being held in the mixture and available to the seedlings. The CEC in the rooting
medium can be monitored by adding organic matter or compost.
c) Fertility
Management of nutrient supply to seedling and/or clonal materials is extremely
important. The testing of media through growth trials is always necessary to determine
the appropriateness of the potting mix and to determine the types and levels of additional
nutrients that must be applied. This is also important because the presence of substances
which are phytotoxic to plants must be guarded against. Generally, low fertility of
rooting media in the initial stages of plant growth followed by high concentration during
the developmental stages, enhances quick and good growth of seedlings.
Components of potting media used in vegetative propagation
Several media are used by nurserymen for propagation through cuttings. The
following are the various media used for propagation of tree species using vegetative
means.
a) Organic potting media components
i) Peat
Peat moss is widely used for container growing media and particularly used for
coniferous trees. Peat have the capacity to store large amount of available water, they are
extremely light in weight and have the pH range between 4.5 to 6.0 and also have
relatively high CEC.
ii) Soil
 Soil can be defined as the portion of the entire crust that is formed by the
decomposition of rocks and minerals by physical, chemical and biological forces. A soil
consisting a mixture of 40% sand, 40% soil and 20% clay known as sandy loam is good
for plant growth, since it retains sufficient moisture and permits air movement. Sandy
loam soils are excellent ingredients for the preparation of soil mixtures for container
grown plants. It is not only the physical property but also structure that help in growth
and development of plants. A soil with a good structure has pores that are large enough
to treat air and water without restriction, yet small enough to retain some amount of water
against the pull of gravity. Good soil structure is necessary for good plant growth and
can be improved by addition of organic matter.
iii) Sand
Sand is formed as a result of physical disintegration of rocks and its mineral
composition depends on the type of rock from which it has been derived. Sand varies in
size ranging between 0.05 to 2.0 mm in diameter and also in shape. Usually the type of sand
used for plastering is most suitable for propagation of plants by cuttings. Sand should be
washed, fumigated or heat-treated before use to kill the microorganisms.
iv) Other potting media
Plant residues like bagassee, coconut derived products (fiber husk and dust) and
bark and saw dust of varieties of tree species are also used as potting media for rooting of
cuttings and also for inducing rooting in air layering of trees.
b) Inorganic potting media components
i) Vermiculite
Vermiculite is a layered silicate material, which has been exposed to temperature
of approximately 1000C, which forces the mineral to expand along its parallel fracture
plates. This results in a sterile porous material, which absorbs large quantities of water
readily. Vermiculite is suitable for clonal propagation or for other potting mixture
because of its neutral reaction (pH 7.0) and high buffering capacity. It also has high
water retention capacity, high CEC, and available quantities of magnesium and
potassium, which are adequate to supply most plant needs in the early stage. Though it is
a suitable media for rooting of cutting it has the following disadvantages.
1. It is very flaky and sticky
 2. It holds too much of water when saturated, which is not suitable for growth of
plants.
3. It is not as durable as sand or perlite
Vermiculite is graded into four types depending on the particle size. So while
purchasing the vermiculite, it is important to obtain grades which do not contain any
water repelling chemicals.
ii) Perlite
Perlite is a mineral of volcanic origin, which is crushed and expanded using high
temperature (up to 10000C). It is light, sterile, rigid and granular in texture (particle size
between 1-3 mm) and holds 3 to 4 times its weight of water. It has no buffering capacity
and has a very low CEC. It has virtually no nutrient value. The pH is regulated by
mixing with acidic material. It is most useful to increase aeration and moisture retention
in potting mixture. Because, it tends to migrate to the surface of the container during
irrigation; its use is recommended only as a minor component of growing media.
iii) Pumice
Pumice can be used as a lightweight component of potting media to add bulk and
improve aeration and drainage, much like perlite. It is readily available in areas of young
volcanic soils.
iv) Styrofoam
It is a plastic lightweight material, which is useful for adding bulk and improving
aeration and drainage. It is also used as a small component of the potting mixture as it tends
to migrate to the surface during irrigation.
Characteristics of various components of growing media
Medium Bulk density pH Mineral Sterility CEC (wt) CEC
(kg/m3) range nutrients Meq/100 (Vol.)
Meq/100
Sphagnum 96.1-128.2 3.5-4.0 Minimal Variable 180 16.6
peat
Vermiculite 64.1-120.2 6.0-7.6 K, Mg, Ca Yes 82 11.4
Perlite 72.1-112.1 6.0-8.0 None Yes 3.5 0.6
(Landis et al., 1990)

4) plant growth substances – Auxins- Cytokinins- Gibberellins – other chemicals- Their

role in clonal propagation

Interest in these days is in renewing forest with economically valuable species (Maini,
1992). A projected estimate is that by 2050, seventy five percent of world’s industrial
wood could come from intensively managed, small area of plantation forests (Sedjo,
1999) and natural grown forests could remain for environmental and other non-wood
services (Sedjo and Botkin, 1997). Trees are structurally and physiologically complex
organisms because of many unique features such as long growth periods, the presence of
juvenile and mature phases and heterozygous genomes. In trees, clonal propagation has
widely practiced to offer specific adaptation or trait combination. But a continuous or
reliable supply of planting stock is a problem due to erratic flowering and reliable seed
acquisition. Cloning forest trees have been widely practiced

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) have been used in Agriculture for as long as crop
protection chemicals, their impact up to now has been relatively small in forestry and
their applications is limited to some specific situations. Plant growth regulators are now
used on over one million hectare worldwide on a diversity of crops each year. Most of
these application are however, confined to high value horticulture crops rather than
forestry crops, although, there are several significant role of PGRs in forestry.

Photosynthesis supplies the carbon and respiration supplies the energy for plant
growth, although a group of chemicals produced by plants known as plant growth
regulators control the growth and development of trees. These chemicals act on plant
processes at very low concentrations. A plant hormone "is an organic compound
synthesized in one part of a plant and moved to another part, where it causes a response."
The response may be positive or negative, and the distance travelled need not be far.
Plant growth regulators that aid in crop management fall into five categories viz.,

Professor, Crop Physiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore – 3.

 1. Auxins (IAA)
2. Gibberellins (GA)
3. Cytokinins (CK)
4. Abscisic acid (ABA)
5. Ethylene
Role of PGRs

Growth refers to an increase in size by cell division and enlargement.

Development is a term used to refer to differentiation of cells into the various tissues and
organs (e.g. leaf versus flower). Plant growth regulators influence both growth and
development. Auxins play a role in stem elongation and apical dominance. Gibberellins
are important in elongation, bolting and flowering. Cytokinin is known to influence cell
division, cell and organ enlargement, and the delay of senescence in flowers, vegetables
and fruits. One of the most pronounced physiological effects of ethylene is abscission or
the shedding of a plant part. It appears that an interaction between auxin and ethylene is
responsible for control of abscission. Likely, ABA is involved in dormancy induction.
Growth regulators can also be useful tools, and commercial formulations are available to
slow stem elongation, promote rooting, and to promote flowering.

Auxins

The first plant hormone to be discovered was an auxin, Indole acetic acid (IAA).
There are three other natural auxins in plants. There are also several synthetic auxins.
Some of these synthetic auxins are herbicides, whereas others are the active ingredients in
commercial rooting powders.

Auxins have many effects, but, in general, they promote cell growth and
expansion. Auxin transport is polar (always preferentially downwards in shoots and
upwards in roots). It moves very slowly (1cm h-1) through phloem parenchyma.

Auxin transported below ground from the shoot above, promotes root initiation
and, if not excessive, elongation. For example, removal of young leaves and buds that
make auxin reduces the number of lateral roots formed. Auxin also promotes adventitious
root development on stems. In particular, many woody plants (e.g., willows, apple,
Lombardy poplar) have pre-formed adventitious root primordia in their stems.
 Auxins are also involved in sprouts which form along the upper portion of stems
when trees are bent over by ice, snow, or wind. Studies indicated that when artificial
auxin is supplied to cut stems, no sprouts develop. When the auxin is removed, the stems
sprout. Again auxin may not be acting alone but it clearly has a role. Similarly, many
hardwood trees will develop epicormic sprouts along their trunks when they are suddenly
exposed to increased light, because sudden exposure to light may break down auxin
levels which in turn allow dormant buds along the stems to grow.

Auxin also is involved in phototropism or the bending of young stems towards the
light. It is believed that auxin in the plant tip occurs in higher concentrations on the
shaded side which is then transported down causing cells on the shaded side to elongate
more. This results in the plant bending towards the light. A similar effect also occurs in
the roots. The unequal distribution of auxin to the upper root surface of a horizontal root
results in a bending downward or what is called a gravitropism (a movement in response
to gravity).

Auxins, primarily synthetic ones, have been used commercially in the plant
industry for many years. One of the most well known uses of auxin is for the rooting of
cuttings for plant propagation. Shoot tips of many plant species when dipped or coated
with small amounts of auxin develop roots more quickly and in higher numbers. Most
commercially available rooting powders take advantage of this effect. Many herbicides
are also synthetic auxins. When applied at higher (but still relatively low) concentrations
auxins cause abnormal leaf curling and eventually plant death.

Gibberellins

The first gibberellin (GA) was discovered in Japan in the 1930s during studies of
rice plants that grew excessively tall when infected by a particular fungal disease. There
are over 125 known gibberellins. Seeds and young leaves are major sites of GA
production, but GA can probably be made by all plant cells. Gibberellins, in general,
stimulate growth, and particularly stem growth. They have relatively little effect on root
growth. They are also extremely effective in stimulating cone production in conifers, and
are used for this purpose commercially by seed orchards. Amongst other things,
gibberellins also promote seed germination and bud break.
 Applications of gibberellin to genetically dwarf plants known to greatly increase
their growth to the point where they actually appear normal. Gibberellins have little
effect when they are applied to normal plants. Related to this stem elongation effect
gibberellins are also involved in bolting and flowering. Many plants will naturally stay
small and only produce leaves under short days. Later in the growing season as the days
get longer the plants will eventually elongate rapidly (bolt) and typically flower.
Application of gibberellins will often cause plants to bolt and flower even when the days
are short. Based on these and other observations researchers believe that gibberellins
play a major role in controlling stem elongation in plants. Gibberellins are also involved
in flower formation and fruit development.

Cytokinins

Cytokinins get their name from their ability to promote cell division, but they
have numerous other effects. The first cytokinin, called zeatin, was discovered in the
1950's. More than 30 cytokinins have been isolated. Levels of cytokinin are highest in
young organs (seeds, fruits and leaves) and in root tips. Root tips in particular are
important sites of cytokinin production. Cytokinins move both in the xylem and in the
phloem, and in both directions, but there is significant transport from roots to shoots.

Although cytokinin stimulates cell division in general, high levels of cytokinin

relative to auxin promote the development of shoot meristems, whereas a low
cytokinin/auxin ratio promotes the development of root meristems. Since shoots produce
auxin (travelling down) and roots produce cytokinins (mainly travelling up), one can
imagine how such a system could control the balance between root growths and shoot
growth. All of this is incredibly important to the production of clonal plants for
horticulture and forestry. High levels of cytokinin to auxin will also stimulate the growth
of lateral buds, releasing them from apical dominance. It is also a high cytokinin/auxin
ratio that is responsible for the development of witches broom associated with various
tree diseases.

As mentioned a major effect of cytokinin is cell division. They are also involved
in cell and organ enlargement, and in senescence. They may also play a role along with
auxins in regulating apical dominance. In many plants when the terminal shoot is
removed lateral buds will often develop and elongate. This is believed to be due to the
loss of auxin from the apical meristem. In a similar fashion, artificially applied
cytokinins will often stimulate dormant lateral buds to develop even in the presence of an
intact terminal bud. This has led to conclude that it is a balance of cytokinin and auxin
which controls apical dominance. Cytokinins promote cell division and lateral bud
development, while auxins inhibit it. A good example of this balance at work is in the
shearing of Christmas trees. In order to have a dense, full tree, Christmas tree growers
must shear or clip the trees. In the Pinus genera, each fascicle is actually a short shoot
with a dormant lateral bud at its base. When the terminal bud is clipped (auxin supply
interrupted) many of these dormant fascicular buds develop and the branch density
increases resulting in a full tree. Christmas tree growers have also experimented with
applying an artificial cytokinin (Benzylaminopurine) which also causes the fascicular
buds to develop since the balance is now in the favor of cytokinin.

In normal steady state a pine shoot where cytokinins (promoters) moving up in

xylem are balanced by auxins (inhibitors) produced by the apical bud are in balance and
dormant fascicular buds do not develop, whereas, under top clipped condition the auxin
are removed. Cytokinins promote the development of numerous fascicular buds. An
artificial application of cytokinins overwhelms the supply of auxins and promotes the
development of fascicular buds. Cytokinin can also be used to delay dormancy in fir
seedlings. Fraser fir seedlings grow very slowly for 2 to 3 years and often are only a few
inches tall at the end of this time. This slow growth is due to the rapid onset of dormancy
in the terminal bud. By spraying cytokinins on these seedlings the plants maintain cell
division and apical growth for long periods of time resulting in seedlings several inches
tall in less than one year. The purple needles are a side effect of cytokinin application. A
"witches broom" in the crown of a hardwood tree, a deformity of many short, small,
twisted twigs is often caused by a pathogen which produces a cytokinin that causes
massive bud proliferation.

Ethylene

Ethylene (C2H4), is a gas, was first discovered to be an important plant hormone

because of its ability to stimulate leaf abscission in trees. In 19th century, in Germany the
observation was made that street lamps instead of causing leaves to stay on trees,
sometimes made them fall off. Streets at this time were lit with "illuminating gas" which
contained traces of ethylene. The occasional leak in the pipes would cause leaves to fall
off nearby trees.

All plant parts produce ethylene but at different rates at different times under
different conditions. In land plants, C2H4 inhibits cell elongation but promotes radial
growth. These effects translate into shorter, wider stems. Ethylene also influences wood
formation. Ethylene can stimulate fruit ripening in a number of species. Hence, the
control of ethylene levels in commercial storage facilities is of considerable commercial
importance (i.e., ethylene can be removed to promote storage life, or added to hasten or
synchronize the ripening process, as needed). Ethylene production by plants is stimulated
by wounding, such as the wounding of tissues that is caused by insect attack or disease.
The ethylene produced then stimulates plant defense mechanisms. For example, when
certain fungi infect cells, C2H4 promotes the production of enzymes which attack fungal
cell walls. Ethylene is also very much involved in plant response to flooding stress (e.g.,
it stimulates the production of new roots just above the flood-line).

One of its most pronounced physiological effects is abscission or the shedding of

a plant part. It appears that an interaction between auxin and ethylene is responsible for
control of abscission. During the growing season auxin levels remain high in leaves and
other organs. Later in the season auxin supply diminishes and the level of ethylene
increases. The reduced auxin level along with the increased ethylene results in the
formation of an abscission layer, which is a thin region where the cells slowly break
down forming a thin line which eventually breaks and shedding, occurs. Increased
ethylene during the growing season can trigger premature abscission and the application
of auxin can prevent abscission.

Ethylene production in young forest tree seedlings can result in reduced vigor or
in a sense "over ripening". Forest tree seedlings are often held in cold storage for long
periods of time. If ethylene concentrations build up, seedling vigor is reduced and later
survival when planted is poor. Tree seedlings should never be stored along with apples
or other fruits since the fruit could produce enough ethylene to harm the seedlings. Plants
are also known to produce what is called ãstress ethyleneä. Ethylene is known to be
formed when cells are damaged or when plants are experiencing general stress due to any
number of factors. The production of stress ethylene could contribute to declining vigor
in cold stored seedlings. Ethylene is also known to play a role in seed and bud dormancy,
induction of roots, flowering, and stem elongation.
Abscisic Acid

Abscisic acid was discovered by scientists working on dormancy in trees. A

substance isolated from sycamore tree leaves when applied to the actively growing tips
was found to stop growth and induce bud formation. A second group of scientists
isolated a compound from cotton fruit that induce abscission. It was later determined that
both chemicals were the same compound and it was named abscisic acid (ABA).

It is now known that ABA occurs in all plants and is produced in many locations
within the plant. ABA was originally believed to play a major role in leaf abscission and
dormancy. It is now known that ethylene is more directly involved with leaf abscission.
Bud formation and dormancy is influenced by ABA but more recent experiments have
clouded the issue. In some experiments applications of ABA will induce a resting bud.
Other experiments however failed to get a dormancy response. Likely, ABA is involved
in dormancy induction, but it is probably the balance of inhibitors to growth such as ABA
and growth inducing regulators such as cytokinin and gibberellins that induce dormancy.

ABA is known to be a major factor in seed dormancy. Clear relationships

between the level of ABA and dormancy have been established for seeds with high levels
of ABA resulting in deeper dormancy. Applications of ABA will inhibit seed germination
and maintain dormancy further supporting its role in seed dormancy. During the onset of
seed germination cytokinin and gibberellins have been observed to increase suggesting
again that a balance of growth regulators is the likely control of seed dormancy.

ABA also is related to the response to water stress. ABA builds up to very high
levels during water stress which is believed to signal for the closure of stomata. Even
after water stress is relieved stomata in some plants do not immediately reopen which is
believed to be due to residual ABA still in the leaf. Mutant plants with an inability to
produce ABA have been found to wilt permanently and their stomata to never close.
Applications of ABA to the leaves of well watered plants will result in stomatal closure.

PRACTICAL USES

Rooting of cuttings
 One of the oldest commercial uses of PGRs has been to initiate or accelerate the
rooting of cuttings. The most common compound used in rooting is IBA, which has only
weak auxin activity, but is relatively stable and insensitive to auxin degrading enzymes. It
is also not readily translocated. Other compounds such as NAA, 2, 4-D also promotes
root development. However, these compounds are more easily translocated to other parts
of the stem cuttings, where they have toxic effects. Auxins stimulate root development by
inducing root initials that differentiate from cells of the young secondary phloem,
cambium and pith cells. The aryl esters of IAA and IBA were reported to be superior to
the free aids of these compounds in promoting root initiation (Haissig et al., 1981). Apart
from this hormonal balance and mobilization of stored photosynthates and auxillary
substances is also responsible for successful rooting (Agnihotri and Ansari, 2000). An
investigation into the possibility of propagating Osyris lanceolata through stem cutting
revealed that stem cuttings collected from the sprouting stumps have a potential to be
used in propagating O. lanceolata. Season at which cuttings are collected, origin of the
stem cuttings in a shoot and application of auxins influenced the rooting success. This is
possibly related to the high levels of stored food in the plant after undergoing active
photosynthesis. Season has a paramount role to play in rooting of stem cuttings. Many
forest plant species, which were known to be difficult to root, are now successfully
propagated with the aid of IBA. The cuttings Terminalia chebula planted in July and
October failed completely while in March the middle portion of the cuttings with
combination of 400 ppm IBA produced better results. (Bhardwaj et al., 1993). The high
nutrition and auxin status and low nitrogen content of basal portions may play a role in
enhancing rooting (Teklehaimanot et al., 2004).

Gupta et al. (1993) reported that rooting in Dalbergia sissoo was maximum with
100 ppm of IBA followed by NAA 100 ppm and IAA 200 ppm. Vijayakumar et al.
(1992) reported that highest rooting percentage in Prosopis juliflora was observed in
1000 ppm of IBA than 2000 and 4000 ppm. A large number of tree species tried for
rooting response based on the rooting response of the species have been classified into
the following five groups (Table 1).
 Table 1. Response of tree species based on rooting per cent

S. No. Species Percent Rooting

Category A: Very easy to root (80-100 %)
1. Rauwolfia serpentine 100
2. Morus alba 96
3. Dalbergia sissoo 91
4. Leucaena leucocephala 90
5. Bambusa vulgaris 84
6. Butea monosperma 85
Category B: Easy to root (50-80%)
7. Anthocephalus cedamba 70
8. Gmelina arborea 65
9. Populus deltoidus 65
10. Pongamia pinnata 62
11. Azadirachta indica 60
12. Eucalyptus spp 55
Category C: Moderate rooting (20-50 %)
13. Dalbergia latifolia 40
14. Terminalia arjuna 40
15. Cordia mixa 35
Category D: Difficult to root (less than 20%)
16. Tectona grandis 5
17. Adina cordifolia 5
Category E: Very difficult to root (No rooting)
18. Albizia lebbek Nil
19. Pterocarpus marsupium Nil
20. Acacia auriculiformis Nil
21. Santalum album Nil
(Ram Prasad et al. 1992)

The rooting responses of branch cuttings of Juniperus procera obtained from

young and mature source plants to four plant growth regulators (PGRs), namely, indole-
3-acetic acid (IAA), indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), and
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) applied at various concentrations were examined
in sand culture. Cuttings treated with IAA and the control resulted in a relatively higher
root number. Those that were treated with NAA yielded relatively longer roots. Mean
root number and length of the control were significantly greater than most of the PGR
treatments (p<0.05). In this species, cells of callus tissue, cambium, cortex, as well as
xylem cells, could give rise to root primordia. Maximum sprouting (100%) and rooting of
culm cuttings of Dendroclalamus membranaceous at seedling stage was achieved using
Triacontanol (100) ppm (Nath and Das, 1995). The responses of various tree species to
rooting hormones are listed in Table 2 and 3.

Table. 2. Usage of PGRs in rooting of cuttings in tree crops

S. Dosage
Tree crops Types of Cuttings PGR
No. (ppm)
Coppice leafy cuttings of 4-5 cm
long and 0.5-1.5 cm diameter with
1. Acacia mangium single nodes collected from 2nd to 4th IBA 6000
nodal positions of 6-24 months old
stock plants.
2. Bassia latifolia Double nodal cuttings of 15 cm length IBA 2000
Double nodded cuttings of 2-3 years
3. Bamboos NAA 100
old culms
Casurina Springs (5-7 cm long cladode
4. IBA 2000
equisetifolia cuttings)
Softwood cuttings of 15-20 cm
5. Dalbegia sissoo IBA 2000
length two nodes
6. Dalbegia latifolia Nodal cuttings NAA/IBA 4000
Eucalyptus Half yearly cuttings from coppice
7. IBA 4000
tereticornis shoots
8. Populus deltoides Branch cuttings IBA 1000
9. Santalum album Two node cuttings IBA 4000
Double nodal branch cuttings of 15- IBA 2000
10. Tectona grandis
20 cm length with 1.0-1.5 cm dia IBA/NAA 100
Plumbago, Ivy,
11. Clematis,
Herbaceous cuttings IBA 250
Delphinium,
Lavender, Ficus

Bamboo, a multifaceted plant, can be propagated in a mass scale using in vitro

technique in the absence of seed material. GA at concentrations 0.5 – 2 mg / lit and BAP
at 2 ml / lit was found most effective in germination of old seeds and regeneration of
shoot buds from nodal segments of in vitro plantlets. (Maity and Ghosh, 1997). Single
nodal culm cuttings treated for 24 hrs with 2 mM IBA in April and May can be
effectively utilized for vegetative propagation of Bambusa nutans on a large scale (Singh
et al., 2002). In Bambusa bambos, in vitro raised shoots failed to root on hormone free
basal medium. Best rooting was obtained (80- 85 %) within 20 days of subculture on MS
medium with 30 mg / lit NAA. Cuttings taken from adult trees of Tectona grantis gave
good response to both IAA and IBA. IBA promotes more rooting in terms of root
number, while NAA promotes more root length.

Table 3. Concentration of rooting hormone used for different tree species

Tree species Conc. of IBA

Softwood cuttings 1000 ppm
Hardwood cuttings 2000 ppm
Root hardwood cuttings 5000 ppm
Difficult to root plants 20000 ppm
Acer tatarica subsp. ginnala 750 ppm
Cotoneaster lucidus 500 ppm
Diertilla sessilifolia 'Butterfly' 750 ppm
Hydrangea paniculata 'Grandiflora' 750 ppm
Juniperus horizontalis 'Wiltonii 1500 ppm
Lonicera xbrownii 'Dropmore Scarlet' 750 ppm
Physocarpus opulifolius 'Monlo' 1500 ppm
Rhus aromatica 'Gro-low' 750 ppm
Rosa 'Dwarf Pavement' 1500 ppm K-IBA
Rosa 'Radrazz' 1500 ppm K-IBA
Rosa 'Nearly wild' 1500 ppm K-IBA
Spiraea japonica 750 ppm
Syringa xprestoniae 'Donald Wyman' 750 ppm
Syringa pubescens subsp. patula 'Miss Kim' 750 ppm
Syringa ulgaris 'Monge' 750 ppm
Syringa x chinensis 'Lilac Sunday' 750 ppm
Syringa ‘Bailbelle' 750 ppm
Thuja occidentalis 'Pyramidalis' 1500 ppm
Thuja occidentalis 'Techny' 2500 ppm
Viburnum trilobum 'Alfredo' 1500 ppm
Viburnum lantana 'Mohican' 1500 ppm
 Viburnum trilobum 'Wentworth' 1500 ppm
Weigela 'Minuet' 1500 ppm
Weigela 'Red Prince' 1500 ppm

With extraction of anti-cargenogenic drugs such as Taxol, Baccatin etc., from

Taxus bark and leaves, the species is over exploited. Rooting of cuttings was vigorous in
IBA + NAA (100 ppm) treated cuttings (Mitter and Sharma, 1999). The endangered
mangrove species Cerebera manzhas and Merope angulata were tried for its vegetative
propagation through stem cuttings. Hormones, IAA (500 ppm), IBA (1000 ppm) and
NAA (500 ppm) were found to be effective in inducing rooting (Thatoi et al., 2000). The
cuttings taken from four years old plants of Dalbergia sissoo rooted better when treated
with 100 ppm of IBA in the month of August (Gupta et al, 1993).

Micropropagation

MS medium with 0.5 mg/l BA (rooting medium) helped in micropropagation of

Bambusa nutans and Dendroclalamus membranaceous (Yasodha et al, 1997). A
regeneration rate of upto 70% was obtained in Eucalyptus globulus hypocotyls with 5 to
20 buds on MS medium containing 1 mg NAA + 0.2 mg BA (Azmi et al. 1997).

Flowering

Trees are being perennial are quite valuable, whether for ornamental or
horticultural purposes. The control of flowering by trees especially fruit and nut trees is
very important. Such control of flowering has three objectives (1) to prevent flowering
when young in order that the photosynthates produced goes into vegetative growth and
development (2) to induce flowering when mature to increase yield and (3) to regulate
cropping and increase overall long-term yields by increasing “return flowering” of those
varieties and cultivars that tend to bear every other year or alternate between heavy and
light bearing years. Spring application of GA is used to accelerate flower bud production
to allow early harvesting dates. GA is used to induce precious cone production in
conifers. This is an important aid to genetic improvement in silviculutre. Douglas fir for
example normally requires 20 years for seed production, but use of GA4/7 can induce seed
in six year old trees.

Endogenous hormones play a predominant role in the induction and perpetuation of

cyclic alternate behaviour. Assuming that regular cropping is the outcome of a fine balance
between reproductive and vegetative growth, any distortion of this balance is apt to induce
alteration in susceptible cultivars. Therefore, lack of flowers, excess of fruits in absence of
adequate vegetative growth can throw the tree with cyclic behaviour. Alternate bearing is
inherent to the nature of polycarpic woody plants. The plant growth regulators can induce
flowering in the off season. The growth retardant Cycocel (CCC) is useful for flower
induction and fruit set. The growth retardant can change the pattern of growth and
flowering by prevention of cell division in sub apical meristem. Exogenous application of
ethrel induces flowering in mango during off season (Table 4).
Table 4. Plant growth regulators for control of flowering

S.No Forest crops PGRs

1. Almond Alar
2. Apricot Alar, Ethephon
3. Cypress GA3
4. Larch GA3,NAA
5. Spruce BA, CCC, GA3, Phosphon D, TIBA
6. Pine BA, GA3, NAA
7. Cedar GA3
8. Lychee BA, Ethephon, NAA
9. Peach AVG
10. Pear Alar, AVG, CCC, GA3
(Nickel, 1991)

Paclobutrazol reduced the level of endogenous gibberellins and induced flowering

in Eucalyptus nitens (Moncur et al., 1994). Application of Paclobutrazol to juvenile
cuttings of Eucalyptus species induced early flowering, reduction in internode length,
proliferation of epicormic shoots and a reduction in leaf size in the first year (Cauvin,
1992). Paclobutrazol could be used to reduce vegetative growth and enhance flower bud
production (Griffin et al., 1993).

Fruit set

A number of deciduous fruit tree species can be induced to fruit set with GA or a
combination of GA and auxin. Consistent unfavourable weather during the pollination
period has led to the development of a hormone mixture to induce parthenocarpic fruit
set. The two main auxin type compounds used in fruit set are NAA and methyl ester of
NAA. NAA is applied at 2-5 ppm at 7-20 days after full bloom. The application of auxin
soon after fruit set results in the acceleration of abscission. However, when auxins such
as 2, 4, 5-T, NAA and 2, 4-D are applied during mid stages of fruit growth, abscission is
delayed or prevented. 2, 4, 5-T and NAA are used at 10-20 ppm just prior to the
beginning of fruit drop. Repeated application may be necessary with NAA, 2, 4, 5-T to
prevent fruit drop for longer period (Table 5).

Table 5. Plant growth regulators for fruit set and development

Forest crops PGRs

S.No
1. Banyan Ethephon
2. Olive Ethephon
3. Date palm BA, GA3, IAA,NAA
4. Walnut Ethephon
5. Peach Ethephon, GA3
6. Pear Alar, BA, CCC, Ethephon, GA3
(Nickel, 1991)

Abscission of plant parts

Abscission is a botanical term meaning “Shedding”. It is a process in which

leaves, flowers or fruits become detached from the parent plant body. The timing as well
as process of abscission is important for many forest crops. For e.g. in fruit and nut trees
premature abscission results in an unripe and useless crop (Table 6). On the other hand an
over abundance of flowers that persist and set fruit can result in inferior crop. Thus the
control of abscission is extremely important commercially. There are two main reasons
for removing as much as 80 % of the flowers. First, to increase the total marketable yield
by increasing the size of the remaining fruit. Secondly, to reduce the phenomenon of
biennial bearing in order to maintain the production levels from year to year. The effect
of fruit thinning on fruit size is probably related to leaf to fruit ratio. The ability to
remove unwanted leaves at harvest or at other appropriate time is most important in tree
nursery stock as is the removal of nuisance fruit in wood pulp trees. The prevention or delay in
abscission is important in flower, fruit and foliage reservation in Christmas tree, holly and the
like, as well as tree storage of certain crops. Ethylene releasing compound, Ethephon, is applied
approximately ten days before the anticipated harvest of walnut to reduce the fruit removal
force, allowing the mechanical harvesting of the tree without injury. The qualities of the
harvested nuts are also increased because they do not remain on the trees for a longer period
after maturation and therefore avoid decomposition due to heat and disease.

Table 6. Plant growth regulators for control of abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits

S. No. Forest crops PGRs Plant parts

1 Banyan Ethephon, RH 2915 Leaves
2. Oak Alar, MH Leaves
3. Olive Alar, DNOC Flower
4. Plum Alar, 2,4-D, Ethephon Leaves, Flower
5. Walnut Ethephon Leaves
(Nickel, 1991)

The growth retardant Cycocel (CCC) (2 – chloro- ethyl trimethyl ammonium

chloride) is useful for flower induction and fruit set. The growth retardant can change the
pattern of growth and flowering by prevention of cell division in sub–apical meristem.
Exogenous application of ethrel (2–chloro ethane phosponic acid) induce flowering in
mango.

Tree size and shape

There are number of PGRs to control the size of a tree- either retard or increase its
growth. In bearing trees, suppression of vegetative growth often enhances fruit yield and
quality. For ornamentals restriction of size is often desirable. Several plant growth
regulators (PGRs) are thought to be important in determining crown form: indole-3-acetic
acid, which inhibits lateral bud release, and cytokinins, which promote the release of buds
from apical suppression. Using poplar pedigrees, the production of auxin and cytokinin
will be determined and related to the release of lateral buds on elongating shoots.

Gibberellic acid is the most widely used chemical used to increase the vegetative
growth of number of trees, whereas the most commonly used growth retardants are MH
30 and paclobutrazol. Controlling tree size with these compounds will be an effective
way to increase the harvesting efficiency in conjunction with modern pruning practices
such as summer mowing of the tree canopy. Growth of woody landscape plants may also
be effectively controlled using the triazoles, paclobutrazol and uniconazole. This practice
is particularly useful during nursery production. The induction of branching in many
varieties of maiden fruit trees can result in higher grade of tree at the time of sale and in
increased numbers of fruit in the following years. Young orchards planted with well
branched trees flower more abundantly and yield more than do those planted with less
branched trees. The use of PGRs for chemical pruning results in additional cost savings
are shown in table 7.
 Table 7. Plant growth regulators for control of tree size and shape

S.No Forest crops PGRs

1. Almond NAA
2. Banyan MH 30
3. Birch MH 30
4. Cotton wood Alar, MH 30, TIBA
5. Eucalyptus spp. Alar, MH 30, NAA
6. Fig MH 30, Chlorfurenol
7. Fir GA3, BA
8. Oak Alar, BA, MH 30
9. Olive MH 30
10. Red wood MH 30
11. Rubber IBA, TIBA
12. Sweet gum MH 30, NAA, Paclobutrazol
13. Walnut MH 30
14. Willow MH 30
(Nickel, 1991)

Latex flow

The amount rubber produced in the form of coagulated latex is the function of the
duration of latex flow from the tapping cut that is made in tree bark. Results of early
investigation on this process resulted in the use of 2, 4 –D, 2, 4, 5-T and NAA as
stimulates the latex flow. The use of ethephon applied to the tree bark enabling the trees
to express their full genetic potential by reducing or removing the physical barrier to
flow. Rubber yield can be increased by 50-80% by the application of ethephon. The
mechanism of increased latex flow by ethephon is not well understood. It is believed that
lutoids, non rubber containing bodies within the latex, are disrupted by tapping and cause
coagulation or plugging of the latex vessels as a result of changes in osmotic potential or
shear forces imposed by the high flow rate through the narrow pores of the vessel.
Ethephon may stabilize the lutoids making them less susceptible to disruption.
Alternatively, it has been proposed that ethephon treatment leads to an increased cell wall
thickening of the vessels making the walls less likely to contract during tapping and
therefore, fewer lutoids would be disrupted, all of which will increase latex flow.
Value addition by PGRs

There have been number of studies concerning the effects of PGRs on the
chemical composition of trees and their products. Schwartz (1983) reported the increase
in oleoresin accumulation in pines through the application of paraquat. Paraquat enters
the transpiration stream and causes living xylem cells to synthesize large quantities of
oleoresin that are subsequently transferred in large amounts in neighboring cells until the
entire area is saturated. Several chemicals are evaluated for their effect in increase in
anthocyanin level thus making their colour more intense. The chemical studied are Alar,
Ethephon, 2, 4 –D and NAA. TIBA, paclobutrazol and Alar are found to increase the
mineral content of fruits, while, Alar, CCC and paclobutrazol do the same for their
polyamine contents.

Resistance to environmental stress

It is known that plant growth regulators have a role in stabilizing crop plants, for
instance against winter kill, drought or fungal attacks. It is known for instance that certain
plant growth regulators would lead to increased endogenous levels of abscisic acid which
is likely to protect plants against certain situations of climatic stress. It has been
demonstrated that triazoles triggers the modulation of GA levels that results in a sequence
of processes leading to stress protection (Fletcher et al., 1999). This cascade of events
includes increased biosynthesis of photosynthetic pigments, altered root or shoot ratio
and increased levels of antioxidant enzymes which scavenge free radicals generated by
abiotic stresses. It has been demonstrated that the morphological and stress protective
effects of triazoles are reversed by GA3 thereby indicating that an intimate relationship
between plant stress protection. There are no practical uses of ABA because of the high
cost of synthesis and its instability in UV light. Although ABA has been shown to have
adequate anti-transpirant properties on crops, its effect is short lived as a result of rapid
metabolism and photoisomerization of the plant growth regulator. Frequent application
would therefore, be necessary to protect plants from water stress and this would be
inconvenient and inexpensive. The ABA analogs LAB 173-711 and LAB 144-143 are
acetylene acetyl type compounds that have been found to reduce water use in crop plants,
increase cold hardiness and delay flowering in peach. A considerable effort has been
made in practical application of brassinosteroids (Br) and promising results have been
obtained in several crops (Table 8). Application of Br to crops helps to overcome
environmental stress such as cold, salt and herbicidal injury. Growth retardants viz., CCC,
mepiquat chloride and AMO 6118 are the most prominent representatives to increase the
drought and cold tolerance (Ragavendra, 1991).

Table 8. Plant growth regulators for abiotic stress tolerance

S. No. Trees Cold hardiness Water stress tolerance

1. Red Pine - ABA
2. Maple sugar - ABA
3. Cocoa - CCC
4. Peach Paclobutrazol -
5. Apricot Paclobutrazol ABA
(Nickel, 1991)

Conclusion

Successful agriculture, horticulture and forestry are all based on the control of
plant growth for various advantages, such as beauty, fiber, food, and shelter. The
advances in crop control through the use of plant growth regulators have been quite
important for the past few decades. Most of the current uses of PGRs in high value
forestry crops are not however for the compounds that increase yield directly either by
increasing biomass or economic part. Rather, compounds that provide economic benefit
by enhancing quality or in aid in more efficient tree management are more common.

References

1. Z. Teklehaimanot, P. L Mwangingo, G. Mugasha and K. Ruffo. 2004. Influence

of the origin of stem cutting, season of collection and auxin application on the
vegetative propagation of African Sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata) in Tanzania:
scientific paper. Southern African Forestry Journal. Vol. 201.

2. B.E. Haissig, J.R. Gaines and G. Giacoletto. 1981. Tree rooting using synthetic
auxins. US. Patent 4, 297, 125. October 27, 1981.
3. K.Agnihotri and S.A. Ansari. 2000. Adventitious rhizogenesis in relation to
seasonal variation, size of culm branch cuttings and IAA treatments in bamboos.
Indian Forester, 126.(9): 971-984.

4. B.B. Gupta, A. Kumar and D. S. Negi. 1993. Vegetative propagation through

branch cuttings in Dalbergia sissoo. Indian Forester, 10 (9): 381-386.

5. R. Vijayakumar, A. Rajasekar and K.P. Srivasuki. 1992. Propagation of Prosopis

juliflora from terminal cuttings. In. Vegetative propagation and Biotechnology for
Tree improvement. (Eds). K. Kesava Reddy. Nataraj Publishers, Dehradun.

6. Ram Prasad, S.S. Dhuria and S.K. Tiwari. 1992. Status of research on vegetative
propagation on forest tree species in Madhya Pradesh. In. Vegetative propagation
and Biotechnology for Tree improvement. (Eds). K. Kesava Reddy. Nataraj
Publishers, Dehradun.

7. Desta Berhea and Legesse Negashb. (1998) Asexual propagation of Juniperus

procera from Ethiopia: a contribution to the conservation of African pencil cedar.
Forest Ecology and Management. 112:179-190

8. L.G. Nickel. 1991. Use of growth regulating chemicals. In: Physiology of trees.
(Eds) A.S. Raghavendra. Wiley Interscience publication, New York.

9. A.S. Raghavendra. 1991. Physiology of trees. Wiley Interscience publication,

New York.
 5) Propagation methods – Grafting – Layering – Different Methods

Vegetative propagation involves the use of relatively large place of plant tissue or part
compared to tissue culture involving use of a single cell. This has been broadly classified
into autovegetative and heterovegetative systems (Fig 1).
Cuttings
Generally, the term cutting refers to any portion removed from the parent plant. It
is the cheapest, easiest and quickest method of multiplying the stock. A cutting is a cut twig
or shoot or branch whose base is placed in moist rooting medium and permitted to develop
adventitious roots.
Types of cuttings
 Root cuttings
 Stem cuttings
 Leaf cuttings
 Leaf bud cuttings
 Herbaceous cuttings
 Softwood cuttings
 Semi hardwood cuttings
 Hardwood cuttings
Root cuttings
Propagation by means of root cuttings is very simple and easy. In root cuttings,
adventitious shoots are regenerated. Root cuttings can easily propagate plants, which freely
produce suckers in nature. The adventitious shoots develop mostly at the proximal end of
the root, i.e., the portion nearest to the crown of the root generally forms shoot. Hence, it is
highly essential to maintain polarity at planting. The proximal end of the root cutting should
always be kept above the soil when vertical planting is done. In some cases horizontal
planting gives good results but the shoots mainly develop at the proximal end.

*Assistant Professor (Forestry) ** Professor and Head (Department of Tree Breeding),

Forest College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Mettupalayam. 641 301
 Root cuttings are generally taken in early or late winter or early spring when the roots
are well supplied with reserve carbohydrates. Root cuttings should not be made when the
plant grows vigorously because during that period the roots remain deficient in stored food.
Eg.Rhododendron.
Stem cuttings
Stem cuttings are pieces of growing parts taken from the aerial parts of parent plant.
They are classified into softwood, hardwood and semi hardwood cuttings.
Softwood cuttings
Cuttings made from young tender shoots of current growth, which still retain their
leaves, and little woody tissues are called as softwood cuttings. Soft woodcuttings root faster
and easier than hardwood cuttings but require more care. In conifers, cuttings collected
from the healthy lower crown branches root better than cutting from upper crown (Table 1).
Eg. Gliricidia sepium, Casuarina montana and C.cunninghamiana.
Hardwood cuttings
It involves preparing cuttings from matured past seasons dormant hardwood after
the leaves have dehisced, and before new shoots emerge. In order to reduce the
transpiration rate, the leaves are removed in hardwood cuttings (Table 1). Eg., Dalbergia
sissoo, Lannea coromandalica, Ficus sp.
Semi hardwood cuttings
Cuttings taken from partially matured wood from broad – leaved evergreen species
are called so. The shoots are semi-lignified. Eg. Ceiba pentandra, Erythrina suberosa and
Jacaranda mimosifolia.

Table.1. Comparison of softwood cuttings with hardwood cuttings

Softwood cuttings Hardwood cuttings
Sl.No
1 Leaves on the lower part of the cuttings are All leaves are removed
removed and those on the upper part retained
and often pruned.
2 7.5 –12.5 cm long 15-20 cm long
3 Nodes two or more Atleast two nodes
4 Basal cut is made just below a node Basal cut is made just below a
node and the top cut is made 1.5
– 2.5 cm above the node
5 Young soft and succulent Mature and dormant
 Leaf bud cuttings and leaf cuttings have minor role in vegetative propagation of tree
species.
c) Leaf cuttings
In leaf cuttings, the leaf base or leaf blade and petiole is utilized in starting new
plants. Adventitious buds, shoots and roots form at the base of the leaf and develop into
new plant. The original leaf does not become a part of the new plant and disintegrates.
Only a limited numbers of plant species can be propagated by leaf cuttings. Eg. Eucalyptus
spp.
d) Leaf bud cuttings
A leaf bud cutting consists of a leaf, petiole and a short piece of the stem with the
attached axillary bud. They differ from the leaf cuttings in that only adventitious roots are
initiated from detached leaves. The axillary bud at the nodal area of the stem provides the
new shoot. A number of plant species such as tea, maple, Eucalyptus and Rhododendron as well
as many tropical shrubs and most herbaceous plants are usually propagated by this method.
Factors affecting rooting of cuttings
a) Internal factors
i) Age of the stock plant
In many woody plants, it has been found that cuttings made from older mature
plants are difficult to root, whereas cuttings made from young seedlings produce roots easily
(Hitchcock and Zimmerman, 1937). The juvenile condition of the young seedling is found
to be conducive for rooting. The decrease in rooting ability of cuttings taken from mature
plants is associated with an increased level of rooting inhibitors or decreased level of rooting
co-factors. The best propagation is achieved with young trees, but this often runs counter to
specific purposes, such as the production of flowers, fruits and seeds.
ii) Condition of the cuttings
As regards the condition of the cutting, woody cuttings do not sprout or root easily.
Herbaceous cuttings tend to be very susceptible to drying. An intermediate condition is
therefore best particularly when the cutting is planted out in the field immediately. Hence,
collection should be done at the active stage of the plant, the most favourable period when
the buds on the tree start their active growth.
iii) Nutritional and hormonal condition of the plant
The high carbohydrate level in cuttings favours root formation, but if the nitrogen
level decreases below a certain critical level, the root formation on cuttings decreases in spite
of high levels of carbohydrates. Conversely very high level of nitrogen is detrimental to
rooting. Vigorously growing shoots high in nitrogen and low in carbohydrate do not root as
quickly as cuttings made from moderately growing shoots, which are high in carbohydrates
and medium in nitrogen. High phosphorous level enhances rooting of cuttings (Kraces and
Kraybill, 1918). The role of other elements such as calcium, magnesium or potassium is still
not clear. Among the trace elements, zinc and boron have been found to stimulate rooting
of cuttings. Zinc is required for tryptophan synthesis, which is a precursor of IAA.
The exogenous application of auxin results in increased rooting. Rhizocline is a
complex of three components viz., ortho di-hydroxy-phenol, auxin and enzyme probably of
polyphenol oxidase type, which initiates the reaction leading to root initiation. The root
inhibiting substances also affects rooting of cuttings.
iv) Relative position of the shoot of the parent plant
The lateral shoots produce more roots than terminal shoots. The increased rooting
ability of lateral branches is most probably due to increased level of stored food in shoots.
Vigorously growing shoots usually contain less carbohydrate and consequently root poorly.
v) Position of the basal cut with reference to the node
In some species, rooting is better when the cut is made above or below the node. In
others, rooting is best if the cut is made at the node. The varying influence of the position
of the basal cut may be due to differences in the tissue arrangement between the nodal and
the internodal areas of the stem.
vii) Effect of leaves and buds
In general, growing buds promote rooting, while dormant buds are usually
inhibitory. Removal of buds promotes rooting during the dormant period. The promoting
effect of buds on rooting during the non-dormant period is due to increased supply of auxin.
Leaves are the primary organs for photosynthesis and the response of rooting will be
proportional to the leaf area. However, retention of all the leaves on a cutting sometimes is
not desirable, because of excessive loss of water through the leaves and consequent drying
out of the cutting.
viii) Time of collection of cuttings
In deciduous trees, cuttings are made during dormant season generally in early winter
and then rooted in the nursery. In evergreen trees, cuttings are made and planted during the
rains but sometimes in early spring. Rooting of conifers is usually poor if cuttings from
shoot are taken in late spring or in early summer while they are still growing (Hartmann and
Loreti, 1965). Flowering is inhibited because the carbohydrate reserves are diverted towards
the formation and development of fruits.
b) External factors
i) Light
The small soft wood cuttings with little or no carbohydrate reserves requires
exposure to light for rooting, whereas deciduous cuttings having larger reserves of
carbohydrates do not require light for root formation. Blue and orange red regions of the
spectrum are most effective in stimulating rooting and photosynthesis. Long photoperiod
favours rooting than short photoperiod. The stem tissue developing in complete darkness is
more likely to initiate adventitious roots than the tissue exposed to light.
ii) Temperature
Generally a temperature of 210C - 300C during day and 150C – 160C during night are
considered most satisfactory for rooting of cuttings of most species. In case of hardwood
cuttings planted in winter or early spring, providing bottom heat to the rooting medium is
beneficial in induction and development of roots on cuttings before sprouting of buds. The
bottom heat may be 2-40C warmer than ambient temperature.
iii) Water
The main reason for failure of cutting is due to the result of excessive water loss
before rooting. Maintenance of high degree of humidity surrounding the leaf usually
prevents desiccation of cuttings and ultimately results in increased rooting of cuttings.
Humidity can be maintained by automatically regulated devices, which disburse mist.
Intermittent mist is more desirable because continuous mist causes rotting and leaching of
essential substances, which reduces rooting of cuttings. Mist also favours subsequent
growth of rooted cuttings, which should be hardened before planting.
iv) Rooting medium
Rooting medium not only affects the percentage of cutting rooted but also the
quality of roots produced. Rooting medium has three basic functions (i) it holds the cuttings
in place, (ii) it supplies moisture to the cuttings and (iii) it supplies oxygen to the basal
portion of the cuttings. The quantity of available moisture and air in the rooting medium are
responsible for the variation in nature of the roots produced. There are several media such
as sand, vermiculite, perlite, peat, moss etc., which may be used singly or in mixture. An ideal
medium should be well drained to retain sufficient moisture, porous enough to permit free
aeration and free from harmful organisms.
Grafting
Grafting can be defined as an art of joining parts of plants together in such a way
that they will readily unite and continue to grow as one plant. Usually a graft has two parts
viz., scion and rootstock. Scion refers to that part of a graft combination that becomes the
upper or top portion of the graft combination, which becomes the root system. In most
cases, the stock is raised from seeds. For a successful graft union, it is essential that the
cambium of the scion be placed in close contact with the cambium of the stock.
a) Conditions for successful grafting
The success of grafts depends on,
 Compatibility of graft union
 Closeness of fit
 Cambial contact
To attain a successful graft both the stock and the scion should be of same thickness,
so that they match each other. The cut should be uniform and smooth so that the two
components are tied easily together, with no gap between the scion and stock.
b) Preparation of rootstock and scion
Rootstock plants can be grown in pots, nursery beds or field sites. The condition of
both the scion and the rootstock at the time of grafting is an important factor. Usually
dormant scion and actively growing stock are used. Freshly collected scion gives the best
success rate whereas dormant scion collected under dry weather conditions several weeks in
advance and stored in sealed plastic bags can also be used (Fig 2).
c) Time of grafting
Normally the best period for grafting is late spring when buds of stock plants begin
to swell. When dormant scions are to be used on dormant stock the period of grafting
extends to the time of bud break on the stock. Soft wood grafting extends to the time of
bud break on the stock. Soft wood grafting is practiced from late spring to early summer.
Grafting is avoided in winter, because the low temperature affects graft union and survival.
d) Techniques of grafting
 Raising of rootstock
 Collection of scion
 Removal of leaf in scion
 Preparation of rootstock
 Joining scion and rootstock
 Tying with tape
 Covering with grafting wax
 Union of grafts
Methods of grafting
i) Splice or Whip grafting
The scion and rootstock are selected. The stock is cut back to the height where
grafting is to be done and a slanting cut of about 3-5 cm long is made and a similar cut of
the same length and slope is given to scion so that the union will perfectly match. These two
cut surfaces are placed together and wrapped tightly with polythene grafting tape.
 Single oblique cut made on stock and scion
 Stock and scion placed to match cambium
 The graft is tied securely
ii) Whip and tongue grafting
This technique is followed when the stock and scion are of similar thickness. In
general seedlings, rooted layers or cuttings are whip grafted in late winter or early spring.
The scion and stock are prepared as like in the case of whip grafting. On each of these cut
surfaces, a reverse cut is made. It is started downward at a point about one-third of the
distance from the tip and should be about one-half the length of the first cut. The scion is
then slipped into the stock so that they interlock.
 Diagonal cut at stock and scion with tongue
 The graft tied and wrapped
iii) Saddle grafting
The stock and the scion should be nearly equal in size for good cambial contact and
complete graft. The rootstock is prepared in the form of a wedge. A vertical cut is then
 given at the base of the scion and is inserted to the rootstock so that they fix well. The
components are then tied and coated with grafting wax.
iv) Cleft or Wedge grafting
It is done in early spring when the tree is nearing dormancy. The shoot tip of the
stock plant is removed and a vertical cut is made through the centre of pith. The scion is
prepared by making tapering cuts in the form of a wedge. It is then inserted into the split so
that the cambial layers of both the scion and the stock are well matched. The union is tied
and covered with grafting wax to avoid water entry.
v) Side grafting
An oblique or slanting cut is made in the side of the stock for about 3.5 cm. The
scion is prepared with sloping cuts, opposite to each other on the base. Then the rootstock
is slightly bent such that it allows sufficient space for scion insertion. The scion should
match the cambial layers of the stock. Then the graft is tied with polythene tape to seal the
entire cut area. After graft union the top of the stock is cut and painted with tree paint (Fig.
6).
vi) Veneer grafting
The base of the scion is cut diagonally and a wedge shaped patch of bark of the same
size is removed from the side of the stock. The scion and stock are bound together with
cambial layers matching. After healing of stock the upper portion of stock is removed (Fig.
7).
vii) Approach grafting
Two independent self sustaining plants are grafted together. A cut is made through
the cambium and slightly into the wood is given on both the stock and the scion. The cut
surfaces are pressed firmly and tied with polythene tape. After the union is achieved the
scion is severed below the union and the stock above the union (Fig. 8).
 Removal of a thin slice of wood and bark from both stock and scion (Fig. 8a)
 Positioning and tieing the stock and scion (Fig. 8b)
 Waxing the graft union (Fig. 8c).
viii) Bark grafting
It is done in early spring at a time when the bark separates from the wood with ease.
In this method the stock is sawed off and the bark is split downward from the apex about 5
cm long. The scion is inserted between the bark and the wood of the stock by placing
longer cut of scion against the cambium. The scion is then tied and covered with grafting
wax (Fig. 9).
ix) Root grafting
The rootstock seedling or rooted cutting or layered plant is dug up and the roots are
used as the stock for the graft. The entire root system may be used or the roots may be cut
into small pieces and each piece is used as a stock. As the roots used are relatively small,
whip grafting method is generally followed.
x) Bridge grafting
It is a form of grafting followed when there is injury to the trunk. The wounded area
is trimmed. The scion should be taken from dormant one year old shoot in the form of
strips of uniform size. It is then inserted around the injured section for every 5-7.5 cm and
connected to both the upper and lower ends into live undamaged bark (Fig. 10).
Layering
Formation of roots on branches while they are still attached to the tree is known as
layering. Two methods of layering are commonly used i.e., ground layering and air layering.
In layering the stem or branch is usually wounded by girdling or by scraping the cambium to
inhibit the free movement of plant foods. Wounding is done by complete removal of a ring
of bark or by cutting a tongue, which can be prevented from healing by inserting a piece of
wood. A handful of moist sphagnum moss or other moisture holding material is placed
around the stem where the wound has been made and is covered over by moisture proof
wrapping.
Rooting of air layering is best accomplished when the medium is porous and well
aerated and retains sufficient moisture but not so much as to rot. The ring interferes with
auxin movement which accumulate and stimulates root formation. Rooting is encouraged
by light exclusion, availability of oxygen, presence of optimum temperature and
sufficient moisture.
The rooted shoot is planted in pots with potting mixture and left for further root
formation until planting.
a) Air layering

This method is also known as Chinese layering or Marcottage. Air layering is

very popular and practiced in a wide range of plants because this method is easy to
perform, does not require any specialized equipment and does not disturb the plant too
much.
Generally one to two year old shoots are used for air layering. First the leaves are
removed from the selected shoot and the stem is girdled by removing a ring of bark about
2-3 cm wide. The girdle helps in building up high carbohydrate and hormone reserve
needed for profuse rooting. The cut surface is treated with hormones to induce rooting.
Then the cut portion is covered with sphagnum mass and wrapped with polythene tape
which retains moisture and allows gaseous exchange.
Air layers are made in the spring or in monsoon season. Depending on the
species, rooting takes place within 4-8 weeks. The rooted layer is separated from the
parent plant in two or three stages to reduce the shock of sudden separation. The first 'v'
shaped cut is given about 2.5 cm below the point of root emergence and the second cut is
given a week later separating the layer from the mother plant. The severed rooted layers
are planted in pots with potting mixture in the nursery beds in a shady place until they are
fully established and show renewed growth. After hardening, the plants are planted in the
field (Fig. 11).
Eg. Casuarina equisetifolia, Ficus elastica and Populus ciliata etc.
The other methods of layering viz., ground layering, trench layering and drop
layering are not usually practiced for most of the multipurpose tree species.

References
1. Hartman, H.T., and Loreti, F. 1965. Seasonal variation in the rooting of olive
cuttings. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 87: 194-98.

2. Hitchcock, A.E., and Zimmerman, M.H. 1937. A sensitive test for root
formation. Amer. J. Bot., 24: 735-36.

3. Kraus, E.J., and Kraybill, H.R. 1918. Vegetation and reproduction with special
reference to the tomato. Ore, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul.149.
 6) Propagation methods – grafting – Layering – different methods

Vegetative propagation involves the use of relatively large place of plant tissue or part
compared to tissue culture involving use of a single cell. This has been broadly classified
into autovegetative and heterovegetative systems (Fig 1).
Cuttings
Generally, the term cutting refers to any portion removed from the parent plant. It
is the cheapest, easiest and quickest method of multiplying the stock. A cutting is a cut twig
or shoot or branch whose base is placed in moist rooting medium and permitted to develop
adventitious roots.
Types of cuttings
 Root cuttings
 Stem cuttings
 Leaf cuttings
 Leaf bud cuttings
 Herbaceous cuttings
 Softwood cuttings
 Semi hardwood cuttings
 Hardwood cuttings
Root cuttings
Propagation by means of root cuttings is very simple and easy. In root cuttings,
adventitious shoots are regenerated. Root cuttings can easily propagate plants, which freely
produce suckers in nature. The adventitious shoots develop mostly at the proximal end of
the root, i.e., the portion nearest to the crown of the root generally forms shoot. Hence, it is
highly essential to maintain polarity at planting. The proximal end of the root cutting should
always be kept above the soil when vertical planting is done. In some cases horizontal
planting gives good results but the shoots mainly develop at the proximal end.

Root cuttings are generally taken in early or late winter or early spring when the roots
are well supplied with reserve carbohydrates. Root cuttings should not be made when the
plant grows vigorously because during that period the roots remain deficient in stored food.
Eg.Rhododendron.
Stem cuttings
Stem cuttings are pieces of growing parts taken from the aerial parts of parent plant.
They are classified into softwood, hardwood and semi hardwood cuttings.
Softwood cuttings
Cuttings made from young tender shoots of current growth, which still retain their
leaves, and little woody tissues are called as softwood cuttings. Soft woodcuttings root faster
and easier than hardwood cuttings but require more care. In conifers, cuttings collected
from the healthy lower crown branches root better than cutting from upper crown (Table 1).
Eg. Gliricidia sepium, Casuarina montana and C.cunninghamiana.
Hardwood cuttings
It involves preparing cuttings from matured past seasons dormant hardwood after
the leaves have dehisced, and before new shoots emerge. In order to reduce the
transpiration rate, the leaves are removed in hardwood cuttings (Table 1). Eg., Dalbergia
sissoo, Lannea coromandalica, Ficus sp.
Semi hardwood cuttings
Cuttings taken from partially matured wood from broad – leaved evergreen species
are called so. The shoots are semi-lignified. Eg. Ceiba pentandra, Erythrina suberosa and
Jacaranda mimosifolia.

Table.1. Comparison of softwood cuttings with hardwood cuttings

 Softwood cuttings Hardwood cuttings
Sl.No
1 Leaves on the lower part of the cuttings are All leaves are removed
removed and those on the upper part retained
and often pruned.
2 7.5 –12.5 cm long 15-20 cm long
3 Nodes two or more Atleast two nodes
4 Basal cut is made just below a node Basal cut is made just below a
node and the top cut is made 1.5
– 2.5 cm above the node
5 Young soft and succulent Mature and dormant

Leaf bud cuttings and leaf cuttings have minor role in vegetative propagation of tree
species.
c) Leaf cuttings
In leaf cuttings, the leaf base or leaf blade and petiole is utilized in starting new
plants. Adventitious buds, shoots and roots form at the base of the leaf and develop into
new plant. The original leaf does not become a part of the new plant and disintegrates.
Only a limited numbers of plant species can be propagated by leaf cuttings. Eg. Eucalyptus
spp.
d) Leaf bud cuttings
A leaf bud cutting consists of a leaf, petiole and a short piece of the stem with the
attached axillary bud. They differ from the leaf cuttings in that only adventitious roots are
initiated from detached leaves. The axillary bud at the nodal area of the stem provides the
new shoot. A number of plant species such as tea, maple, Eucalyptus and Rhododendron as well
as many tropical shrubs and most herbaceous plants are usually propagated by this method.

Grafting
Grafting can be defined as an art of joining parts of plants together in such a way
that they will readily unite and continue to grow as one plant. Usually a graft has two parts
viz., scion and rootstock. Scion refers to that part of a graft combination that becomes the
upper or top portion of the graft combination, which becomes the root system. In most
cases, the stock is raised from seeds. For a successful graft union, it is essential that the
cambium of the scion be placed in close contact with the cambium of the stock.
a) Conditions for successful grafting
The success of grafts depends on,
 Compatibility of graft union
 Closeness of fit
 Cambial contact
To attain a successful graft both the stock and the scion should be of same thickness,
so that they match each other. The cut should be uniform and smooth so that the two
components are tied easily together, with no gap between the scion and stock.
b) Preparation of rootstock and scion
Rootstock plants can be grown in pots, nursery beds or field sites. The condition of
both the scion and the rootstock at the time of grafting is an important factor. Usually
dormant scion and actively growing stock are used. Freshly collected scion gives the best
success rate whereas dormant scion collected under dry weather conditions several weeks in
advance and stored in sealed plastic bags can also be used (Fig 2).
c) Time of grafting
Normally the best period for grafting is late spring when buds of stock plants begin
to swell. When dormant scions are to be used on dormant stock the period of grafting
extends to the time of bud break on the stock. Soft wood grafting extends to the time of
bud break on the stock. Soft wood grafting is practiced from late spring to early summer.
Grafting is avoided in winter, because the low temperature affects graft union and survival.
d) Techniques of grafting
 Raising of rootstock
 Collection of scion
 Removal of leaf in scion
 Preparation of rootstock
 Joining scion and rootstock
 Tying with tape
 Covering with grafting wax
 Union of grafts
Methods of grafting
i) Splice or Whip grafting
The scion and rootstock are selected. The stock is cut back to the height where
grafting is to be done and a slanting cut of about 3-5 cm long is made and a similar cut of
the same length and slope is given to scion so that the union will perfectly match. These two
cut surfaces are placed together and wrapped tightly with polythene grafting tape.
 Single oblique cut made on stock and scion
 Stock and scion placed to match cambium
 The graft is tied securely
ii) Whip and tongue grafting
This technique is followed when the stock and scion are of similar thickness. In
general seedlings, rooted layers or cuttings are whip grafted in late winter or early spring.
The scion and stock are prepared as like in the case of whip grafting. On each of these cut
surfaces, a reverse cut is made. It is started downward at a point about one-third of the
distance from the tip and should be about one-half the length of the first cut. The scion is
then slipped into the stock so that they interlock.
 Diagonal cut at stock and scion with tongue
 The graft tied and wrapped
iii) Saddle grafting
The stock and the scion should be nearly equal in size for good cambial contact and
complete graft. The rootstock is prepared in the form of a wedge. A vertical cut is then
given at the base of the scion and is inserted to the rootstock so that they fix well. The
components are then tied and coated with grafting wax.
iv) Cleft or Wedge grafting
It is done in early spring when the tree is nearing dormancy. The shoot tip of the
stock plant is removed and a vertical cut is made through the centre of pith. The scion is
prepared by making tapering cuts in the form of a wedge. It is then inserted into the split so
that the cambial layers of both the scion and the stock are well matched. The union is tied
and covered with grafting wax to avoid water entry.
v) Side grafting
An oblique or slanting cut is made in the side of the stock for about 3.5 cm. The
scion is prepared with sloping cuts, opposite to each other on the base. Then the rootstock
is slightly bent such that it allows sufficient space for scion insertion. The scion should
match the cambial layers of the stock. Then the graft is tied with polythene tape to seal the
entire cut area. After graft union the top of the stock is cut and painted with tree paint (Fig.
6).
 vi) Veneer grafting
The base of the scion is cut diagonally and a wedge shaped patch of bark of the same
size is removed from the side of the stock. The scion and stock are bound together with
cambial layers matching. After healing of stock the upper portion of stock is removed (Fig.
7).
vii) Approach grafting
Two independent self sustaining plants are grafted together. A cut is made through
the cambium and slightly into the wood is given on both the stock and the scion. The cut
surfaces are pressed firmly and tied with polythene tape. After the union is achieved the
scion is severed below the union and the stock above the union (Fig. 8).
 Removal of a thin slice of wood and bark from both stock and scion (Fig. 8a)
 Positioning and tieing the stock and scion (Fig. 8b)
 Waxing the graft union (Fig. 8c).
ix) Bark grafting
It is done in early spring at a time when the bark separates from the wood with ease.
In this method the stock is sawed off and the bark is split downward from the apex about 5
cm long. The scion is inserted between the bark and the wood of the stock by placing
longer cut of scion against the cambium. The scion is then tied and covered with grafting
wax (Fig. 9).
ix) Root grafting
The rootstock seedling or rooted cutting or layered plant is dug up and the roots are
used as the stock for the graft. The entire root system may be used or the roots may be cut
into small pieces and each piece is used as a stock. As the roots used are relatively small,
whip grafting method is generally followed.
x) Bridge grafting
It is a form of grafting followed when there is injury to the trunk. The wounded area
is trimmed. The scion should be taken from dormant one year old shoot in the form of
strips of uniform size. It is then inserted around the injured section for every 5-7.5 cm and
connected to both the upper and lower ends into live undamaged bark (Fig. 10).
Layering
Formation of roots on branches while they are still attached to the tree is known as
layering. Two methods of layering are commonly used i.e., ground layering and air layering.
In layering the stem or branch is usually wounded by girdling or by scraping the cambium to
inhibit the free movement of plant foods. Wounding is done by complete removal of a ring
of bark or by cutting a tongue, which can be prevented from healing by inserting a piece of
wood. A handful of moist sphagnum moss or other moisture holding material is placed
around the stem where the wound has been made and is covered over by moisture proof
wrapping.
Rooting of air layering is best accomplished when the medium is porous and well
aerated and retains sufficient moisture but not so much as to rot. The ring interferes with
auxin movement which accumulate and stimulates root formation. Rooting is encouraged
by light exclusion, availability of oxygen, presence of optimum temperature and
sufficient moisture.
The rooted shoot is planted in pots with potting mixture and left for further root
formation until planting.
a) Air layering

This method is also known as Chinese layering or Marcottage. Air layering is

very popular and practiced in a wide range of plants because this method is easy to
perform, does not require any specialized equipment and does not disturb the plant too
much.
Generally one to two year old shoots are used for air layering. First the leaves are
removed from the selected shoot and the stem is girdled by removing a ring of bark about
2-3 cm wide. The girdle helps in building up high carbohydrate and hormone reserve
needed for profuse rooting. The cut surface is treated with hormones to induce rooting.
Then the cut portion is covered with sphagnum mass and wrapped with polythene tape
which retains moisture and allows gaseous exchange.
Air layers are made in the spring or in monsoon season. Depending on the
species, rooting takes place within 4-8 weeks. The rooted layer is separated from the
parent plant in two or three stages to reduce the shock of sudden separation. The first 'v'
shaped cut is given about 2.5 cm below the point of root emergence and the second cut is
given a week later separating the layer from the mother plant. The severed rooted layers
are planted in pots with potting mixture in the nursery beds in a shady place until they are
fully established and show renewed growth. After hardening, the plants are planted in the
field (Fig. 11).
Eg. Casuarina equisetifolia, Ficus elastica and Populus ciliata etc.
The other methods of layering viz., ground layering, trench layering and drop
layering are not usually practiced for most of the multipurpose tree species.

References
4. Hartman, H.T., and Loreti, F. 1965. Seasonal variation in the rooting of olive
cuttings. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 87: 194-98.

5. Hitchcock, A.E., and Zimmerman, M.H. 1937. A sensitive test for root
formation. Amer. J. Bot., 24: 735-36.

6. Kraus, E.J., and Kraybill, H.R. 1918. Vegetation and reproduction with special
reference to the tomato. Ore, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul.149.

7) Factors controlling propagation – Biotic and a biotic factor

Factors affecting rooting of cuttings

a) Internal factors
i) Age of the stock plant
In many woody plants, it has been found that cuttings made from older mature
plants are difficult to root, whereas cuttings made from young seedlings produce roots easily
(Hitchcock and Zimmerman, 1937). The juvenile condition of the young seedling is found
to be conducive for rooting. The decrease in rooting ability of cuttings taken from mature
plants is associated with an increased level of rooting inhibitors or decreased level of rooting
co-factors. The best propagation is achieved with young trees, but this often runs counter to
specific purposes, such as the production of flowers, fruits and seeds.
ii) Condition of the cuttings
As regards the condition of the cutting, woody cuttings do not sprout or root easily.
Herbaceous cuttings tend to be very susceptible to drying. An intermediate condition is
therefore best particularly when the cutting is planted out in the field immediately. Hence,
collection should be done at the active stage of the plant, the most favourable period when
the buds on the tree start their active growth.
iii) Nutritional and hormonal condition of the plant
The high carbohydrate level in cuttings favours root formation, but if the nitrogen
level decreases below a certain critical level, the root formation on cuttings decreases in spite
of high levels of carbohydrates. Conversely very high level of nitrogen is detrimental to
rooting. Vigorously growing shoots high in nitrogen and low in carbohydrate do not root as
quickly as cuttings made from moderately growing shoots, which are high in carbohydrates
and medium in nitrogen. High phosphorous level enhances rooting of cuttings (Kraces and
Kraybill, 1918). The role of other elements such as calcium, magnesium or potassium is still
not clear. Among the trace elements, zinc and boron have been found to stimulate rooting
of cuttings. Zinc is required for tryptophan synthesis, which is a precursor of IAA.
The exogenous application of auxin results in increased rooting. Rhizocline is a
complex of three components viz., ortho di-hydroxy-phenol, auxin and enzyme probably of
polyphenol oxidase type, which initiates the reaction leading to root initiation. The root
inhibiting substances also affects rooting of cuttings.
iv) Relative position of the shoot of the parent plant
The lateral shoots produce more roots than terminal shoots. The increased rooting
ability of lateral branches is most probably due to increased level of stored food in shoots.
Vigorously growing shoots usually contain less carbohydrate and consequently root poorly.
v) Position of the basal cut with reference to the node
In some species, rooting is better when the cut is made above or below the node. In
others, rooting is best if the cut is made at the node. The varying influence of the position
of the basal cut may be due to differences in the tissue arrangement between the nodal and
the internodal areas of the stem.
vii) Effect of leaves and buds
In general, growing buds promote rooting, while dormant buds are usually
inhibitory. Removal of buds promotes rooting during the dormant period. The promoting
effect of buds on rooting during the non-dormant period is due to increased supply of auxin.
Leaves are the primary organs for photosynthesis and the response of rooting will be
proportional to the leaf area. However, retention of all the leaves on a cutting sometimes is
not desirable, because of excessive loss of water through the leaves and consequent drying
out of the cutting.
References
1. Hartman, H.T., and Loreti, F. 1965. Seasonal variation in the rooting of olive
cuttings. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 87: 194-98.

2. Hitchcock, A.E., and Zimmerman, M.H. 1937. A sensitive test for root
formation. Amer. J. Bot., 24: 735-36.

3. Kraus, E.J., and Kraybill, H.R. 1918. Vegetation and reproduction with
special reference to the tomato. Ore, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul.149.
viii) Time of collection of cuttings
In deciduous trees, cuttings are made during dormant season generally in early winter
and then rooted in the nursery. In evergreen trees, cuttings are made and planted during the
rains but sometimes in early spring. Rooting of conifers is usually poor if cuttings from
shoot are taken in late spring or in early summer while they are still growing (Hartmann and
Loreti, 1965). Flowering is inhibited because the carbohydrate reserves are diverted towards
the formation and development of fruits.
b) External factors
i) Light
The small soft wood cuttings with little or no carbohydrate reserves requires
exposure to light for rooting, whereas deciduous cuttings having larger reserves of
carbohydrates do not require light for root formation. Blue and orange red regions of the
spectrum are most effective in stimulating rooting and photosynthesis. Long photoperiod
favours rooting than short photoperiod. The stem tissue developing in complete darkness is
more likely to initiate adventitious roots than the tissue exposed to light.
ii) Temperature
Generally a temperature of 210C - 300C during day and 150C – 160C during night are
considered most satisfactory for rooting of cuttings of most species. In case of hardwood
cuttings planted in winter or early spring, providing bottom heat to the rooting medium is
beneficial in induction and development of roots on cuttings before sprouting of buds. The
bottom heat may be 2-40C warmer than ambient temperature.
iii) Water
The main reason for failure of cutting is due to the result of excessive water loss
before rooting. Maintenance of high degree of humidity surrounding the leaf usually
prevents desiccation of cuttings and ultimately results in increased rooting of cuttings.
Humidity can be maintained by automatically regulated devices, which disburse mist.
Intermittent mist is more desirable because continuous mist causes rotting and leaching of
essential substances, which reduces rooting of cuttings. Mist also favours subsequent
growth of rooted cuttings, which should be hardened before planting.
iv) Rooting medium
Rooting medium not only affects the percentage of cutting rooted but also the
quality of roots produced. Rooting medium has three basic functions (i) it holds the cuttings
in place, (ii) it supplies moisture to the cuttings and (iii) it supplies oxygen to the basal
portion of the cuttings. The quantity of available moisture and air in the rooting medium are
responsible for the variation in nature of the roots produced. There are several media such
as sand, vermiculite, perlite, peat, moss etc., which may be used singly or in mixture. An ideal
medium should be well drained to retain sufficient moisture, porous enough to permit free
aeration and free from harmful organisms.

8) Propagation structures – Green house – Polytunnels – Mist chambers – Shade

house – Establishment – Sanitation – Care – Maintenance

Successful propagation of trees require quite a few propagation structures and equipments,
because certain tree species have special requirement for light, temperature and humidity for
rooting of cuttings and also to have better union for grafted trees. There are several kinds of
plant growing structures, most important ones being green house, shade house, net house
etc. Recently the low cost mistless polytunnels and polytents are also increasingly used for
Clonal propagation of tree species.

Green House
The green house can be small or large. The small or inexpensive green house is
made of metal frame covered with glass or polyethylene sheets. The large green houses
are independent covered with transparent glass, fiberglass or plastic. These glass or
plastics are fitted into the wooden or metal frames. The green house contains walkway
and movable or fixed propagating benches.
The radiant energy passes through the glass or plastic at the top and warms the
inside air and soil. The trapped heat in the green house keeps the plants warm during the
night without affecting it from chilling injury.
Ventilation is provided by exhaust fans. It provides air movement and air
exchange with the outside for controlling humidity and temperature. The exhaust fans
reduce the excess heat during summer.
The temperature during summer is generally high which, ultimately increases the
temperature inside the green house. This can be controlled by “fan and pad” cooling
device in which a wet pad made of wood chips or rubber pad is installed at one side of
the green house and large exhaust fans at the other side. Some times air conditioners are
also used for large sized green houses. A thermostat is necessary to control the
temperature.
 he light inside the green house is controlled by manipulating plant density and
distribution. Artificial fluorescent light may be provided during winter when the days
become shorter. Tungsten light may also be used to increase the effective day length.
During summer season when the light is extensive, it is controlled by covering the plant
with shade nets of varying intensities.
Controlling humidity prevents the water loss. Sprinklers can be used in the green
house for irrigation. Drainage is equally necessary to drain away excess water.
The weaning or hardening of plants inside the green house needs to be carried out
before planting. To accomplish these, irrigation schedule is planned in such a way to
make the plants to minimal irrigation. This minimal irrigation would prevent formation
of succulent tissues, which are prone to damage. Stepwise growth chambers can be used
for hardening process. The tender plants are placed in the chambers with light covering
to maintain high humidity. During the process, the covering is opened to expose the
plants to drier conditions.

a) Green House Glazing Materials

Today’s green houses can be glazed with a variety of light transmitting materials,
which fall into one of the following three categories (Siemens, 1981)
 Glass
 Flexible plastics
 Rigid plastics
The plastics can be further sub divided into generic materials such as polyvinyl chlorides,
polyethylenes, polypropylenes, polycarbonates, acrylics and polyesters.

b) Selection of Glazing Material

The selection of glazing material is mainly based on two important factors
(i) Performance
(ii) Cost
i) Performance Factors
 Transmission (photosynthetically active radiation between 0.4 and 0.7
and Infra Red (IR) wave length).
 Fire resistance
  Expected service life
 Stability
 Ageing
ii) Cost Factors
 Initial cost of material
 Installation
 Maintenance
 Replacement
 Structural considerations

c) Availability
Numerous reports have been published dealing with the above factors and the
ways in which each may influence the green house growing environment; heating,
cooling, ventilation, plant response etc, are all affected by the characteristics of the
glazing material used. The following are the various glazing materials used for the
commercial propagation of plants.
d) Plastics
Plastics become an alternative to glass. Clarification of the characteristics and
limitations of the different plastics currently available may provide a better understanding
of these materials. Factors such as initial cost, light transmission values, weather ability,
installed cost and frequencies of maintenance are the major considerations. There are
two categories of plastics used in the green house industry. They are flexible film
plastics and rigid plastics. The rigid plastics can be further divided into thermosetting
and thermoplastic groups.
i) Flexible Plastics
It includes polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl fluorides. The most widely used film
in the green house industry is polyethylene. It is a flexible inexpensive material available
in thickness of 2 mil – 8 mil (1 mil = 1/1000 inch). The green house industry generally
uses 4 or 6 mil polyethylene. The film is manufactured in width of 12 m and length of 46
m.
 Polyethylene is not a permanent one. Even with ultra violet inhibitors the
material will deteriorate after a period of outdoor exposure. This breakdown caused
primarily by the radiation in the sun’s rays. It is recommended that the outer
polyethylene cover be replaced every year, although some growers have found the use
upto 2 years.
Heat loss in single glazed green house can be reduced by either covering the
glazed areas with a single or a double layer of PE. Continuous positive air pressure
within the green house will inflate the layer of PE, raising it above the glass and in effect
providing double-glazing. A double layer of PE either over an existing glass or as the
primary glazing is much easier to inflate. A small blower (1/30 Hp for every 900 m 2 is
recommended by one film manufacturer) will inflate the layers of PE. Flexible 10 cm
diameter plastic hoses connect the various bubbles so that a uniform air pressure is
maintained between the layers throughout the green house cover.

Characteristics of Double layered U-V inhibited PE Sheet

 It transmits 80% of available solar energy whereas the single layer transmits about
88% of the solar energy.
 It is quite permeable to the longer wavelengths of the thermal radiation spectra.
This is the reason that PE house cools of so quickly after sunset.
 The least durable covering has a maximum life expectancy of 18-24 months.
 It has impact resistance twice as good as that of glass, although it is easily
punctured by a sharp object.
 It provides a more tightly sealed house than wrapped glass.
 It has minimum fire hazard.
 It becomes brittle at low temperature.
Other flexible plastics such as polyvinyl and reinforced PE are also in use, but the life
expectancy, size limitations and cost have prevented their wide spread acceptance.
ii) Rigid Plastics
Two types of rigid plastics viz., thermosetting (i.e., Glass-Reinforced Polyesters –
FRP or GRP) and thermoplastics (i.e., acrylic and polycarbonate) are available for use in
the establishment of green houses.
1. Fibre Glass – Reinforced Plastics (FRP)
 The FRP sheets are made up of fibre glass strands, which are sandwiched between
layers of polyester resin. The most common FRP panels used by the green house
industry are modified polyesters with 15% acrylic additives. These additives along with
a surface coating of Polyvinyl Fluoride (PVF) have increased the life expectancy of the
panels.
Characteristics of FRP Sheets
 A single layer of FRP sheet transmits 70-90% of available solar energy.
 It has slightly higher IR transmission than glass material.
 It has the life expectancy of 10-20 years.
 A good cleaning yearly with a resurfacing recommended after 3-5 years.
 Special corrugated closure strips are required to seal at ridges, caves, gutter etc.
 Corrugated FRP sheets increase heat transfer surface area by 12-16% over that of
flat surfaced sheets.
 It has the tendency of discoloration and erodes on the surface after prolonged
outdoor exposure.
 Sheets are combustible and needs insurance
2. Thermoplastic Sheets
These sheets are monolithic (Flat surface) sheets of acrylic or polycarbonate
formulation. These sheets are rarely used because of their high cost, their deflection
under load and size restriction. However double skinned glazing panels (DSS) extruded
from either acrylic or polycarbonate moulding powders has been developed during the
past few decades. They have all the physical properties of the monolithic sheets with the
added benefits of double-glazing, lightweight and the ability to withstand greater live
loads before deflection. The acrylic DSS are available in 8mm or 16 mm thickness. The
polycarbonate DSS sheets are available in thickness of 4mm – 8mm, 10mm and 16mm.

Characteristics of Acrylic DSS Sheets

 It transmits 83-85% of available solar energy.
 It becomes impervious to non-penetrating IR at about 2.2μ.
 It has high strength, stiffness and impact resistance.
 It reduces energy loss by 35-62% in comparison with single glazed glass green
house.
  It is most weatherable of all the light transmitting plastics, will not discolor and
becomes brittle etc.
 It diffuses light similar to that of FRP.
 It is light in weight and needs minimal maintenance.
 It has the life expectancy period of more than 20 years.
 The sheets are combustible and needs insurance.

Characteristics of Polycarbonate DSS Sheets

 It is not as weatherable as that of acrylics.
 Sheets are combustible but the flame spread half that of acrylic DSS.
 It is highly resistance to impact.
 It is less rigid than acrylic DSS and requires more support.
 It is available in width upto 2.1 m and length upto 9.0 m.

The size and structure of the green house varies considerably according to the
requirement of the plant propagator. The following are some of the models established at
Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam using glass, FRP sheets and
polyethylene sheets for Clonal multiplication of tree species.
 Polytunnels
 Mist chamber
 Air cooled green houses
 Shade house

Poly Tunnels
These are made up of white polyethylene films of 150-400 gauge thickness.
These are very cheap and simple but very effective in close environment for cuttings.
These are made by using bamboo sticks or by iron rods. The tunnels are of varying size
depending on the user’s requirement (Plate 1).
The poly tunnels are normally used to propagate approximately 500-1000 cuttings
at a time. A fine mist is sprayed over the cuttings intermittently using sprayers or
atomizers especially during summer. Otherwise, regular watering is enough to control
the humidity and water requirement of the plants.
Mist Chambers
Modern day forestry requires mist chamber and growth area chamber for
vegetative propagation.
In most cases, small mist chambers are built inside the shade house. This will
help for rooting of cuttings and for better performance of plants. There are other simple
polythene tents or small and pakka established mist chambers of varying sizes. The
misting units can be provided with water pipes for watering to plants. Similarly, if the
misting units are well established chambers it can be provided with humidifier for better
performance of cuttings
a) Design and Description of Mist Chamber
The design of mist chamber has been shown in the diagram. For constructing a
mist chamber the following steps should be followed.
i) Foundation
The foundation will be of cement-concrete raised nearly one foot above the
ground or nearly above the ground and nearly one foot filled below the ground level. The
surface of the foundation can be plastered with cement or cuddapah stone or marble can
be used in place of cement plaster.
ii) Frame
The frame can be made of angle iron or aluminum on which FRP sheet will be
fitted. The frame should have sloping roof (30º angle) so that water may not come
through FRP sheet. The frame will also contain three doors, two in the front and one in
the backside.
iii) FRP Sheet
Fix up FRP sheet on the sides and roof. The roof sheet should be corrugated so
that rainwater goes down easily along with dust whereas the other sheets should be plain.
The FRP sheet is fitted on all sides as well as on the wall of inner chamber. The fiber
reinforced plastic sheet should be 2mm or 32mm thick. The FRP sheet is purchased from
the market and can be cut to desired pieces. The FRP sheet should be white translucent
having nearly 90% transmission power of light. No direct radiation should be received
inside the mist chamber.
The light transmitted through the FRP sheet is sufficient to induce photosynthesis
in plants. During summer days in order to avoid excessive heat the roof of the mist
chamber can be partially covered with some mat or net or any other such material so that
excessive heat is not generated inside.
iv) Platform
The cuttings can be placed on the ground but better way would be to make two
platforms on the either side in the mist chamber. The platform can be made of cuddapah
stone, marble, or welled wire-mesh.
v) Pipes and Misting Nozzles
 The galvanized iron (G.I.) pipe of ½” size are laid out in the mist chamber to
supply water for cooling of coir mat and also to supply water to the misting nozzles. The
misting nozzles – butterfly or other type of factory made are fitted at the end of pipes.
The misting system comprises nozzles, high-pressure motor and electronic timer to obtain
fine intermittent mist. The water particles must rise through the nozzles and then settle
down in the form of mist. Continuous misting is not necessary; hence therefore only
intermittent misting is provided.
vi) Water Tank and Mono block Pump
The G.I. pipe is connected to the monoblock pump of half or one H.P. The pump
is connected to the water tank. If the water tank is overhead, pump may not be required but
in this situation monoblock pump may be required to lift water from main source to the
tank. The spraying of water through misting nozzles is mostly required in the daytime but it
need not be continuous, as the soil medium used should not contain excess water. This
water supply from electric or fuel motor also goes over the rubberized or coir mat.
vii) Electric Timer or Electronic Leaf
The operation of pump is controlled by an electric timer that automatically starts
and stops the pump. The timer is suitably set for ‘on’ and ‘off’ as per requirement. Some
trial may be necessary before final setting. The electric timer is used to control supply of
water at regular intervals. However it would be better to use electronic leaf for mist
control. Electronic timer or electronic leaf regulates the intermittent misting.
viii) Thermometer and Humidistat
One maximum-minimum thermometer and one humidistat is fitted inside the mist
chamber to record variation in temperature and humidity respectively. One hygrometer
can also be fitted to record humidity.
ix) Exhaust Fans
Two exhaust fans of nearly one-foot blade size are fitted on the wall of inner door,
one on each side. The exhaust fan takes out warm air from the mist chamber and fresh
cool air comes in through the cooling pad at the opposite end. The air circulation goes on
and temperature inside the mist chamber is maintained well below the outside
temperature.
x) Pillars and Electrical Fittings
 The four masonry pillars are constructed at four corners with the arrangements for
switchboard, socket etc. so that bulb, humidifier or any other electrical equipment can be
installed.
xi) Humidifiers
Humidifiers in a mist chamber create fog and keep the cutting moist. Humidifiers
of various capacities are available. The capacity varies according to its ability to
discharge water particles. The capacity of a humidifier may be 0.5, or 12 litre/hr.
b) Irrigation Management
The irrigation to cuttings or plants can be done through GI pipes and spray
nozzles. The pipe is connected to the monoblock pump, which draws water from water
tank, if the tank is not full the watering should be carried out with rose cans. The
advantage of shade house with in built mist chambers is that cutting for vegetative
propagation can be planted in any month and stocks can be prepared round the year. The
mist chambers and shade house are the modern day necessities for carrying out research
or for raising stocks of the desire species on a commercial scale.
c) Quality of Water
An excellent water source and water management must be designed locally and
must be available throughout the year. The pH of the water must be around 6.5 to 7.0.

Shade House
It is very useful for protecting the young plantlet or rooted cutting, from the
external high temperature and light intensity and in hardening them before transplanting
in the field. Shade house acts as an intermediate step between green house and field
planting. Some times propagation chambers are also constructed in the shade house
system and used for propagation of trees.
Construction of the shade house varies widely in its sizes according to the need of
propagation, and various shading materials may be used. Thus allows different
intensities of light in to the shade house. Since the transpiration and soil evaporation are
appreciably reduced due to low temperature and low light intensity, less watering is
required under shade but at the same time prevent the mortality of plant.
Keeping this view, our institute has developed a model shade house system with
built-in propagation chamber for clonal multiplication of elite trees. The shade house
was constructed using Black agro shade nets.
The shade house established at FC&RI consists of double and single roof system
with 50% black agro shade net. The agro shade house was constructed using iron poles.
The size of the house is 70x30 ft. Inside the house a propagation chamber of 20x10 ft use
was established using fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) sheets.
The floor of the shade house was prepared by digging one foot of the soil and
replacing it with course river sand so as to provide easy and rapid drainage. Both
propagation chambers and shade house system was fitted with automatic misting system
to maintain the required humidity.
a) Construction and Design of Shade House
The shade house should be a well-aerated chamber of big size. In hot places it
should be co constructed enclosing the mist chambers.
i) Angle Iron Frame Structure
The angle iron frame of required size is constructed through fabricator who will
weld the pieces of angle iron as per direction. Since the frame will be very heavy, it is
not possible to shift it easily after it has been constructed. Therefore the place of making
shade house chambered should be decided once for all.
ii) Path Way
The stone or marble pathways are laid out inside the shade house chamber for
walking in and handling the plant systematically.
iii) Agro Shade Net
The agro shade net is available in different colours. Eg. White, green black etc.,
the plastic net is knitted of plastic fibre. These nets are factory made.
These nets have the following type of light transmission power.
 Net with 30% light transmission power
 Net with 50% light transmission power
 Net with 75% light transmission power
The net is fitted with the help of plastic string on the roof and partly on sides of the
shade house. This well stop radiation to come inside the chambers. The colour of the
plastic net chosen according to the requirement of light. The general recommendations for
colour and size of shade nets are presented in the Table 1.
Table 1. Recommendation for Colour of Agro shade net for different climatic

conditions

Plants Hot Climate Moderate

Sl.no Climate
1 For Indoor plants/plantation Black 75% crops and Black 50%
trees
2 For Outdoor Plants/ Orchids/ Black 75% Black 50%
Anthurium/ Fruit plants and trees
3 For Flowering plants White 70% White 50%
4 For General purpose Shade/Garden Green Green

b) Management of Shade House

The management would require application of periodic fungicide and periodic
treatment of plants. Dursban spray should be given to the floor before filling with sand to
prevent termite attack. A general cleanliness of the shade house and mist chamber is
highly essential which is the cheapest solution against pests and diseases and other
secondary disorders. The visitor should feel the cleanliness of the complex. The workers
should be inculcated the spirit of cleanliness. The person in charge of the propagation
complex and the workers too should feel the plants. Their attitude develops by regular
and frequent visits, supervision, and instinct. The success of vegetative propagation is
achieved with proper supervision and continuous monitoring of the plants. A
propagation worker by instinct understands the system. As far as possible the worker
should not be disturbed from the propagation area. For propagation, adequate fund and
skilled labourers are essential. Autonomy interms of men and material management is
essential for the success of any plant propagation (Vivekanandan et al., 1997) (Plate 1).

Sanitation, Care and Maintenance of Clonal Propagation Chambers and Area

Proper maintenance of clonal propagation chambers and area is necessary. The
continuous use of the chambers and the propagation area will eventually lead to problem
interms of invasion of pest and diseases. For all propagation work, it is highly essential
to use a clean growing medium, containers, pest and disease free and healthy plant
materials. However, soil borne pest and diseases may contaminate the soil mixture even
when all precautions are taken. These parasitic organisms attack the roots and stems of
the plants and may seriously damage the plant.

Control Measures
One method of controlling pathogenic organism is by replacing the old soil from
the propagation chambers and area and replace it with new soil. However this method is
very costly. The other method is sterilization of soil. Sterilization of soil in the
propagation area can be accomplished by
 Steam
 Hot water
 Chemicals
Summary
Recent trends in production forestry lay great thrust on large-scale production of
superior propagules. Clonal strategies involves inducing rooting in cuttings by using
conventional approaches or hardening of rooted plantlets developed through tissue
culture techniques. Root induction and hardening of tissue culture plantlets are
dependent on optimizing endogenous and exogenous factors. Among these, the
exogenous factors viz., temperature, light and humidity play a paramount role. Specific
preconditioning treatments and well-controlled environmental conditions play important
role in achieving high degree of success in clonal propagation. Against this backdrop
Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam has developed various propagation
chambers as discussed in this chapter, which are capable of controlling these conditions
successfully.

References
1. Siemens, J. 1981. Green house glazing materials : A comparison. In: Proceedings
of the Canadian containerized tree seedling symposium. (Eds. J.B.Scarratt, C.
Glerum and C.A.Plexman). Canadian forestry service, Ontario, Canada.pp. 111-
114.
2. Vivekanandan, K., Gurumurthi, K. and Jeyaraj, R.S.C. 1997. Clonal
multiplication of Eucalyptus. IFGTB, Coimbatore.
9) Mid Semester Examination

10) Hard wares in clonal propagation – Root trainers – Tools and

equipments – Grafting Machines