PHOTOSYNTHESIS A chloroplastid has a double PLP membrane, a liquid
matrix and a few stacks each called a granum. Each
POINTS TO PONDER
• Photosynthesis is a redox system. In this process,
water is oxidised to oxygen and carbon dioxide is
reduced to glucose.
• Plants without chlorophyll cannot perform
photosynthesis. E.g. Cuscuta [Swarnlata], raflasia.
Cuscuta Raflasia
• Photosynthetic protista : Chrysamiba and euglena
• Photosynthetic bacteria E.g. Rhodoseudomonas,
chlorobium.
• Some plants have photosynthetic roots. E.g. Aerial
roots of orchids, tinospora (Gulancha).
Orchid Gulancha
• Quantazomes are called photosynthetic unit.
• Cyanobacteria are the only class of bacteria that can
releases oxygen.
• Chlorella has highest rate of photosynthesis. It is used
in spaceships and space-stations.
• Most plants absorb carbon dioxide through stomatal
opening in the leaves. But Stylitis Andicola absorbs CO2
through its roots.
• Scientist Emerson observed that, at red light with
more than 680 nm of wavelength, rate of
photosynthesis drops suddenly. It is called red drop.
SITES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
It occurs in all green parts of plants. The green colour is
due to chlorophyll pigment contained in chloroplastids.
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granum contains a few disc each called a thylacoid.
Each thylacoid contains photosynthetic units called
quantazomes. Chlorophylls are contained in it.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
[1] Chlorophyll. (i) Types – Chlorophyll a, b, c, d and e.
(ii) Found in – Quantazomes of thylacoid discs of the
granum stacks in the chloroplastid of cell. (iii) Working
spectrum – Blue and red light.
[2] Carotenoids. (i) Types – Carotin and xanthophylls.
(ii) Working spectrum – Carotin in orange light and
xanthophyll in yellow light.
[3] Phycocyanin (blue) and phycoerythrin (red).
THE LIGHT-DEPENDENT PHASE
[i] Site – Granum of chloroplastids.
[ii] Ingredients – Water, photosynthetic pigment, light.
[iii] The photochemical reactions:
(a) Activation of photosynthetic pigments by light.
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑈𝑉 𝑟𝑎𝑦)
Chlorophyll → Activated chlorophyll
(b) Photophosphorylation.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙
ADP + Pi → ATP
N.B. ATP is called energy currency of cell.
(c) Photolysis or Hill reaction.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙
4H2O → 2O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
N.B.1. This reaction releases oxygen into atmosphere.
N.B.2. This reaction was discovered by Robin Hill.
(d) Reduction of NADP (Nicotene amide Adenine Di-
nucleotide Phosphate).
NADP + 2H+ + 2e- = NADPH2
N.B. NADP is called Hill reagent, because it accepts the
electron released during Hill reaction.
THE LIGHT-INDEPENDENT (OR DARK) PHASE
N.B. following reactions are called Blackman’s reaction
[i] Site – Stroma of chloroplastids.
[ii] Ingredients – CO2 , ATP, NADPH2 and enzymes.
[iii] The Blackman’s reactions:
(a) Carbon assimilation
𝑅𝑢𝐵𝑖𝑠𝐶𝑂
6RuBP + 6CO2 → 12PGA (Phosphoglyceric
acid)
N.B. PGA (phosphoglyceric acid) – which is the first
synthesized stable compound in this type of
photosynthesis, is a 3C compound. So this type of
photosynthesis is called C3 photosynthesis.
(b) Production of PGAld (Phosphoglyceraldehyde)
12 PGA → 12 PGAld
(c) Calvin, Benson and Basham cycle.
Out of 12 mol, 10 mol PGAld forms 6 mol of RUBP
in a cyclic chain of reactions called Calvin cycle.
(d) Production of Glucose.
 Out of 12 mol PGAld, 2 mol PGAld is converted to
1 mol of Glucose.

TYPES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
[i] C3 photosynthesis – In most advanced plants, the
first synthesized compound in dark phase is PGA – a 3C
compound. So this type of photosynthesis is called C3
photosynthesis.
[ii] C4 photosynthesis – In some plants like maize,
sugarcane, tobacco the first synthesized compound in
dark phase is however oxalo-acetic acid – a 4C
compound. That type is thus called C4 photosynthesis. It
was discovered by Hatch and Slack. Hence it is also
called Hatch-Slack path. These plants have a special
kind of vascular bundle of Kranz anatomy.
[iii] CAM photosynthesis – Plants like pineapple, jade
plant and some other succulents, where photosynthesis
occurs all day long but the carbon dioxide is collected at
night only, the first synthesized carbon compound is
crasculascean acid. The stomata remains shut in these
plants to prevent transpiration in arid conditions.

CHEMOSYNTHESIS
Most bacteria like ferrobactor, nitrobactor,
azotobactor, hydrogen bacteria, sulphur bacteria and
methane bacteria – are autotrophs but heir nutritional
material is not glucose. It is called chemosynthesis. It
does not release oxygen.

***END***

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 RESPIRATION
TYPES
Respiration may be – [i] cellular level (intracellular)
respiration, [ii] organ level respiration (breathing).
Cellular respiration may be – [a] aerobic respiration, [b]
anaerobic respiration and [c] fermentation.
CELLULAR LEVEL RESPIRATION
It has three steps – [a] Glycolisis or EMP path, [b]
Crebb’s cycle or TCA cycle and [iii] Cytochrome path or
terminal oxidase system or electron transfer cycle.
[a] Glycolisis
● Locale: Cytoplasm of cell
𝐸𝑛𝑧𝑦𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑠
Glucose → Pyruvic acid.
N.B. This step is also called EMP path (Embden-
Mayerhoff-Parness).
[b] Crebb’s cycle
● Locale: Matrix of mitochondria
N.B. Pyruvic acid forms acetyl co-enzyme that is
reproduced through a series of intermediate
compounds starting with citric acid – which is a 3C
acid. Hence it is also called tri-carboxylic acid cycle.
[c] Cytochrome path
● Locale: Fernandes Moran subunits of
mitochondria
N.B. Neither glycosis nor Crebb’s cycle during
respiration requires oxygen. Oxygen is utilized to
oxidize the reduced carriers in those steps (like
NADH2 , FADH2 etc.) into water. The electron
transfer from H+ ion to oxygen occurs through a
series of reactions called cytochrome path.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Defn. It is the complete oxidation of glucose where the
cytochrome path uses free oxygen to collect the
electrons released by glucose. It produces 686 Kcal of
energy (38 ATP) per molecule along with CO2 and
water.
Glucose + Oxygen → CO2 + Water + 686 Kcal
Locale: Most advanced organisms.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
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Defn. It is the incomplete oxidation of glucose where
the cytochrome path uses oxygen in compounded form
to collect the electrons released by glucose. It produces
only a small amount of energy (50 Kcal per molecule)
along with water and other bi-products like CO2, NO2 .
Locale: Nitrobacter and thiobacillus uses nitrates, de-
sulphovibrio uses sulphates, methane bacteria uses
carbonates etc.
FERMENTATION
Defn. It is the incomplete oxidation of sugars where the
terminal electron acceptors are organic compounds
and not oxygen.
Types:
[i] Alcohol fermentation
𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡/𝑍𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑒
Glucose → Ethanol + CO2 + 50 Kcal
[ii] Lactic acid fermentation
𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙/𝐸𝑛𝑧𝑦𝑚𝑒
Glucose → Lactic acid + 36 Kcal
𝐿𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑠
Latose (milk) → Lactic acid (curd) + 36 Kcal
N.B. When lactic acid is formed in our muscle cell, we
feel fatigue and pain of muscle.
ORGAN LEVEL RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
Some plants have three specially designed organs for
gaseous exchange (absorption of oxygen and release of
CO2). Remember, no plant has well developed
breathing organ due to lack of transport system and
low of biological oxygen demand.
[a] Stomata – These are special openings in the leaf.
The opening and closing of stomata is regulated by two
guard cells.
N.B. Most plants have stomata on the lower side of leaf
amidst spongy parenchyma. But some monocots like
onion, maize, oat, wheat and paddy have stomata on
both side of leaf. Plants like lotus, water chestnut etc.
have stomata only on the upper surface.
N.B. Some plants have sunken stomata. E.g. Xerophytes
like cacti and many succulent plants.
[b] Lenticel – These are microscopic opening on the
cracked bark of tree and shrubs.
[c] Pneumatophore – These are opening at the tips of
breathing roots found in mangrove plants.
ORGAN LEVEL RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
It is the process of absorbing oxygen from environment.
It can be performed in animals in four basic modes – [a]
through skin and cellular surface, [b] through trachea,
[c] through gill and [d] through lung.
[a] Breathing through skin and cell-surface
Examples: All amphibians like toad, frog and
salamander; some annelids like earthworm and leech.
N.B. Unicellular organisms absorb oxygen through
osmosis in the cell membrane.
[b] Tracheal breathing
Many arthropods and all insects have breathing pores
called spiracle beside their body trunk. They form
trachea inside the body and then the trachea divides
into many tracheols that have air sacs at the end.
Gaseous exchange occurs through diffusion.
Trachea of cockroach
[c] Gills
Gills are designed to collect oxygen from water by
osmosis and diffusion. Gills are of many types –
● Internal gill – Most fishes, snails, prawn, crabs
● External gill – Larvae of mosquito, tadpoles of frog
and salamander, hatchling of some fishes like
polypteras.
● Tracheal gill – May fly; larvae of mosquito, beetles.
N.B. Tracheal gills of the larvae of mosquito are
projected out of water. When oil is poured on water
they cannot breathe and hence die.
● Other gills: [i] Book gill – Limulas, [ii] Leaf gill –
Damsel fly, [iii] Ctenidia gill – Oysters, [iv] Cerrata gill
– Aeolis snail, [v] Cloacal gill – Solenogastres (a shell-
less mollusc), [vi] Anal gill – Doris snail, [vii] Papula –
Echinoderms (like starfish), [viii] Peristomal gill – Sea
urchins (ehinus).
Limulus Mosquito larvae in water
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Papuli of starfish Solenogastres
N.B. Some fishes that migrate from one water body to
another, have auxillary breathing sacs. E.g. Anabus
(Gangetic koi), catfish, Heteropneustes (Singi).
[d] Lungs
Lungs are designed to collect oxygen from air through
diffusion (density difference) and ventilation (pressure
difference). Lungs, too, are of many types –
● Air bladder – Many fishes have air bladders in
addition to gill. Fishes like protopteras, lepidosiren
etc. And amphibinas like proteas and salamander,
have air bladder only and no gill.
● Respiratory tree of water lung – Holothuria.
● Book lung – Scorpion, spider.
Book lung of spider Respiratory tree of holothuria
ORGAN LEVEL RESPIRATION IN HUMAN
The pathway of air while taking breathe is as follows:
nose → pharynx → glottis → epiglottis → larynx →
trachea → bronchi → alveoli in lungs.
● Lungs:
It is covered by a membrane called pleura. Left lung has
two lobes while the right lung has three lobes. Right
lung is larger than left lung.
N.B. Spirometer measures volume of air in lungs.
● Some terms related to breathing
Tidal volume (TV) is the air taken in and out during one
complete breathing cycle. TV = 500 ml.
Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum volume of air than
can be expelled from lung during a deep exhalation
followed by a deep inhalation. VC = 4.5 L
Total lung capacity – It is 6 L.
Maximum breathing capacity [MBC] is the air inhaled
and exhaled per minute during breathing. MBC = 85 –
120 L
● Some diseases of respiratory system
Pleurisy – It is pain due to infection in pleura
membrane
Silicosis – It is pain due to silicon particles in lungs.
Asbestosis – It is pain due to silicon particles in lungs.
Pneumonia – It is infection by diplococcus pneumonae
Bronchitis – It is infection of bronchioles.
Asthma – It is allergic contraction of bronchioles and
the associated breathing trouble.
Emphysema – Due to prolonged suffering from asthma,
the elasticity of muscles in air bladders is lost.

GASEOUS TRANSPORT AFTER BREATHING

It is performed by respiratory pigments to send inhaled
oxygen from lungs to cells and the excess carbon
dioxide from cell to lungs.
● Respiratory pigments:
Haemoglobin (red, contains iron, found in RBC),
Haemocyanin (blue, contains copper, found dissolved in
serum of some molluscs and arthropods)
Chlorocruorin (green, contains copper, found dissolved
in serum of polychitae)
Erythrocruorin (red, contains iron, found dissolved in
serum of some annelids and molluscs)
Pinaglobulin (Brown, contains manganese, found
dissolved in serum of some molluscs)
● Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport
It is done by respiratory pigments. In human, oxygen is
diffused from lungs to blood and then combines with
haemoglobin to form unstable compound oxy-
haemoglobin and is carried to cells. Carbon dioxide
from cell is diffused to blood and combines with
haemoglobin to form unstable compound carbamino
haemoglobin and is transported to lungs.
N.B. Carbon monoxide, when inhaled, forms stable
compound carboxy haemoglobin with haemoglobin. So
the pigments permanently loss their transporting
capability.
***END***

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