Crop Science

Photosynthesis

 LIFE ON EARTH ULTIMATELY DEPENDS ON ENERGY

derived from the sun.
 Photosynthesis is the only process of biological
importance that can harvest this energy.

Basic of Photosynthesis

 The term photosynthesis means literally “synthesis using

light.

Products of Light dependent reaction

 ATP
 NADPH
 (Oxygen) by product

We will use this products for Calvin Cycle/ Dark Reaction/

Light Independent Reaction

 In part 1, we saw how the photochemical oxidation of

water to molecular oxygen is coupled to the generation
of ATP and reduced pyridine nucleotide (NADPH) by
reactions taking place in the chloroplast thylakoid
Chloroplast membrane.
 The Site of Photosynthesis  The reactions catalyzing the reduction of CO2 to
carbohydrate are coupled to the consumption of NADPH
Recall the Requirements and ATP by enzymes found in the stroma, the soluble
phase of chloroplasts.
 Sunlight
 Water PART 2 (Carbon Reactions)
 Carbon
Calvin Cycle
There are 2 parts of photosynthesis
 The process was first identified by American biochemist
 Part 1 : Light Dependent Reaction Dr. Melvin Calvin in 1957. The Calvin cycle is a process
 Part 2 : Calvin Cycle/ Dark Reaction/ Light Independent that plants and algae use to turn carbon dioxide from the
Reaction air into sugar, the food autotrophs need to grow.
 All photosynthetic eukaryotes, from the most primitive
Light dependent reaction alga to the most advanced angiosperm, reduce CO2 to
 Will undergo in Thylakoid membrane carbohydrate via the same basic mechanism: the
photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle originally
described for C3 species (the Calvin cycle, or reductive
pentose phosphate [RPP] cycle)
 Part 2 will undergo in stroma

Location

 The Calvin Cycle Has Three Stages: Carboxylation,

Reduction, and Regeneration
 Stroma of CHLOROPLAST
 RuBP as acceptor enzyme
 RUBP carboxylase/oxygenase (catalyst)

 6 rounds to produce 1 mole of glucose

C4 PLANTS

 There are differences in leaf anatomy between plants

that have a C4 carbon cycle (called C4 plants) and those
that photosynthesize solely via the Calvin photosynthetic
cycle (C3 plants).
 A cross section of a typical C3 leaf reveals one major cell
type that has chloroplasts, the mesophyll. In contrast, a
typical C4 leaf has two distinct chloroplast-containing cell
types: mesophyll and bundle sheath (or Kranz, German
for “wreath”) cells.
The basic C4 cycle consists of four stages:
Cam plants (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism)
 A third mechanism for concentrating CO2 at the site
ofrubisco is found in crassulacean acid metabolism
(CAM).
 The Stomata of CAM Plants Open at Night and Close
during the Day

 Fixation of CO2 by the carboxylation of

phosphoenolpyruvate in the mesophyll
cells to form a C4 acid (malate and/or
aspartate)
 Transport of the C4 acids to the bundle
sheath cells
 Decarboxylation of the C4 acids within
the bundle sheath cells and generation
of CO2, which is then reduced to carbohydrate via the
Calvin cycle
 Transport of the C3 acid (pyruvate or alanine) that is
formed by the decarboxylation step back to the
mesophyll cell and regeneration of the CO2 acceptor
phosphoenolpyruvate.

Glucose

 End product of part 2

 Respiration of plant
How much solar energy is converted per turn?
Where does glucose go?
st
Glycolysis (1 step for respiration)
Pyruvate
 TCA - Tricarboxylic acid
 Located in Mitochondria
TCA/Krebs cycle (2nd step of cellular respiration)
 We have the acetyl-CoA
 Happens in mitochondria matrix
Happens in mitochondria membranes
Final Step
Meaning:
 1 NADH = 2.5 ATP produced
 1 FADH = 1.5 ATP Produced
ATP generated in 1 mole of glucose
Glycolysis ATP
2 ATP = 2
2 NADH * 2.5 = 5
TCA
2 ATP = 2
8 NADPH * 2.5 = 20
2 FADH2 *1.5 = 3
Total = 32 ATPS produced per mole of glucose
Transpiration
 LIFE IN EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE presents a formidable
challenge to land plants. On the one hand, the
atmosphere is the source of carbon dioxide, which is
needed for photosynthesis. Plants therefore need ready
access to the atmosphere.
 We will examine the mechanisms and driving forces
operating on water transport within the plant and
between the plant and its environment.
 Transpirational water loss from the leaf is driven by a
gradient in water vapor concentration.
 Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water
vapour through the stomata of plants. The loss of water
vapour from the plant cools the plant down when the
weather is very hot, and water from the stem and roots
moves upwards or is 'pulled' into the leaves.
Theories of water movement from soil to leaves
 A Negative Hydrostatic Pressure in Soil Water Lowers Soil
Water Potential
 Water Moves through the Soil by Bulk Flow
 Solute Accumulation in the Xylem Can Generate “Root
Pressure
 Transpirational pull
Water Transport through the xylem
 Water Movement through the Xylem Requires Less
Pressure Than Movement through Living Cells
 The Cohesion–Tension Theory Explains Water Transport
in the Xylem
Translocation and Photo assimilation
 SURVIVAL ON LAND POSES SOME SERIOUS CHALLENGES
to terrestrial plants, foremost of which is the need to
acquire and retain water.
 In response to these environmental pressures, plants
evolved roots and leaves. Roots anchor the plant and
 absorb water and nutrients; leaves absorb light and
exchange gases.

Phloem

 Is the tissue that translocates the products of

photosynthesis from mature leaves to areas of growth
and storage, including the roots.

Sugar

 Is Translocated in Phloem Sieve Elements

Emrbyo
Patterns of Translocation: Source to sink
Composed of
Sources
 Embryonic axis
 include any exporting organs, typically mature leaves,  Cotyledons
that are capable of producing photosynthate in excess of
their own needs. The term photosynthate refers o Embryonic axis
products of photosynthesis.
 Embryonic root (radicle)
Sinks  Hypoctotyl
 Shoot apex
 include any nonphotosynthetic organs of the plant and
organs that do not produce enough photosynthetic
products to support their own growth or storage needs.
Roots, tubers, developing fruits, and immature leaves,
which must import carbohydrate for normal
development, are all examples of sink tissues.

Materials translocated in the Phloem Epigeal germination

 Sucrose  Refers to the germination of a plant that takes place

 Amino Acids above the ground while hypogeal germination refers to
 Hormones the germination of a plant that takes place below the
 Inorganic Ions ground.

 Sugars Are Translocated in Nonreducing Form - Sucrose is

the most commonly translocated sugar; many of the
other mobile carbohydrates contain sucrose bound to
varying numbers of galactose molecules.
 Phloem and Xylem Interact to Transport Nitrogenous
Compounds

Crop production

 Different phases of life cycle

Seed

 Ovule in ovary of the plant

 A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective
outer covering.  Caryopsis, also called grain, specialized type of dry, one-
 3/4 of human consumptions comes from seeds (70%). seeded fruit (achene) characteristic of grasses, in which
 Smallest seed - Orchid seed the ovary wall is united with the seed coat, making it
 Largest seed - Coco de mer difficult to separate the two except by special milling
processes.
Structural parts of Seed  Cotyledon of endospermic seed (castor) rely on
endosperm instead of cotyledon
 Cotyledon of non-endospermic seeds (such as squash
and legume family) rely on their cotyledon for food
reserves.
Perisperm (non-embryonic storage tissue)

Difference Between Perisperm and Endosperm.

 Perisperm and endosperm are two types of food storage

tissues found in the seed of higher plants. Most seeds
contain stored food in the form of carbohydrates, fat, and
protein. The stored food is used for the growth of the
embryo during the germination of the seed.
Fertilization of Plants
 Perisperm - comes from diploid fusion - central cell
 Endosperm - comes from triploid fusion Megasporogenesis and Megagametogenesis
Endosperm  Megasporogenesis: taking place inside the ovule inside
the ovary.
 Endosperm, tissue that surrounds and nourishes the
embryo in the seeds of angiosperms (flowering plants).
 The endosperm is the most prominent food storing tissue
of the seed. It is formed from the primary endosperm
nucleus.
 The fusion of one of the two sperm cells coming through
the pollen tube in the process called triple fusion
produces the primary endosperm nucleus inside the
embryo sac.

 Monocot seed > Dicot seed (endosperm content)

Testa (Seed Coat)

 Used to distinguish species and family of seed

 Primary function - protective barrier of embryo
Life Cycle of Flowering Plants

 The large plant is a sporophyte.

 Its flower produces the sporangia; on the female side, the
ovule of the carpel
 The ovule contains a megasporocyte that divides by
meiosis to make four megaspores
 Coats may contain pectin may act as barrier of the seed  Three megaspores disintegrate.
(produces mucilage when in contact with water and  The remaining megaspore cell divides by mitosis to make
inhibit metabolism of inner tissue). Basically means that 8 nuclei.
seed may survive without damage even eaten by  Cytokinesis divides the 8 nuclei into seven cells of the
birds/animals. megagametophyte (embryo sac)
 The egg cell and the central cell are gametes that fuse
Purpose of seed coat with two sperm cells in syngamy
 Protection from external factors that may inhibit the  The ovule, with zygotic embryo and triploid endosperm,
germination becomes a seed.
 Protection from predators such as insects In Flowering Plants, syngamy is a double event:
 Protection from disease causing
microorganism/bacteria/fungi
 the seed will bear a scar called HILUM (visibility of
micropyle)
 Caruncle - the aril is associated with the micropyle
 Microgametogenesis:

 process in plant reproduction where

a microgametophyte develops in a pollen grain to the
three-celled stage of its development.

Anther morphology

Parts of Stamen

 Filament

 Anther

 Connective

Classification

 Tetra-sporongiate/ Dithecous

 In Dicots (Capsella), the development lacks competition,  Bi-sporongiate/ Monothecous

but the sequence is similar.
 Unisporongiate
 These are globular embryos with suspensors.
The pollen sacs are surrounded by following 4 layers:

Epidermis

 Outermost single layered and protective.

Endothecium

 With cells developing fibrous thickening and thin walled

structure (stomium)

Middle layer

 Cells of this layer are ephemeral and degenerate to

provide nourishment to growing microspore mother cells.

Tapetum

 The cells are multinucleate(undergo endopolyploidy) and

Microsporogenesis and Microgametogenesis polyploid. Tapetal cells are nutritive.

Microgametogenesis, Pre & Post-pollination development

Male gametophyte (MG):

 haploid structure formed by pollen grains or microspore

and it produces the male gametes or antherozoides.

Microspores are the first cell of MG.

Formation

1. Preparation

2. Formation of vegetative and generative cells

3. Formation of male gametes

Microsporogenesis 4. Pollen tube formation

 process of the formation and differentiation of 5. Fertilization

microspores (pollen grains) from microspore mother cells
(MMC) by reductional division  Microgametogenesis as a part of Angiosperm Life Cycle
Embryogenesis

Occurs after fertilization

Dicot vs Monocot plants

Produces plant embryo

 Immature since still developing (lacks of leaves, stems,

and reproductive structures)

 Zygote will undergo series of cell division and

histodifferentiation

 Will establish the body plan of the plant

Dicot Embryogenesis

4 stages

 Preglobular
 Globular
 Cotyledon
 Mature

Monocot Embryogenesis

5 stages

 Preglobular
 Globular
 Scutellar
 Coleoptilar
 Mature
Plant Propagation  Produce seed without fertilization

 Plant propagation is the process by which new plants

grow from a variety of sources: seeds, cuttings, and other
plant parts. Plant propagation can also refer to the man-
made or natural dispersal of seeds.
 Sexual or Asexual

Sexual Method

 Fertilization Occurs
 Common plant propagation practices Corm

 is a short, vertical, swollen underground plant stem that

serves as a storage organ that some plants use to survive
winter or other adverse conditions such as summer
drought and heat
 Corms are short, underground stems similar to bulbs,
however, they do not contain fleshy leaves.

 The staminate flowers in one corn plant tassel may

produce as many as 15 million pollen grains.
 Pollen grains do not remain viable much longer than 24
Bulb
hours after leaving the tassel
 Bulbs are underground stems with scale-like, fleshy
How Seed Fertilize?
leaves. Onion, garlic, and tulip are examples of plants that
 During the fertilization process, one sperm* cell from the grow from bulbs.
pollen tube unites with the egg cell in the ovule to form a
zygote.
 The second sperm cell unites with two separate polar
nuclei to form a primary endosperm nucleus. Double
fertilization results from the unions of the two male sex
cells.

Asexual Method

 Plant reproduce asexually without fertilization

 Easiest plant propagation practices
 Asexual or vegetative reproduction involves the
production of new plants by use of vegetative parts from
an existing plant. Vegetative plant parts used in asexual
reproduction include stems, buds, leaves, and roots
Stolon
 Stolon – Shoot that grows along the ground (runner)
Tubers
 Tubers are enlarged structures used as storage organs for
nutrients in some plants. Tubers are short, thickened
underground stems that contain “eyes.”
 The eyes are nodes that are capable of producing shoots
of new plants.
 Potatoes, sweet potatoes are tuberous plants.

Rhizomes
Apomixis
 Rhizomes are underground, horizontal growing plant
stems that produce new plants at each of
 their nodes.
 Examples of plants with rhizomes are johnsongrass,
bermudagrass, Aloe vera, and
 asparagus
 Connecting the plants (unison).
 Stock (root/under) – bottom part of the grafted union
 Scion – Short piece of stem (above the grafted union)
Factors
 Compatible (scion and rootstock)
 Cambium layer must be in close contact
 Stock must be equal or larger than the scion
 Proper time of the year
 Cover the grafted cut surface with wax

Uses

 Maintain clone that can not propagated by other asexual

What is the difference between Stolon and Rhizome?
method
Methods of Vegetative Plant Reproduction  To gain benefit of certain root stocks (disease resistant,
dwarfing rootstock)
 Cutting  Speed up time to maturity (promote early flowering).
 Grafting  Repair damaged part of the tree
 Layering
 Budding Selection and Maintenance of Mother Trees
 Separation vs Division
 Prior to seed collection, you will need to select and mark
 Tissue Culture
good mother trees. These are the trees you will use as
Cutting – stem sources of high-quality seed and propagation materials.
 Healthy and free of diseases and insects
 In any part of severed from parent plant (leaves, stems,  Nearly mature
roots).  Good producers of the desired product
 Detached portion of stem containing terminal/ lateral  Growing in the midst of a healthy stand of the same
bud to produce new plant. species.
 Softwood, semi hardwood,
 deciduous hardwood, conifer Maintenance of mother trees:

Cutting – leaf  Identified mother trees are used to develop progeny

 Portion of leaf blade, complete leaf blade, or with petiole
attached.
 May need clear plastic to hold moisture
Cutting – leaf bud
 Consists of petiole and leaf with short piece of stem with
lateral bud.
Cutting – Root
 Root pieces taken from young plants as a source material.
What are the factors to be considered?
 To ensure optimal rooting of cuttings,
a. Consider the environmental conditions and physiological
status of the parent plant (must be optimal)
b. Timing and collection of cuttings
c. Preparation of cuttings
 Root-inducing environment (high RH, Optimal temp, High
quality rooting medium.
 Fertilization
hedges in large number near to the nursery site at 2x2 m
distance.
 The hedges are properly labeled and used for scion
wood.
 Progeny trees are heavily pruned to produce scion wood
in bulk
 Adequate plant protection measures are also adopted to
keep these progeny hedges free from the insect/pests
and diseases.
 Such practices of maintaining scion/mother tree hedges
are common in various advanced nurseries in overseas
countries.
 Old trees of selected varieties can also be pruned
severely to develop forced shoots to be used as scion
source, in the orchard site only till progeny hedges are
developed
To choose the right mother trees, remember this simple rule:
A tree's off-spring will usually resemble its mother.
Therefore:
 If you want straight trunks, choose a straight-trunked
mother tree.

Grafting
 For a multi-trunk fodder tree, select multi-trunk mother  Avoid any wood with spurs (fruit/blossom). Wood should
trees. be between 0.25 and 0.5 inches in diameter.

 For trees which tolerate drought, or flooding, select good Point 2

looking mother trees from dry or flooded sites, etc..
For fruit Trees
 Collect seed from trees of local varieties producing good
quantities of tasty, healthy fruit of marketable size.
Low branching trees may be preferable as mother trees..
For fruit trees, high quality varieties are usually grafted onto
native, or hardy rootstocks.
To get a high-quality fruit tree, these steps should be done:
 Grow seedlings of drought tolerant and disease resistant
mother trees.
 Then graft a branch of a high-quality variety onto the
seedling when it is strong and well-established.
 Keep your eyes open for trees of high-quality varieties
near your home. From these, you can obtain scions to
use for grafting. Otherwise, obtain scions from
commercial fruit nurseries.
 Avoid suckers that arise from the rootstock, below the
union.
 One of the problems with using waterspouts is that the
tissue often lacks in stored carbohydrates, which is
important in the wound healing and callusing process.
Point 3 Storage of scion wood
 Bundle pieces of scion wood and place into a
polyethylene bag. I like to bundle the wood in 14-18-inch
lengths if possible to insure adequate length, especially if
bridge grafting is anticipated.
 Disinfection of scion wood: To check the infection
accumulated during storage, the scion wood prior to use
after storage should be treated with insecticides
Methods of Grafting
 Scion and stocks are completely equal (category)

Collection and handling of scion wood

For dormant grafting

 The scion wood in winter is to be stored for considerable

long time. The labels and identification marks of scion
wood should be considerably durable.

 Storage under moist conditions or underground needs rot

proof labels and the attachments.

 Non-corrosive zinc metals have proved excellent for this

purposes, provided the wire or other connection is rot-  Scions are smaller than stocks.
proof.

 Painted wood labels or zinc labels with pliable wire are

satisfactory for most purposes.

 Bundles of budwood are tied firmly and labels are

attached in such a way that they may not slip along and
off the ends of scion material.

 Even the best method of labeling should be

supplemented by notes in the gardener nursery book.

 The best method of storage of scionwood is to burry

deep in soil with more packing in shady location. It also
helps in completion of chilling requirement of the scion
wood.

 Storage can also be done in cool chamber at 0-2OC.

Point 1

 Limit wood to one-year-old wood. Avoid any wood or

portion of wood that is older.
Tissue Culture

 Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells separate

from the organism.
 This is typically facilitated via the use of a liquid, semi-
solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar, in
vitro under sterile growing conditions.

Nursery registration act

 Under Department Circular no. 01 series of 2020 (DA-BPI)

Phytohormones
Naturally occurring, organic molecules influence physiological
process of plant.
 Indigenous in plant (synthesized naturally)
 Synthesized in one part of the plant
 Chemical signals (intercellular communication)
 Corelated to gene expression
 Mode of action #1: Promotes elongation of stem, inhibit
the growth of primary roots.
 Mechanism of Action: Cell elongation (acidifies cell wall)
– expansion of cell.
 Mode of action #2: Phototropism and gravitropism
Phototropism,

Auxin  or growth with respect to light, is expressed in all shoots

and some roots; it ensures that leaves will receive
 Plant Growth Hormone optimal sunlight for photosynthesis.
 First hormone discovered
 Darwin and his son conducted an experiment.

Gravitropism

 growth in response to gravity, enables roots to grow

downward into the soil and shoots to grow upward away
from the soil.

Thigmotropism

 or growth with respect to touch, enables roots to grow

around rocks and is responsible for the ability of the
shoots of climbing plants to wrap around other structures
for support.

Mechanism of action:

 Lateral distribution of Auxin

Why synthetic auxin used in as rooting hormone?

Localization  Auxin Promotes the Formation of Lateral and

Adventitious Roots
 Auxin is synthesized in Shoot Apical Meristem, young  Auxin stimulates these pericycle cells to divide. The
leaves, developing inflorescence, and embryo following dividing cells gradually form into a root apex, and the
fertilization. lateral root grows through the root cortex and epidermis.
Auxein (Greek) – to increase/ to grow Auxin also used in
 Common auxin found in plant (majority of the form) is  Floral bud development
IAA  Fruit development
 Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)  Commercial use as herbicide (2,4D.) 2,4-
 Synthesized from amino acid – tryptophan Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
 Remember High concentration (toxic), Low to Medium –
Take note
Beneficial
 MODE AND MECHANISM OF ACTION
Gibberellins
 Mode- end effect
 Mechanism – explain how, why  Plant Height Regulator
 2nd group of hormones discovered
Transport
 Large compounds found in plants
Polar Transport  Promotion of stem growth
 Discovery in 1950 (Japan) “Foolish Seedling” Bakanae
 Basipetal – downward (up to down) disease of rice
 Phloem pathway (requires living cell)  “fungus gibberalla fujikoroi”
 PIN protein as auxin carrier  And the name gibberellins formulated
 (found in the base of the cell)
Principal Component
Physiological response to auxin
 Gibberellic acid and GA3 are identical to each other
Effects of GA
 Mode of Action: Seed Germination
 Mechanism:
Stimulates Stem Growth
 Result to Bolting
 Endogenous GA1 Levels Are Correlated with Tallness
Mechanism : Stimulate cell elongation and cell division
 enhancing the cell wall extensibility without acidifying
cell wall.
 Basically Auxin and GA works together in fashion
 If cell loosen up, more water comes in leads to
elongation.
GA can replace LONG day plant and Cold Requirements
 If a long day plant needs (12-15 hrs to flower), application
of GA will replace the daylength requirement. It will
proceed to bolt and flower.
 GA Regulates the transition from juvenile stage to adult
stage.
 Also, GA can replace cold requirements of plant to flower
(vernalization)
 GA influence maleness (flowers)
 GA promote fruit set
 Commercial uses (seedless fruits, maleness of flower,
fruit production)
Increase fruit production
 Promotes stalk elongation
 Longer stalk = more space to fill in.
GA Biosynthesis
 Derivatives of Terpenoid (secondary metabolites)
 Photoperiod and temperature can alter GA synthesis.
Long day plant:
 Long days - bolting (GA increases)
 Short day – rossette (GA is low)
Transported via phloem and xylem
 Whereas, Root synthesizes GA – Transported via xylem
 Shoot synthesizes GA – transported via phloem
 Auxin promotes GA biosynthesis
Stratification vs Vernalization
 Stratification – Cold temperature to seed germination
 Verbalization – Cold temperature to flower
 GA can replace the cold temperature requirement to
flower
 GA9 promotes flowering by expressing gene (florigen)
Cytokinin
 Regulator of cell division
 Anti aging hormone
 Delay short life
 Delayed senescence (programmed cell death)
 Derived from adenine or amine purine
 Zeatin – principal cytokinin in higher plants (most
abundant cytokinin form).
Localization
 Root tip
 Suppresses root growth
 If plant is rootless, synthesis of cytokinin would be on
stem.
Transport
 Passively – xylem (root – shoot)
 Movement along with the transpiration stream
Biological response
 Promote cell division by increasing the transition cell
from G2 to mitosis.
 Delay senescence (increase protein synthesis by binding
protein CBF to ribosomes.
 Remained greener- delayed breakdown of proteins-
Cytokinins influence the movement of nutrients into
leaves from other parts of the plant.
 As leaves grow older, senescence specific promoter is
activated (ipt gene), cytokinin block this ipt gene.
Basically cytokinin is the regulator of leaf senescence.
Cytokinin promotes bud formation
 Cytokinins Modify Apical Dominance and Promote Lateral
Bud Growth.
 Ex. Maize (strong apical dominance – no lateral branches)
 Application of cytokinin stimulates axillary buds to grow.
 Observe the trees, lots of branches are competing with
the main stem.
 Cytokinins Promote Chloroplast Development
 Cytokinins Promote Cell Expansion in Leaves and
Cotyledons
Ethylene
 The gaseous hormone
 Gas form
 1959 recognized as PGR

Triple response of ethylene
 Reduced stem/hypoctyl elongation
 Reduced root elongation
 Exaggeration of curvature of apical hooks
 Insensitive mutans (ethylene)
 Fail to show the three symptoms after exposure to
ethylene.
Environmental Stresses and Auxins Promote
Ethylene Biosynthesis
 Developmental stage – fruit ripening
 Stress-induced ethylene production - drought, flooding,
chilling, exposure to ozone, or mechanical wounding lead
to response This “stress ethylene” is involved in the
onset of stress responses such as abscission, senescence,
wound healing, and increased disease resistance
 Auxin-induce ethylene production - These responses
might be due to the ability of auxins to promote ethylene
synthesis by enhancing ACC synthase activity.
Development and Physiological Effects of Ethylene
 Fruit ripening (presence of ethylene-increase)
 Mechanism: tissue suffer, softening, enzymatic
breakdown of cell wall.
 (starch hydrolysis, sugar accumulation, disappearing of
organic and phenolic compounds)
 Climacteric- fruits that ripen in response to ethylene
exhibit a characteristic respiratory rise before the
ripening phase.
 in contrast, fruits such as citrus fruits and grapes do not
exhibit the respiration and ethylene production rise and
arecalled nonclimacteric fruits.
Leaf Epinasty Results When ACC from the Root Is Transported
to the Shoot
 Ethylene and high concentrations of auxin induce
epinasty, and it has now been established that auxin acts
indirectly by inducing ethylene production.
Ethylene Induces Lateral Cell Expansion
 Ethylene Breaks Seed and Bud Dormancy in Some Species
 Ethylene Induces the Formation of Roots and Root Hairs
 Ethylene Induces Flowering in the Pineapple Family
 Promotes femaleness
 Ethylene Enhances the Rate of Leaf Senescence
Ethylene Biosynthesis in the Abscission Zone Is
Regulated by Auxin
Abscisic Acid
 ABA – a seed maturation and anti stress signal
 It inhibits growth and stomatal opening, particularly
when the plant is under environmental stress. Another
important function is its regulation of seed maturation
and dormancy.
Biosynthesis, Metabolism and Transport of ABA
 Within the plant, ABA has been detected in every major
organ or living tissue from the root cap to the apical bud.
ABA is synthesized in almost all cells that contain
chloroplasts or amyloplasts.
 Vivipary – LOW ABA
 ABA in inhibiting gibberellic acid–induced α-amylase
production in barley aleurone layers.
 ABA Is Translocated in Vascular Tissue (ABA is transported
by both the xylem and the phloem, but it is normally
much more abundant in the phloem sap).
 Under water deficit, stress from the soil, synthesize ABA
in roots, roots signals the stomata in leaves to close
 = ABA influences the stomatal closure
Stomatal closure by ABA
  Low water potential - favors root growth

 Loss of Turgor pressure from guard cell = stomatal

closure
 Response of plants when exposed to water deficit
environment
 Ways to reduce transpiration (minimized water loss)

ABA Levels in Seeds Peak during Embryogenesis

 ABA, beginning with its role in seed development. Seed

development can be divided into three phases of
approximately equal duration:
 During the first phase, which is characterized by cell
divisions and tissue differentiation, the zygote undergoes
embryogenesis, and the endosperm tissue proliferates.
 During the second phase, cell divisions cease and storage
compounds accumulate.
 In the final phase, the embryo becomes tolerant to
desiccation, and the seed dehydrates, losing up to 90% of
its water. As a consequence of dehydration,metabolism
comes to a halt and the seed enters a quiescent
(“resting”) state. In contrast to dormant seeds, quiescent
seeds will germinate upon rehydration.
 Typically, the ABA content of seeds is very low early in
embryogenesis, reaches a maximum at about the halfway
point, and then gradually falls to low levels as theseed
reaches maturity.
 Thus there is a broad peak of ABA accumulation in the
seed corresponding to mid- to late embryogenesis.

Importance:

 Reduced the vivipary of the seeds.

 Defense of seed to be dormant under unfavorable
condition
 Seed coat may impose the production of ABA (storage)
 PAPAYA seeds (mucus covering the seed has an abundant
ABA, removing it will proceed germination)

Primary versus secondary seed dormancy

 Seeds that are released from the plant in a dormant state

are said to exhibit primary dormancy.
 Seeds that are released from the plant in a nondormant
state, but that become dormant if the conditions for
germination are unfavorable, exhibit secondary
dormancy.

ABA Promotes Root Growth and Inhibits Shoot Growth at Low

Water Potentials

 High water potential – favors shoot growth