ELE4804 Project Part II

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Instrument transformers

In our design, we choose CB3 with Three-Phase Transformer. Once engaged, the level of
saturation property of this instrument becomes identical as that of the Saturable Transformer
block. If zero fluxes are supplied, the starting points are changed immediately such that the
simulation begins in a steady state.

Figure 1: Design of model

Fault & Line Switching
The context of the center of line 2, a phase-to-ground fault takes place. To implement the defect
throughout the railway, it is divided into two 100-kilometer portions. When the protection relays
(as opposed to modeled here) identify a fault, an opening signal is sent out to each of the line
circuit breakers within the faulted circuit. The breaker is held open for a short period of time,
usually approximately 0.5 seconds, throughout when the arc typically extinguishes, followed by
the two circuits immediately shut.

Relay Accuracy

Current transformers used to activate relays with control of the system and safety must remain
accurate under over-current situations. The power source should additionally have the capacity to
tolerate the considerable currents involved; however it additionally has to be able to change the
current to a value that is more that's appropriate for transmission to the relay endpoints with good
accuracy.

Connections
 Figure 2

Possible transformers are generally linked across the two branches of the voltage-measurement
circuit as shown in Figure 2 with two lines.

CT and VT parameters

Higher than 1 kV ac can be injected into test sets to generate a noticeable amount of voltage
across the secondary VT circuit. A typical test setup in which a maximum of two kV alternating
current is delivered to the VT's main circuit and the resulting secondary voltage is determined to
validate the VT proportion. Simultaneously, the relay using metering abilities may confirm the
primary voltage delivered with the proper VT ratio setting. The VT ratio test verifies the actual
VT ratio and computes its deviation of it from the specification ratio. As a result, not only is the
transmission channel's health validated, additionally is the current-angle verification among local
and remotely relays.

Furthermore, stimulating the cable from one end results in line-charging currents. As a result,
doing a meter examination in this arrangement and recording the branch-charging current
(differential current) can help identify the source for prospective remaining differential electrical
currents. A normal metering capture form an electrical relay, with the local and remote currents
lying 180 degrees separated for A-phase, B-phase, and C-phase, as predicted under normal load
flow circumstances. Whenever this is not obvious during regular operation, the phase-rotation
applications' polarity settings, CT ratio environments, or CT cabling have to be reviewed.
Figure 3: Case 2 relay is activated without any voltages attached.

According to standard procedures, the settings were determined to be correct. In addition, the
faulted current phase in relation to voltage appeared consistent with a reversal fault.

Arc extinction
Figure 4: Faulted phase voltage

The termination of the secondary arc defines the fault clearing, which is the correct timing for a
reclosing effort in the case of a transitory problem. Figure 1 shows the right-side waveform.
Figure 4 depicts the opened-phase voltage immediately prior to and following secondary arc
extinction. The opened phase voltage continues consistently and acts as a steady waveform after
the secondary arc is extinguished, as shown in the picture. The secondary arc is, in fact, a
transitory phenomenon that produces fluctuations in the magnitude and amplitude of the opened-
phased voltage. As a result, when the arc is quenched, the voltage stabilizes. As a result, the
temporary problem is cleared whenever the voltage variation returns to zero. Although in this
case, the voltage of the opened-phase behaves similar to that of a permanent fault, its magnitude
is significantly higher than that of the permanent fault.

As the fault type and the arc extinction time are not detectable for three-phase reclosing, the
proposed AARS includes the following considerations to provide a successful auto-reclosing.
These considerations are also included for the single-phase reclosing to distinguish between the
permanent and semi-permanent faults. It is worth noting that semipermanent faults are those
which occur after falling a tree branch on the line or a bird spans a line. In such faults, reclosing
after a time delay, could restore normal operation of the feeder.

Power system stability

It is well known that any fault occurrence negatively impacts system stability. When the faulted
section is isolated from the rest of the power system, the system often returns back to a stable
operating condition after the oscillations, caused by the fault, are damped. In strong networks,
with high damping capability, the network will become stable quickly; however, for weak
networks, oscillation damping takes more time. On the other hand, when a network has not yet
settled down to a stable operating point, applying another fault may lead to instability. In
addition, for weak networks even a temporary fault may lead to instability. Therefore, before
reclosing a CB, it is necessary to estimate the stability condition of the related network and
reclose only if the network is stable and strong enough, i.e., the network’s eigenvalues are not
close to the imaginary axis and there is a safe margin for node voltages with respect to voltage
stability limit. In this way, it is more likely that, even if the CB recloses before the fault
clearance, the healthy part of the network is able to damp oscillations and returns to a stable
operating point.

Conclusions

CT and VT connection errors can lead to undesired operations of protection systems. However,
many of these operations can be avoided by adhering to industry standards and implementing
tried-and-true field testing and commissioning practices. This paper highlights several actual
system events, where we learned that simple meter checks can identify connection errors in a VT
circuit in a distance relay, that load checks can identify incorrect CT connections in a differential
circuit. We learned that VT grounding errors were discovered and corrected to secure a
directional relay used in a DCB scheme, and that the phase-rotation setting was corrected after an
LOF relay operation. Then, finally, we learned how a missing neutral wire, which led to a bus
differential relay operation, was discovered and corrected. It is our hope that this paper can serve
as a guide and reference for identifying and reducing connection errors in IT circuits.

References