GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 1

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

What is Psychology? • Functionalism

- Because of structuralism and
- The scientific study of behavior and
functionalism, other form of
mental processes.
psychology was born.
- What you can and cannot see.
- There is a psychological explanation Gestalt Psychology – Used as a counselling
between movements. technique. They fight their client.
Goal of Psychology Today’s Perspectives
- Describe, predict, control, and - Neuroscience - Medicines
explain behavior and mental - Psychodynamic - Theories
processes using the scientific - Behavioral – Behavior
method. - Cognitive
- Humanistic
Fields of Psychology
Psychology and Your Life
- Behavioral Science
- Experimental Psychology Psychology helps solve practical problems:
- Changes across the lifespan
- Terrorism
- Physical and Mental Health
- Aggression
- Focus on those around us; Social
- Eyewitness accounts of crimes
Networks
- Driving while using a cellphone
- Newer areas of study.
- Obesity
Working at Psychology
Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies
- About 300,000 Psychologists in the
- Nature (Heredity) vs Nurture
U.S.
(Environment)
- 50% men, 50% women – but
- Conscious vs Unconscious Causes of
number of women is growing..
Behavior
- 6% from racial minority groups.
- Observable Behavior vs Internal
- Most have Doctoral Degrees (Ph.D.
Mental Processes
or Psy.D.), while some have Master’s
- Free Will (Choices) vs Determinism
Degree.
(Behavior is produced by factors
- Psychologists are different from
beyond one’s control)
Psychiatrists.
- Individual Differences vs Universal
The Roots of Psychology Principles
- Wilhelm Wundt began the first The Scientific Method
psychology laboratory in 1879 in
- Systematic acquiring knowledge and
Leipzig, Germany.
understanding about behavior and
• Structuralism – Consciousness
other phenomena.
through sensation and feelings.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 1
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

Steps in Scientific Method - Participants must sign an informed

Step 1: Identifying questions of interest
Step 2: Formulating an explanation
Step 3: Carrying out research designed
to support or refute explanations
consent document that says they
understand the basic outline of the
study and any risks, and are aware of
what is involved.
Should Animals Be Used in Research

Step 4: Communicating the findings - Researchers ethically bound to

minimize discomfort, illness, and
Psychological Research pain, and to promote the
- The central focus of the scientific psychological well-being whenever
method is research. possible.
- Descriptive Research Threats to Experimental Validity
• Archival Research
• Naturalistic Observation Experimental Bias – Factors that distort how
• Survey Research the independent variable affects the
dependent variable
Case Study – Intensive investigation of an
individual or small group. Placebo – A false treatment, such as a pill,
without any significant chemical properties.
Correlational Research – Two sets of
variables are examined to see if they are
associated.
• Positive Correlation
• Negative Correlation
• Correlation doesn’t show
causation
Experimental Research
- Establish cause-and-effect
relationships using formal
experiments
- Experiments are deliberately
• Independent Variable
• Dependent Variable
- Random Assignment
- Replication
The Ethics of Research
- Psychologists must follow a strict
ethical guideleines to protect
research participants.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 2
NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR
The Structure of the Neuron
- Neurons are nerve cells; the basic
element of the nervous system.
- Dendrites are fibers rhat receive
electrical messages from other
neurons.
- Axon are long extensions that carries
messages to other neurons, which is
covered by the myelin sheath.
How Neurons Fire
- All-or-none Law
- Action Potential (Positive inside –
Negative Outside)
- Mirror Neurons
Where Neurons Connect to One Another
Synapse is the space between two
neurons where the axon of the sending
neuron communicates with the dendrites of
the receiving neuron with chemical
messages.
Neurotransmitters are the chemical
messengers received at the dendrites or cell
body of receiving neuron.
Deliver Excitatory make it more likely
receiving neuron will fire messages.
Inhibitory make it less likely that they will
messages.
Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical
Couriers
Major Transmitters
- Acetylcholine are messages related
to muscle movement
- Dopamine are messages related to
learning and movement
The Nervous System
- Central Nervous System consists of
the brain and the spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System consists
of all parts of the nervous system
other than the brain and the spinal
cord.
- Somatic Division is responsible for
voluntary movements and
communication with sense organs.
- Autonomic Division is responsible for
involuntary functions of the body
that keep you alive.
- Sympathetic activates movement
e.g. life-threatening situations and
sudden movements.
- Paraysmpathetic calms the body
when experiencing sympathetic
movements.
The Endocrine System of Chemicals and
Glands
- Endocrine System is chemical
communication network that sends
messages throughout the body
through hormons in the
bloodstream.
- Hormones
- Pituitary Gland is the master gland.
Studying the Brain’s Structure and
Functions
- Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (FMRI)
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
(TMS)
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 2
NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR

The Central Core - Occipital Lobe is responsible for

facial.
- The Central Core controls basic
functioning. Neurplasticity and the Brain
- Hindbrain consists of the medulla
- The Neuroplasticity is responsible for
(breathing and heartbeat), pons
the chages in the brain over the
(integrated movement between
lifespan having to do with the
right and left side of the body and
addition of new neurons, new
regulates sleep), and cerebellum
interconnections between neurons,
(controls bodily balance).
and the reorganization of
- Midbrain into Forebrain consists of
information-processing areas.
reticular formation (can immediately
activate other parts of the brain to The Specialization of the Hemispheres
produce arousal), thalamus (relay
station for information about - Hemispheres are the left and right
senses), and hypothalamus halves of the brain; each controls
(maintains homeostasis and motion (right) and sensation(left) in
regulates vital, survival behavior, and the opposite side of the brain.
even emotions) - Lateralization is the dominance of
one hemisphere in specific
The Limbic System functions.
- The Limbic System controls a variety
of basic functions relating to
emotion, learning, memory,
pleasure, and self-preservation such
as reproduction and aggression.
- The Limbic System includes the
amygdala (responsible for knowing
what is morally right and wrong) and
the hippocampus.
The Cerebral Cortex
- The Cerebral Cortex is responsible
for sophisticated, uniquely human
imformation processing.
- Frontal Lobe is responsible for
personality and speech.
- Parietal Lobe is responsible for
senses and bodily stimulus.
- Temporal Lobe is responsible for
auditory.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 3
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
Absolute Threshold
- The smallest intensity of a stimulus
that must be present for it to be
detected.
Difference Threshold
- The smallest level of added or
reduced stimulation required to
sense that a change in stimulation
has occurred.
- The minimum change in stimulation
required to detect the difference
between two stimuli.
Sensory Adaptation
- An adjustment to sensory capacity
when stimuli in the environment are
unchanging, getting used to a sensory
stimulus so that you no longer have
the same reaction to it as you initially
did.
Illuminating the Structure of the Eye
- Light passes through the cornea,
pupil, and the lens before reaching
the retina.
- The retina converts the energy of the
light to electrical impulses for
transmission to the brain.
- Rods – Focuses on black and white
- Cones – Focuses on colors
Color Vision and Color Blindness
Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision are three
kinds of cones that exists in the retina.
- One most responsive to blue-violet,
one to gree, and one to yellow-red.
Opponent-process Theory of Color Vision
- Receptor cells are linked in pairs,
working in opposition to each other.
Sensing Sound
- Sound is the movement of air
molecules brought about by vibration
or sound waves.
- Sound is connected with our sense of
balance.
- Semicircular Canals, the movement
of fluid here affects our sense of
balance.
Parts of the Brain
- The eardrum is a thin membrane that
vibrates and transmits sounds.
- The middle ear is a tiny chamber
containing three bones; the hammer,
the anvil, and the stirrup.
Smell and Taste
Smell (Olfaction)
Molecules enter the nasal passages
and pass over olfactory cells (receptor
neurons); responses sent to brain, where
they are combined for recognition of
particular smells.
Taste (Gustation)
Receptor cells responds to four basic
stimulus qualities: sweet (tip of the tounge),
salty (middle of the tounge), sour (side of the
tongue), bitter (inner side of the tongue)
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 3
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

The Skin Senses Motion Perception

Skin Senses Movement of an object across the
retina is perceived relative to an unmoving
Touch, pressure, temperature, and
background.
pain. The receptor cells in the skin are
distributed unevenly throughout the body. If a stimulus is coming towards you,
the image on the retina will expand in size,
Perceptual Organization
filling more of the visual field, but we assume
Figure-ground Organization the stimulus is approaching rather than it’s
growing in size.
We usually perceive objects as a
figure standing out against a background. We factor information about our heaf
and eye movements with information about
The Gestalt Law of Organization changes in the retinal image.
- Principles that describe how we Perceptual Illusions
organize pieces of information into
meaningful wholes. Visual Illusions are physical stimuli
- Gestalt is patterns that consistently produce errors in
perception.
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing
Top-Down Processing – Perception is guided
by higher-level knowledge, experience,
expectations, and motivations.
Bottom-Up Processing – The progression of
recognizing and processing information from
individual components of a stimulus and
moving to the perception of the whole.
Perceptual Constancy
Physical objects are perceived as
unvarying and consistent despite changes in
appearance or changes in the physical
environment.
Depth Perception
The ability to view the world in three
dimensions and to perceive distance.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 4
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Stages of Sleep Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory

Consciousness is the awareness of the
sensations, thoughts, and feelings being
experienced at a given moment.
- STAGE 1 SLEEP is the transition
betweel wakefulness and sleep;
rapid, low-amplitude brain waves.
- STAGE 2 SLEEP is the deeper sleep;
slower, more regular waves which
includes momentary interruptions of
sleep spindles.
- STAGE 3 SLEEP generates slower
brain waves; greater peaks and
valleys in waves than stage 2.
- STAGE 4 SLEEP is the deepest stage,
when we are least responsive to
outside stimulation.
REM SLEEP
- Rapid Eye Movement is the fifth
stage of sleep, about 20% of sleep
time.
- Increased heart rate, blood pressure
and breathing
- Erections in male
- Rapid back-and-forth eye movement
- Major muscles appear to be
paralyzed
- Most dreams occur in REM,
experienced by everyone
Why Do We Sleep and How Much Sleep is
Necessary
- Sleep is required for normal
functioning, and ultimately for
survival
- Most people sleep between 7-8
hours per night
The Function and Meaning of Dream
- Dreams represent unconscious
wishes of the dream according to
Freud.
- Dream-for-Survival Theory
- Activation-Synthesis Theory
Sleep Disturbances
- Insomnia (difficulty sleeping)
- Sleep Apnea (no oxygen on brain)
- Night Terrors (sleeps because of bad
dreams then wake up)
- Narcolepsy (Sudden sleep out of
nowhere)
- Sleepwalking
- Sleeptalking
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: LIFE CYCLES
- Biological processes that occur
regularly on approxiamtely a 24-
hour cycle, from the Latin word
“circa diem” or around the day.
- Pituitary Gland is the master gland.
o Sleep/Wake cycle
o Bodily functions such as the
body temperture, hormone
production, and blood
pressure
HYPNOSIS: TRANCE-FORMING
EXPERIENCING
- Hypnosis: A trancelike state of
heightened suceptibility to the
suggestions of others:
• People do not lose all will of
their own
• People cannot be hypnotised
against their will
• More easily hyponotized if high
ability to concentrateand
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 4
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
become absorb in what they are - Narcotics: drugs that increase
doing relaxation and relieve pain and
anxiety
MEDITATION: REGULATING OUR OWN
• Morphine, heroin
STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
- Hallucinogens: drugs that are
- Meditation: a learnd technique for capable of producing hallucinations (
refocusing attention that brings changes in the perceptual process)
about an altered state of • Marijuana, MDMA (esctasy), LSD
consciousness (acid)
• Repetition of a mantra to guide - Occipital Lobe is responsible for
your focus facial.
• Oxygen usgae decreases , heart
rate and blood pressure decline,
brain-wave pattern change
• Means of bringing about deep
relaxation
• Practised in many cultures
DRUG CATEGORIES
Psychoactive drugs: influence a person’s
emotion, perceptiom, and behavior
Addictive Drug’s: produce a biological or
psychological dependance; withdrawal leads
to cravings that for some, may be nearly
irresistible
• Biological addiction
• Psychological addiction
Stimulants: drugs that have an arousal
effect on the central nervous system,
caussing rise in heart rate, blood pressure,
and muscular tension
• Caffeine, nicotine,
amphetamines,
metaphetamines, nictone, crack
Depressants: drugs that slow down
the NCS by causing neurons to fire
more slowly
• Alcohol, barbituates, rohypnol
(the “date rape drug”)
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 6
THINKING: MEMORY, COGNITION, AND LANGUAGE

Sensory, Short-term Memory, and Long- Semantic Memory - knowledge

term Memory
Memory
The process by which we encode,
store, and retrieve information.
How do we retain information?
If it goes to our senses, it can be
retained no matter if we saw it etc.
Steps in Retaining Memories
Any information enters our sensory
memories, into our short-term memory, and
into our long-term memory.
Sensory Memory
Informations that was sensed by our
body.
Initial, momentary stage of
information.
Short-term Memory
Information on our brain is only
short-termed and will be gone and forgotten
quickly (15-25 seconds) e.g., cramming,
scanning, keywords etc. Short-term Memory
is a repetitive rehearsal (has to repeat)
Long-term Memory
Informations that stays on our brain.
The informations we deeply understand.
Long-term Memory is a collaborative
rehearsal.
Rehearsal
The repetition of information.
Types of Long-term Memory
• Declarative Memory
Episodic Memory – per episode
• Procedural Memory
Retrieval Cues
Retrieval Cues
A stimulus that allows you to more
easily recall a long-term memory because it
is connected to that memory.
Recall
A specific information must be
retrieved from the memory.
Recognition
When presented with a stimulus, you
will determine whether you have been
exposed to it previously or you identify the
correct information from a list of
alternatives.
Levels of Processing
Levels of Processing Theory
Emphasizes the degree to which new
material is mentally analyzed.
Explicit Memory
Intentional or conscious recollection
of information.
Implicit Memory
Memories of which people are not
consciously aware, but which can affect
subsequent performance and behavior.
Flashbulb Memories
Specific, important, or surprising
events that are so vivid in memory it is as if
they represented a snapshot of the event.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 6
THINKING: MEMORY, COGNITION, AND LANGUAGE
Forgetting Implements to Solution
Forgetting is important to memory; if Functional Fixedness
we couldn’t forget inconsequential details,
The tendency to think of an object
they would get in the way of remembering
only in terms of its typical use.
more important information.
Mental Set
Why We Forget?
The tendency for old patterns of
Failure of Encoding or the paying of
problem solving to persist.
attention to and palcing information in
memory, Language Development
Decay Babble
The loss of information because of Speech-like but meaningless sounds
nonuse. made by children from around 3 months to 1
year old.
Interference
Telegraphic Speech
Information in memory disrupts the
recall of other information. Sentences in which words not critical
to the message are left out
Cue-dependent Forgetting
Overgeneralization
Forgetting ue to insufficient retrieval
cues. By about the age of 3, children
employ language rules even when it results
Proactive and Retroactive Interference
in an error.
Proactive Interference
Learning Theory Approach to Language
Information learned earlier disrupts Development
the recall of newer material.
Language acquisition follows the
Retroactive Interference principles of reinforcement and
conditioning.
Difficulty in recalling information
learned earlier because of later expposure to Nativist Approach to Language Development
different material.
A genetically determined, innate
Problem Solving mechanis, drives language development.
Step 1 - Preparation or the understanding Universal Grammar
and diagnosis of problems.
A common underlying structure
Step 2 - Production or the generating of shared by all the world’s languages.
solutions.
Step 3 - Judgement or the evaluation of
solutions.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 6
THINKING: MEMORY, COGNITION, AND LANGUAGE
Language Acquisition
A neural system of the brain that
Chomsky thought permits understanding of
the language.
Interactionist Approach to Language
Combination of learning theory and
nativist approaches.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 7
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Instinct Approaches
Motivation
The factors rhat direct and energize
the behavior of humans and other
organisms.
Instincts
Inborn patterns of behavior that are
biologically determined rather than learned;
is essential to survive.
Drive-Reduction Approaches
Drive-reduction Approaches
Lack of a basic biological requirement
produces a drive to obtain that requirement.
Drive
Motivational tension, or arousal, that
energizes behavior to fulfill a need.
• Primary Drive
• Secondary Drive
Homeostasis
The body’s tendency to maintain a
steady internal state; underlies primary
drives.
Arousal Approaches to Motivation
We try to maintain certain levels if
stimulation and activity, increasing or
reducing them as necessary.
Incentive Approaches to Motivation
Motivation stems from the desire to
obtain valued external goals, or incentives.
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
Motivation is a product of cognitions.
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivated by your own enjoyment
rather than by any concrete reward: internal
to you.
Extrinsic Motivation
Doing something for a concrete
reward: external to you
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Maslow’s Model
Motivational needs are in a
hierarchy; primary needs must be met
before higher-order needs can be satisfied.
Level 1 – Physiological Needs; needs for
water, food, sleep, sex, etc.
Level 2 – Safety Needs; the need for a safe,
secure environment.
Level 3 – Love and Belongingness; the need
to obtain and give affection
Level 4 – Esteem; the need to develop a
sense of self-worth from others knowing and
valuing your competence.
Level 5 – Self Actualization; a state of self
fulfillment in which people realize their
highest potential.
The Motivation Behind Hunger and Eating
Obesity
Bpody weight that is more than 20%
above average.
Metabolism
The rate at which food is converted to
energy and expended by the body.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 7
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Anorexia Nervosa Bisexual – those who are sexually attracted
to people of the same and other sex
A severe eating disorder; people may
refuse to eat while denying that their Kinsey considered sexual orientation along
behavior and appearance are unusual. continuum from “exclusively homosexual” or
“exclusive heterosexual”
Mainy afflicts females between 12 to
40, but can affect women and men of any Determining Sexual Orientation
age.
Biological – genetics, hormones, brain
About 10% starve themselves to structure
death.
Parenting – research does not support the
Bulimia Nervosa idea that sexual orientation is brought by
child bearing practices or dynamic
Disorder in which people binge on
large quantities of food, followed by efforts Transsexuaals - people who beluieve that
to purge the food by vomiting or taking they were born with the body of the other
laxatives. gender
Causes of Eating Disorders Transgendirism – inscludes tranversites
(people who wear clothes that are opposite
Biological
to their gender)
A chemical imbalance in
The Need for Achievement, Affliation, and
hypothalamusor pituitary gland.
Power
Social
Need for Achievement – a stable, learned
Society values slenderness and characteristic in which a person obtains
obesity as undesirable. satisfaction by striving and attaining a level of
excellence
Sexual motivation
- Measured by the thematic
Masturbation – sexual self stimulation apperception test (TAT); series of
Heterosexuality – sexual attraction and ambigous pictures, about which a
behavior directed to the opposite sex person is asked to write a story

Double standard – the view that premarital Need for Affliation – an interest in
sexx is permisssible for males but not for establishing and maintaining relationships
females with other people

Extramarital Sex – sexual activity between a Need for Power – a tendency to seek impact,
married person and someone who is not his control, or influence over others, and to be
or her spouse seen as powerful individual.

Homosexuals – those who ar

sexuallyattracted to member of their own
sex
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 7
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Determining the Range of Emotions:
Labeling our Feelings
The Roots of Emotions
James-Lange Theory of Emotions
- Emotions are experiencees as a
reaction to bodily events occuring as
a result of an external situaltion
Cannon-Bard Theory
- Both physiological arousal and
emotional experiences are
produceed at the same time by the
same nerve stimulus
Schactter-Singer
- Emotions are determoined jointly by
a nonspecific kind of physiological
arousal and interpretation which is
based on environment al need
- Specific patterns of biological arousal
seem to be associated to indvidual
emotions
Retroactive Interference
Difficulty in recalling information
learned earlier because of later expposure to
different material.
Problem Solving
Step 1 - Preparation or the understanding
and diagnosis of problems.
Step 2 - Production or the generating of
solutions.
Step 3 - Judgement or the evaluation of
solutions.
Implements to Solution
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think of an object
only in terms of its typical use.
Mental Set
The tendency for old patterns of
problem solving to persist.
Language Development
Babble
Speech-like but meaningless sounds
made by children from around 3 months to 1
year old.
Telegraphic Speech
Sentences in which words not critical
to the message are left out
Overgeneralization
By about the age of 3, children
employ language rules even when it results
in an error.
Learning Theory Approach to Language
Development
Language acquisition follows the
principles of reinforcement and
conditioning.
Nativist Approach to Language Development
A genetically determined, innate
mechanis, drives language development.
Universal Grammar
A common underlying structure
shared by all the world’s languages.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 7
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Language Acquisition
A neural system of the brain that
Chomsky thought permits understanding of
the language.
Interactionist Approach to Language
Combination of learning theory and
nativist approaches.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 8

Development
Nature-Nurture Issue
The issue of th degreee to which
environment (nature) and heredity (nurture)
influence behavior
No longer question of nature vs. nurture
because both factors intercat to produce
developmental patterns and outcomes
Experimentally contro genetic makeup of
laboratoy animals then study environmental
influences
Identical twins and non-twin siblisng
raised apart as adults show importance of
herdity
Adopted twins still show similarities to
their twins regardless of the enviroment they
are in
Cross Sectional Research
Comparing people of different ages
at the same point and time
Genes
Zygote
The new cell produced by the union
of an egg and sperm
Embryo
A developed zygote that has a heart,
a brain, and other organs
Fetus
A developign indviduals, from eight
weeks to conceptions until birth
Age of viability
The point at which a fetus can survive
if born prematurely (about 22 weeks)
Sensitive/critical periods
During prenatal development, time
when the fetus is particulalry susceptible to
certain kinds of stimuli
Genetic Influence

Longitudinal research Phenylketetonuria

Studying the same people as they age Sickle Cell Syndrome

Sequential Down syndrome

MIx of cross sectional and Zygote receives extra chromosomes

longitunidal research at a moment of conception ; one of the cuses
of mental retardation
Prenatal Development: Conception of Birth
Prenatal Environmental infleunces
Basic of Genetics
Teratogens
Chromosomes
o Environmental agents (drugs,
Rod-shaped structures that contain chemicals that produce a
all basic heriditary information; 23 pairs; one birth defects)
chromosones of each pair from the mother - Mother’s nutrition
and father. - Mother’s illness
- Alcohol and Nicotine Use
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 8

o Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS/ Uninvolved

Fetal alcohol effect (FAE)
Show little interest emotionally
Reflexes detached believe parenting is only providing
food, clothes and shelter.
Automatic, involutary responses to
incoming stimuli The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle
Childhood
Neonate born with rooting, sucking,
gag, startle, and babinski reflexes, cooing Erikson’s Psychosexual Development
Sensory Development Change in our interactions and
understanding of each other and our
Neonate can follow moving objects
knowledge and understanding of ourselves
within their fieldss of vision, show some
as members of society.
depth perception, discriminare facial
expressions, recognize their mother’s voice Trust vs Mistrust
at 3 days old, and recognize different taste
Birth to 1 ½ where they develop trust
and smells
if physical and psychological needs are met.
Attachment
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Refer to the positive emotional bond
Ages 1 to 3 where they develop
that develops between a child and the
autonomy if exploration and freedom are
caregiver
encouraged.
Classified as secure, avoidant,
Initiative vs Guilt
ambivalent, disoriented-disorganized
Ages 3 to 6 where it is being resolved
Can be benficial especially from
positively in parents react positively to
disadvantaged homes, if it is a high-quality
children’s attempts at independence .
program
Industry vs Inferiority
Parenting Styles
Ages 6 to 12 where it is being
Authoritarian
resolved positively if child shows increased
Rigid, punitive, deemand obedience competency in social interactions and
acquire a lot from their child academic skills.
Permissive Cognitive Development
Relax and inconsistent directiron require The process by which a child’s
little from their child understanding of the world changes as a
function of age and experience.
Authoritative
Firm, set limits use reasonsing explain
things encourage.
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 8

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Sensorimotor Stage The level at which a child can almost,
but not fully, comprehend or perform a task
From birth to 2, understanding
on their own.
comes from touching, sucking, chewing, and
manipulating objects. Physical Development
• Object Permanence Puberty
Awareness that objects and people The period at which maturation of
continue to exist even if it is out of their sight. the sexual organs occur, beginning at about
age 11 or 12 for Girls and 13 or 14 for Boys.
Preoperational Stage
At 11 or 12, girls start their first
From 2 to 7, development of
menstruation.
language and use of symbols.
At 13 or 14, boys stars their own
• Egocentric Thought spermarche: first ejaculation.
Views the world entirely from their
own perspective.
Concrete Operational Stage
From age 7 to 12, the loss of
egocentric thinking, logical thought develops
but difficulty understanding abstract.
Formal Operational Stage
From age 12 to adulthood, they now
know abstract, formal, and logical thought.
Information Processing
They way in which people take in,
use, and store information.
Metacognition
An awareness and understanding of
one’s own cognitive processes.
Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development
Culture in which we are raised
significantly affects cognitive development.