Photosynthesis

I. Capturing the Energy of Life

A All organisms require energy
B Some organisms (autotrophs) obtain energy directly from the sun and store it in organic
compounds (glucose) during a process called photosynthesis
6CO2 + 12H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6+ 6H2O
II. Energy for Life Processes
A Energy is the ability to do work
B Work for a cell includes growth & repair, active transport across cell membranes,
reproduction, synthesis of cellular products, etc.
C Work is the ability to change or move matter against other forces (W = F x D)
D Autotrophs or producers convert sunlight, CO2, and H2O into glucose (their food)
E Plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria, some prokaryotes, are producers or autotrophs
F Only 10% of the Earth’s 40 million species are autotrophs
G Other autotrophs use inorganic compounds instead of sunlight to make food; process
known as chemosynthesis
H Producers make food for themselves and also for heterotrophs or consumers that
cannot make food for themselves
I Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, & some bacteria, &protists

III. Biochemical Pathways

A Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are biochemical pathways
B Biochemical pathways are a series of reactions where the product of one reaction is the
reactant of the next
C Only autotrophs are capable of photosynthesis
D Both autotrophs & heterotrophs perform cellular respiration to release energy to do
work
E In photosynthesis, CO2(carbon dioxide) and H2O (water) are combined to form C 6H12O 6
(glucose) & O2 (oxygen)
F 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C 6H12O6
G In cellular respiration, O2 (oxygen) is used to burn C6H12O6 (glucose) & release
CO2(carbon dioxide), H2O (water), and energy
H Usable energy released in cellular respiration is called adenosine triphosphate or ATP
IV. Light Absorption in Chloroplasts
A Chloroplasts in plant & algal cells absorb light energy from the sun during the light
dependent reactions
B Photosynthetic cells may have thousands of chloroplasts
C Chloroplasts are double membrane organelles with the an inner membrane folded into
disc-shaped sacs called thylakoids
D Thylakoids, containing chlorophyll and other accessory pigments, are in stacks called
granum (grana, plural)
E Grana are connected to each other & surrounded by a gel-like material called stroma
F Light-capturing pigments in the grana are organized into photosystems

V. Pigments
A Light travels as waves
B Wavelength of light is the distance between 2 consecutive peaks or troughs

C Sunlight or white light is made of different wavelengths or colors carrying different

amounts of energy
D A prism separates white light into 7 colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, &
violet) ROY G. BIV
E These colors are called the visible spectrum
 F When light strikes an object, it is absorbed, transmitted, or reflected
G When all colors are absorbed, the object appears black
H When all colors are reflected, the object appears white
I If only one color is reflected (green), the object appears that color (e.g. Chlorophyll)

VI. Pigments in the Chloroplasts

A Thylakoids contain a variety of pigments( green red, orange, yellow...)
B Chlorophyll is the most common pigment in plants & algae
C Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b are the 2 most common types of chlorophyll in autotrophs
D Chlorophyll absorbs only red, blue, & violet light
E Chlorophyll b absorbs colors or light energy NOT absorbed by chlorophyll a
F The light energy absorbed by chlorophyll b is transferred to chlorophyll a in the light
reactions

G Carotenoids are accessory pigments in the thylakoids & include yellow, orange, & red

VII. Overview of Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O C 6H12O6 + 6O2
A Photosynthesis is not a simple one step reaction but a biochemical pathway involving
many steps
B This complex reaction can be broken down into two reaction systems --- light
dependent & light independent or dark reactions
A
• Light Reaction:
• H2O O2 + ATP + NADPH2
• Water is split, giving off oxygen.
• This system depends on sunlight for activation energy.
• Light is absorbed by chlorophyll a which "excites" the electrons in the chlorophyll
molecule.and adenosine triphosphate or ATP (energy) is produced
• This process takes place in the thylakoids.
• Dark Reaction:
• ATP + NADPH2 + CO2 C6H12O6
• Carbon dioxide is split, providing carbon to make sugars.
• The ultimate product is glucose.
• While this system depends on the products from the light reactions, it does not
directly require light energy.
• Includes the Calvin Cycle.
• Takes place in the stroma.

•
• The Calvin cycle is the most common pathway used by autotrophs called C 3 Plants.
• Calvin cycle proceeds in three stages :
• (1) Carboxylation :CO combines with ribulose 1, 5 bisphosphate to form 3 PGA in the
presence of RuBisCo enzyme. 2
• (2) Reduction :Carbohydrate is formed at the expense of ATP and NADPH.
• (3) Regeneration :The CO acceptor ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate is formed again . 2 6
turns of Calvin cycles and 18 ATP molecules are required to synthesize one molecule of
glucose.
•
•
• Glucose is also the monomer used in the synthesis of the polysaccharides starch and
cellulose

D Each turn of the Calvin cycle fixes One CO2 molecule so it takes six turns to make one
molecule of glucose
IX. Photosystems & Electron Transport Chain
A Only 1 in 250 chlorophyll molecules (chlorophyll a)actually converts light energy into
usable energy
B These molecules are called reaction-center chlorophyll
C The other molecules (chlorophyll b, c, & d and carotenoids)absorb light energy and
deliver it to the reaction-center molecule

XI. Alternate Pathways

A Plants in hot, dry climates use alternate pathways to fix carbon & then transfer it to
the Calvin cycle.
B Stomata are small openings on the underside of leaves for gas exchange (O2& CO2).
C Guard cells on each side of the stoma help open & close the stomata.
D Plants also lose H2O through stoma so they are closed during the hottest part of the
day

F C4plants fix CO2 into 4-Carbon Compoundsduring the hottest part of the day when
their stomata are partially closed.
G C4 plants include corn, sugar cane and crabgrass
H The C4pathway :C4 plants have special type of leaf anatomy, they tolerate higher
temperatures. In this pathway, oxaloacetic acid (OAA) is the first stable product
formed. It is 4 carbon atoms compound, hence called C 4 pathway (Hatch and Slack
Cycle).
CAM plants include cactus & pineapples
CAM plants open their stomata at night and close during the day so CO2 is fixed at
night
I During the day, the CO2 is released from these compounds and enters the Calvin Cycle
J Some plants that are adapted to dry environments, such as cacti and pineapples, use
the
crassulacean acid metabolism CAM pathway to minimize photorespiration. This name comes
from the family of plants, the Crassulaceae, in which scientists first discovered the
pathway.At night, CAM plants open their stomata, allowing
CO2diffuse into the leaves. This CO2is fixed into oxaloacetate by PEP carboxylase (the
same step used by
C4 Plants.)then converted to malic acid.
The organic acid is stored inside vacuoles until the next day. In the daylight, the CAM
plants do not open their stomata, but they can still dophotosynthesis. That's because the
organic acids are transported out of the vacuole and broken down to release CO2which
enters the Calvin cycle. This controlled release maintains a high concentration of
CO2around rubisco

XII. Factors Determining the Rate of Photosynthesis

A Light intensity- As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis initially
increases and then levels off to a plateau
B Temperature - Only the dark, not the light reactions are temperature dependent
because of the enzymes they use (25 oC to 37oC)
C Length of day
D Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide available improves the photosynthesis rate
E Level of air pollution
Red drop and Emerson’s enhancement effect

Robert Emerson noticed a sharp decrease in quantum yield at wavelength greater

than 680 nm, while determining the quantum yield of photosynthesis in chlorella
using monochromatic light of different wavelengths.
Since this decrease in quantum yield took place in the red part of the spectrum,
the phenomenon was called as red drop.
Later, they found that the inefficient far-red light beyond 680 nm could be made
fully efficient if supplemented with light of shorter wavelength (blue light).
The quantum yield from the two combined beams of light was found to be greater
than the sum effects of both beams used separately.
This enhancement of photosynthesis is called as Emerson’s Enhancement.