THE AGROECOLOGY OF BANGLADESH’S FLOODPLAINS

Hugh Brammer

An agroecological zones study completed in 1987 recognized thirty agroecological

regions in Bangladesh reflecting differences in physiography, soils and flooding
characteristics. Superimposed over these regions, four kinds of agroclimatic zones were
recognized indicating different lengths of pre-monsoon, monsoon and dry-season
growing periods based on differences in moisture and temperature characteristics. The
descriptions of these regions and zones provide a sound
basis for understanding Bangladesh’s complex environmental conditions and for
assessing its agricultural potential. In the country’s 23floodplain regions, seasonal
flooding of the land is normal. Farmers’ cropping practices are well adapted to regional
and local differences in the depth and duration of seasonal flooding, regional differences
in climate, and variations in flooding and climatic conditions between years.

INTRODUCTION
This is the first in a series of four articles in which the physical characteristics of
Bangladesh’s agroecological regions will be described. This paper focuses on the
agroecology of the country’s floodplains. Subsequent papers will describe floods and flood
mitigation measures, and their environmental implications (Brammer, forthcoming, a, b), and
the agroecology of the country’s hill and terrace areas (Brammer, forthcoming, c).
Bangladesh occupies approximately 145,000 km2 astride the Tropic of Cancer and the 90 °E
meridian. Floodplains occupy about 80 percent, hills about 12 percent and uplifted blocks
(‘terraces’) about 8 percent. Most floodplain land is flooded for several weeks or months
during the monsoon season; (so also are valleys within hill and terrace areas). Flooding
characteristics vary both regionally and locally; the extent, depth and duration of flooding
also vary from year to year. The seasonal flooding characteristics have an important influence
on physical and biological environmental conditions, as well as on land use and agricultural
potential, settlement patterns and population distribution. They also influence the demand for
flood protection works, the feasibility of providing these, and the social, economic and
environmental consequences such works might produce in different areas.

The author is a senior scientist specializing in the field of soil survey, land use, and land and water resources
development. He has authored numerous technical publications on soils and agricultural development and has
received a number of awards for outstanding services. This article is based on his long experience with soils and
agricultural development in Bangladesh first as soil surveyor 1961-71; then as agricultural development adviser
and manager of FAO Agroecological Zones project 1974-86; since 1988 as a visiting consultant for, inter alia,
the Flood Action Plan, and the Greenhouse Effects Study of BUR

AGROECOLOGICAL REGIONS
The agroecological zones (AEZ) study of Bangladesh completed in 1987 recognized 30
agroecological regions and 88 subregions separated on the basis of important differences
between them in physiography, soils and flooding characteristics (FAO, 1988). Figure 1 gives
a highly generalized map showing the location of the 30 agroecological regions.
Superimposed over these regions, four kinds of agroclimatic zones were delineated indicating
different lengths of pre-monsoon and rabi (dry season) growing periods based on differences
in moisture supply and temperature characteristics. These agroclimatic zones are described in
a later section.

1
REGIONAL DIVERSITY
The floodplains of the Ganges, Tista, Brahmaputra-Jamuna, Meghna and smaller eastern
rivers underlie Regions 1-23 shown on Figure 1. These floodplains are not absolutely flat.
Broadly speaking, they have an overall gradient towards the centre and south. They also
generally have a smooth, very gently undulating relief comprising broad ridges and
depressions. The ridges are present-day or former riverbanks (also called levees). The
depressions are basins (backswamps), former river channels and cut-off meanders.
Associated with these relief differences are differences in soils and flooding characteristics
which strongly influence land use and agricultural potential.
Bangladesh’s floodplain regions include a wide diversity of physical conditions. There are
several reasons for this diversity.
a) Geology. The major rivers bring in different kinds of alluvium. Ganges, Tista and
Brahmaputra sediments are rich in weatherable minerals (Huizing, 1971); Ganges
sediments also contain lime. Alluvial sediments derived from the northern and eastern
hills generally are poor in weatherable minerals, except in a few places near the northern
hills.
b) River Changes. In building up their floodplains, the rivers have shifted their courses
several times. The most recent major changes were of the Tista (from the Atrai) and the
Brahmaputra (into the Jamuna) about 1787, and of the lower Ganges (from the Arial
Khan into the Lower Meghna) about 1840. Several earlier channels of all these rivers also
exist. These major shifts in river channels left sediments of different ages in different
areas. Because soil development can be very rapid under Bangladesh’s environmental
conditions, landscapes of different ages usually have different kinds of soils. There may
also be significant differences in sediment textures between floodplains of different ages,
as described in paragraphs (c) and (d) below.

2
Figure 1
1 Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain
2 Active Tista Floodplain
3 Tista Meander Floodplain
4 Karatoya-Bangali Floodplain
5 Lower Atrai Basin
6 Lower Pumabhaba Floodplain
7 Active Brahmaputra-Jamuna Floodplain
8 Young Brahamaputra and Jamuna Floodplain
9 Old Brahmaputra Floodplain
10 Active Ganges Floodplain
11 High Ganges River Floodplain
12 Low Ganges River Floodplain
13 Ganges Tidal Floodplain
14 Gopalganj-Khulna Bils
15 Arial Bit
16 Middle Meghna River Floodplain
17 Lower Mcghna River Floodplain
18 Young Mcghna Estuarine Floodplain
19 Old Meghna Estuarine Floodplain
20 Eastern Surma-Kusiyara Floodplain
21 Sylhet Basin
22 Northern and Eastern Piedmont Plains
23 Chittagong Coastal Plains
24 St Martin’s Coral Island
25 Level Barind Tract
26 High Barind Tract
27 North-eastern Barind Tract
28 Madhupur Tract
29 Northern and Eastern Hills
30 Akhaura Terrace
3
c) Physiography. Six kinds of floodplain physiography are differentiated. These differ in
relief, flooding characteristics and soil textures.
i) Piedmont Plains (Regions 1, 22, parts of 23): sloping alluvial plains (outwash fans) at
the foot of hills, generally subject to flash floods. They often have complex sandy
and loamy soil patterns on higher land, grading into more silty and clayey soils in
depressions.
ii) Active River Floodplains (Regions 2, 7, 10): young alluvial land (chars) within and
adjoining major rivers, subject to annual flooding by the rivers and continually
changing in extent and elevation due to bank erosion and new alluvial deposition.
The irregular relief has mixed sandy and silty soils which may vary in relative
extent from year to year according to the nature and quantity of sediments
deposited during the annual floods.
iii) River Meander Floodplains (Regions 3, 4, 8, 9, 11, 12, 17, 20; parts of 21, 23):
floodplain land older and more stable than (ii), with ridge and basin relief, many
active or old river channels, and mainly flooded by rainwater. Relief is mostly
smooth, but is locally irregular near to river channels. Differences in elevation
between ridge tops and adjoining depression centres vary between 2m and 5m in
different regions. The highest ridge tops are submerged only in years with
exceptionally high floods; depression centres can be flooded 1-5m deep,
according to local elevation differences. Flooding generally is by rainwater
ponded on the land when adjoining river levels are high, but silty river water can
extend over land adjoining rivers and their distributaries in years with high floods
(more especially in Regions 8, 17, 20, 21 and 23). Ridge soils are mainly loamy
(some sandy) and basin soils clayey. Region 16 is a special case. It represents part
of the former active floodplain of the Brahmaputra which was abandoned when
that river shifted into its present Jamuna channel between 1787 and 1832. The
Meghna river passing through this region brings in little new sediment and its
channels are virtually stable. In effect, the landscape is now fossil. Flooding,
however, is mainly by river water, (except where embankments prevent such
flooding).
iv) Major Floodplain Basins (Regions 5, 6, 14, 15; parts of 21): low=lying old floodplain
land where basin centres stay submerged or wet through the dry season. Seasonal
flooding is mainly deep (2->5m in different regions) and by ponded rainwater, but
silty flash floods occasionally affect Regions 5 and 21. River banks (where
present) generally stand 25m higherthan adjoining basins. Clay soils predominate;
Region 14 also includes peat soils.
v) Estuarine Floodplains (Regions 18,19): almost-level land (<2m relief) with deep silty
sediments and few natural rivers or creeks. In Region 18, seasonal flooding is
mainly shallow and by fresh, silty water at high tides in the monsoon season; soils
and estuary water become saline in the dry season; and land adjoining the Meghna
estuary is subject to bank erosion, new alluvial deposition and occasional cyclonic
storm surges. Region 19 has much older land than Region 18 with more mature
soils subject to seasonal flooding by ponded rainwater (mainly deep, but shallow
in the south-east and in artificially drained polders).
vi) Tidal Floodplains(Region 13; parts of 23): almost-level land (<1 m relief) with
numerous tidal rivers and creeks, and predominantly clayey soils. Under natural
conditions, the land is (or was) mainly shallowly flooded with silty river water at
high tides, either throughout the year near the coast or only in the monsoon season
further inland. Flooding is/was mainly by fresh water inland and in the monsoon

4
 season near the coast, but by saline water near the coast in the dry season.
Following the empolderment of much of the land, flooding is now mainly by
ponded rainwater. In both natural and empoldered areas near the coast and further
inland in the west of Region 13, soils become saline in the dry season by capillary
rise of moisture from saline groundwater. Mangrove forest (the Sunderbans) is
extensive in the south-west of Region 13 and locally in the south of Region 23;
such land often has Acid Sulphate Soils that are actually or potentially extremely
acid. Coastal areas are exposed to occasional cyclonic storm surges.
d) Sediment Texture. Silty and clay sediments predominate on Bangladesh’s floodplains,
but the relative proportions of sandy, loamy and clayey soils vary greatly between regions
(see Table 1). In general, there is a higher proportion of sandy sediments on the oldest
parts of piedmont plains and riverfloodplains (in regions 1, 3, 9, 11) than on younger
floodplain areas (except on active floodplains which also have a relatively high
proportion of sandy sediments). However, large areas of sandy sediments on the old Tista,
Brahmaputra and Ganges river floodplains have subsequently been buried by more silty
or clayey basin deposits, in part derived by surface runoff from adjoining ridges during
rainstorms occurring when the soils are not flooded.
e) Tectonic Instability. Further complicating the sedimentary diversity is the fact that
Bangladesh is in a geologically unstable area. District Gazetteers report land areas from
Rangpur across Mymensingh to southern Sylhet (old Districts) subsiding or being
elevated in the 1897 earthquake; (see especially the Rangpur District Gazetteer). The
1950 Assam earthquake brought huge amounts of mountain sediments into the
Brahmaputra river (Kingdon-Ward, 1953, 1955), which raised riverbed levels and created
a large area of new land on the Noakhali coast of the Meghna estuary (FAO, 1971). The
Sylhet Basin (Region 21) and areas adjoining the Meghna estuary appear to be subsiding
by about 1 cm a year, probably due to compaction of the underlying sediments. However,
this subsidence appears to be largely offset by new
Table 1
Proportions of broad textural groups in floodplain agroecological regions
AEZ Region Sandy Texture group Loamy Clayey Peaty

1 10 82 8 m
2 41 59 0 0
3 6 88 6 0
4 8 65 27 0
5 0 16 84 0
6 0 0 100 0
7 27 72 1 0
8 6 79 15 0
9 2 51 47 0
10 8 80 12 0
11 m 51 48 m
12 m 48 52 m
13 m 18 82 m
14 0 15 57 28
15 0 8 92 0

5
 16 14 59 27 0
17 0 100 0 0
18 0 98 2 0
19 m 90 10 m
20 m 25 74 1
21 m 12 87 1
22 4 44 51 1
1
23 3 82 15
N.B. 1. Source: FAO, 1988
2. Sandy includes sand and loamy sand.
Loamy includes sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, clay loam, sandy clay loam and silty
clay loam.
Clayey includes sandy clay, silty clay and clay.
Peaty_ includes peat, muck and intergrades between them.
3. m = minor.
sedimentation, especially near the coast, which would account for the general lack of
outgrowth of the delta since Rennell’s maps were made in the 1760s, despite the huge
sediment loads brought down to the Meghna estuary during the annual river floods (Morgan
& McIntire, 1950).
f) Greenhouse Effect. Still further complicating regional diversity are the possible
consequences of a rising sea-level resulting from global warming (the ‘greenhouse
effect’) (Ahmad et al., 1994). In brief, the author considers that continuing sedimentation
will probably raise land levels simultaneously with a rising sea-level and river levels in
Regions 10 and 18, and in coastal parts of 13 and 23. Interiorfloodplain areas which are
not flooded by silty river water will suffer deeper and more prolonged seasonal flooding,
with adverse consequences for agricultural production (unless counter actions are taken).
The areas which could be most seriously affected during the next 50 years are Region 14,
southern parts of Regions 12 and 19, and inland parts of Regions 13 and 18 flooded
mainly by rainwater.
LOCAL COMPLEXITY
As indicated above, floodplain landscapes are not absolutely flat. Typically, they comprise
slightly higher parts (ridges) separated by depressions (basins, old channels). Associated with
this relief are important differences in soils, flooding depths and land use. Different parts of
the relief may be affected in different ways or to differing degrees by floods of different
heights or coming at different times of the year.
The difference in elevation between the tops of ridges and the centres of adjoining
depressions varies between agroecological regions. On tidal floodplains in Regions 13 and
23, the elevation difference usually is not more than about 1 m. On estuarine floodplains
(Regions 18, 19), it usually is 1-2m. In remaining floodplain regions (i.e., active and meander
floodplains, piedmont plains and old basins), it often is between 2m and 5m, and even more
than 5m in parts of Region 21.
The distance between ridge tops and adjoining depression centres generally is between 0.5
and 2km. However, it sometimes is only 50-200m in areas of irregular relief near river
channels, and it can be 2-5km in some haors in Regions 20 and 21. Villages generally are
sited on ridges, and village boundaries generally include both ridge and depression land.
Typically, too, the fragmented holding of an individual farmer comprises several small fields
(average number about 10) which are scattered over both ridge and depression land types. As

6
will be described later, this provides cultivators with the opportunity of growing a range of
different crops adapted to different soils and flooding conditions.
Ridge soils generally are silty, relatively permeable and low in organic matter. Sandy and
sandy loam soils occur in relatively few areas, mainly on active floodplains and the higher
parts of piedmont plains and some old river floodplains. Down slope from ridge tops, soils
gradually become more clayey, less permeable and have higher contents of organic matter.
Figure 2 shows a schematic section across atypical meander floodplain landscape, illustrating
some of the differences in soil properties which occur between the highest and lowest relief
positions, usually within a distance of 0.5-1 km. This example is from the Ganges river
floodplain in Region 12; sections across the relief in other regions would have different
proportions of soil textures and depth-of-flooding land types, as is shown in Tables 1 and 2.
INUNDATION LAND TYPES
Figure 2 also illustrates how different relief positions are inundated to different depths in the
monsoon season. The land levels in relation to flooding (land types) are defined in the
adjoining box. Table 2 shows the proportions in which these land types occur in individual
regions. (Bottomland is not shown separately in Table 2; most occurs in Regions 5, 6, 14 and
21.)
This land type classification is based on the farmers’ own classification of land. The depth-
of-flooding levels indicated are ‘normal’: i.e., those which farmers expect when they decide
which crops to grow on their different kinds of land. However, peak flood-levels may vary by
1 m or more between individual years, and crops can be damaged (or planting may be
prevented) when floodwater rises earlier, higher, more quickly or later than normal. It is
useful to distinguish between normal’ flooding’, to which farmers’ cropping practices are
well adapted, and abnormal ‘floods’ which can damage crops.
LAND USE
Land levels in relation to flooding are particularly important in determining farmers’
cropping practices, as outlined below. (The rice and wheat crop calendar in relation to
seasonal flooding, rainfall and temperature in Bangladesh is illustrated in Ahmad et al., 1994,
Figure 8.)
a) Highland and Medium Highland, Permeable Soils: broadcast aus paddy or jute,
followed by a dryland rabi crop (especially pulses, oilseeds, wheat); also fruits,
vegetables, spices on Highland. With irrigation, rainfed aus or jute followed by irrigated
rabi crops (especially wheat, potato, vegetables).
b) Highland and Medium Highland, Impermeable Soils: a single crop of transplanted
aman paddy, or aus (broadcast or transplanted) followed by transplanted aman. With
irrigation, high yielding varieties (HYVs) of boro paddy followed by transplanted aman.
Some silty soils which are naturally permeable can be made impermeable in the topsoil
by’ puddling’ when wet and thus made suitable for cultivating transplanted aman. Soils
flooded less

7
Figure 2

Table 2
Proportions of depth-of-flooding land types in floodplain agroecological regions
Land type
AEZ Region H MH ML L VL S&W
1 58 34 1 0 0 7
2 2 72 0 0 0 26
3 35 51 4 1 0 9
4 23 44 14 4 1 14

8
 5 2 8 21 65 0 4
6 0 0 10 60 0 30
7 5 37 20 8 0 30
8 18 42 19 9 0 12
9 28 35 20 7 m 10
10 12 33 18 4 0 33
11 43 32 12 2 0 11
12 13 29 31 14 2 11
13 2 78 2 m 0 18
14 3 13 41 28 11 4
15 0 0 13 73 0 14
16 m 8 29 25 11 27
17 14 28 31 m 0 27
18 m 45 7 0 0 47
19 2 24 33 21 3 17
20 5 25 20 36 m 14
21 m 4 19 43 23 11
22 33 31 16 9 1 10
23 17 43 13 m 0 27
N.B. 1. Source: FAQ, 1988 L = Lowland
2. H = Highland VL = Very Lowland
MH = Medium Highland S&W = Settlements and Water
ML = Medium Lowland
3. m = minor

INUNDATION LAND TYPES

Highland (H) Land above normal flood-level. (Such land may be inundated
by exceptionally high floods; also, rainwater may be retained
on fields by erecting bunds on impervious soils.)
Medium Highland (MH) Land normally flooded up to 90cm deep in the monsoon season
Medium Lowland (ML) Land normally flooded up to 90-180cm deep in the monsoon
season
Lowland (L) Land normally flooded up to 180-300cm deep in the monsoon
season
Very Lowland (VL) Land normally flooded deeper than 300cm in the monsoon
season
Bottomland (B) Seasonally-flooded land in any of the above land types which
also stays wet for all (nearly all) of the dry season. (Most
Bottomland is flooded deeper than 300cm.)
N.B. The so-called MPO land types FO-F4, which were based on this classification, differ
from the above in including MH flooded up to 30cm deep with H in FO, restricting MH to
land flooded 30-90cm deep (F1), naming ML as F2, combining L and VL in F3, and naming
B flooded deeper than 180cm as F4.

9
 than 30cm deep (the MPO land type FO: see box) can be used for high yielding varieties
(HYVs) of aman. Dryland rabicrops generally are not grown on these soils, or they grow
poorly, because the puddled topsoils are poorly aerated when wet and compact when dry;
also because transplanted aman may still be in the field at the optimum time for sowing
rabi crops.
c) Medium Lowland: mixed aus and deepwater aman paddy, followed by dryland rabi crops
(except in slow-draining basin centres). Jute is substituted for ausand amanto varying
extents in different regions; the highest proportions of jute commonly occur on land
exposed to the risk of rapid rise of floodwater near the river-side margins of Regions 3, 8,
9, 12 and 17. With irrigation, usually HYV boro paddy; sometimes wheat, potato,
vegetables on relatively higher sites. In some areas, boro paddy is preceded by mustard
early in the dry season and/or followed by transplanted deepwater aman.
d) Lowland: deepwater aman, followed by dryland rabi crops (especially pulses) where
depression margins drain sufficiently early in the dry season; (some deepwater aman
varieties can grow in up to 4m of water). With irrigation, boro paddy (mainly HYVs);
usually fallow in the kharif season.
e) Very Lowland and Bottomland: usually traditional, early-maturing, varieties of boro
paddy, often with supplementary irrigation. Some areas remain under reed swamp or
permanent water bodies (beels).
The statements made above are highly generalized. Land use in many parts of Bangladesh is
highly complex. There are significant differences in land use between regions and within
regions influenced, among other things, by land tenure practices and access to urban markets,
as well as by climatic and hydrological conditions. Additionally, the aus, aman and boro
paddy groups referred to include many thousands of traditional varieties (mainly of aman)
which farmers have selected to suit specific local micro-environments.
The farmers’ practice of cultivating fields on several soil and land types diversifies their
cropping opportunities and spreads out their labour input. It can also provide security against
crop losses due to natural disasters because not all their soils and land types may be equally
affected by a flood, drought or other disaster. Similarly, different soils and land types may
provide different cropping opportunities for rapid agricultural recovery following a disaster.
CLIMATE
The climate of Bangladesh has four important characteristics relevant for crop production in
different parts of the country.
a) Rainfall amounts and intensities are high. Mean annual rainfall ranges from about 1250mm
in the centre-west to more than 2500mm in the north-west, north-east and south-east, and
it exceeds 5000mm in the extreme northeast.
b) Rainfall is markedly seasonal, associated with the summer monsoon: see Figure 8 in
Ahmad et al. (1994). An average of four months in the west and seven months in the
north-east have mean rainfalls above 200mm; in the north-east, five months have over
500mm.
c) The dates of onset and end of the rainy season and the total amounts of rainfall received
vary considerably from year to year, especially in the west: see the standard deviation
figures in Table 3.
d) Temperatures are suitable for a wide range of tropical and subtropical crops to be grown
for most of the year, and for temperate crops (e.g., wheat, potato) to be grown in the
winter season. However, conditions near the coast, where the length of the cool winter
period is short, are marginal for temperate crops.

10
Moisture Zones
The moisture zones shown on Figure 3 are based on water-balance calculations (described in
more detail in FAO, 1988).
- p (= pre-kharif) zones represent the mean lengths of the period before the monsoon
season when soil moisture derived from rainfall is intermittently above and below 0.5
PET (potential evapotranspiration), considered the threshold value for reliable
germination and early growth of broadcast-sown crops at the beginnihg of the rainy
season. Mean lengths range from less than 20 days in the north-east to more than 60
days in the southwest. Standard deviations on mean length, starting date and end-date
are high, especially in the west and south.
- K (= kharif) zones represent the mean lengths of the period when soil moisture
derived from rainfall plus an assumed 100mm of soil moisture storage is continuously
higher than 0.5 PET; (data were also calculated for soil moisture storage of 50, 150,
200 and 250mm). Lengths range from less than 180 days in the west to more than 280
days in the north-east. Standard deviations are high on the length, starting date and
end-date of these zones, most significantly in the drier west of the country.
Table 3 shows the mean lengths of all p and K zones which are shown on Figure 3, together
with standard deviations.
The combined length of the p and K zones is sufficient in central and eastern parts of the
country for farmers to grow two kharif crops in rotation (mainly aus or jute followed by
transplanted aman) on Highland and Medium Highland with suitable soils, whereas in the
drier western districts bordering India only one kharifcrop can usually be grown without
irrigation (mainly aus, jute ortransplanted aman, depending on soil conditions).
Many floodplain soils retain sufficient moisture after the end of the rainy season for farmers
to grow a dryland rabi crop without irrigation. The main exceptions are soils which are used
for transplanted aman, for which the topsoil is made compact by puddling, and clays in basin
centres which remain too wet for sowing at the proper time. With dry-season irrigation, the
majority of farmers prefer to grow HYV boro paddy, even on some loamy ridge soils which
might be better suited for growing dryland rabi crops. However, mainly on Medium
Lowland, some farmers grow a quick-maturing crop of mustard or pulses on residual

11
Figure 3

12
 Table 3
Mean duration of reference pre-kharif (p) and kharif (K) growing periods, with standard
deviations

p zone K zone
Duration (days) Duration (days)
Zone Mean SD Zone Mean SD
1 10-20 15-20 1 170-180 20-30
2 20-30 15-20 2 180-190 20-30
3 30-40 15-30 3 190-200 20-40
4 40-50 20-30 4 200-210 20-40
5 50-60 20-30 5 210-220 20-40
6 60-70 20-30 6 220-230 20-40
7 230-24G 20-40
8 240-250 20-40
9 250-260 20-40
10 260-270 20-30
11 270-280 20-30
12 280-290 20-30
N.B. 1. Source: FAO, 1988
2. SD = Standard Deviation (+/-) on the mean.
(1 X SD includes approx. 66 percent of occurrences. 2 X SD includes approx. 95
percent of occurrences).

moisture before planting (irrigated) boro paddy; and some farmers on the higher margins of
basins where the risk of early flooding is not great (mainly on Medium Lowland) transplant
deepwater aman seedlings after harvesting HYV boro.
The short duration of the pre-kharif period (p) in the north-east presents a hazard for direct-
seeded crops such as broadcast aus and jute which may not be able to grow sufficiently tall
after germination to withstand flooding by excess rainfall at the beginning of the following K
period, especially in depression sites. On the other hand, where the p period is longer in the
west, the number of rainless days is higher, with consequent risk of drought damage to non-
irrigated crops.
The variability between years in the dates of onset and end of the pre-kharif period (+/- one
month in the west) also creates difficulties for farmers. In years when this transition period
ends before the mean date, it may be difficult for farmers on silty and clayey soils to prepare
their land in time and sow dryland kharifcrops (broadcast ausand aman, jute, summer pulses)
because of wet soil conditions. Difficulties can occur in years when the transition period ends
later than the mean date, when drought may damage early-sown kharifcrops or it may delay
land preparation and sowing, exposing such crops to the risk of drowning by excessive
rainfall at the beginning of the following K period before they have grown sufficiently tall
after germination.
In the kharif growing period (K), moisture supply from rainfall plus soil storage (plus
flooding on some kinds of land) normally is sufficient to support unirrigated kharifcrops.
However, in no part of Bangladesh is rainfall during this period fully reliable, though the risk
of drought within the monsoon season generally is very low, except in the west. There, and in
a belt extending across the centre through Dhaka to Comilla, there is the risk that, three years
out of five, there will be a 10day dry period in July-August (a critical period for

13
transplanting aman) and that, once in 3-10 years, there could be a 20-day dry period. On the
other hand, all parts of the country are exposed to the risk of excessive rainfall (say >250mm
in a week) during the K period, which can generate local or regional floods which damage or
destroy crops, especially at the seedling stage.
The wide variability in the beginning and end dates of the K period also causes difficulties for
farmers. Difficulties experienced in years when this period starts early or late have been
described above when discussing the p period. When the K period ends earlierthan the mean
date, transplanted aman may suffer damage from drought before it is mature, and topsoils
may become dry before the time for sowing dryland rabicrops such as wheat. This risk would
justify the provision of supplementary irrigation, especially in the west of the country. In
years when, because of late rains, the K period ends later than the mean date, the sowing of
rabi crops can be delayed or prevented by wet soil conditions or by the late continuation of
flooding in depression sites.
Thermal Zones
The thermal zones shown on Figure 4 are based on the following calculations.
- T (rabitemperature) zones represent differences in the mean length (in days per year)
of the period when minimum day temperatures are below 15 °C. Lengths range from
less than 40 days near the coast (T1) to over 90 days in the north (T5). Standard
deviations on the mean length, starting date and enddate of these zones are high.
- e (extreme temperature) zones represent differences in the mean number of days per
year with maximum temperatures exceeding 40 °C (which, in practice, occur in the
pre-monsoon season). The range is from less than one day in two years in the centre
and east (e1) to more than 10 days per year in the extreme west (e4). Standard
deviations on the mean number of days in these periods are high.

14
Figure 4 Typical soil association in AEZ Subregion 12b

1. Adapted from Madaripur-Gopalganj reconnaissance soil survey report, soil association 10.
2. N.B. a) increase in subsoil clay, topsoil OM and depth to lime from high to low sites, and
related decrease in topsoil and subsoil pH, and b) wide range in agroecological conditions in
General Soil Types and FAO soil units.
3. Laboratory data show results for single profiles. They do not indicate ranges in contents
within series.
4. Abbreviations: Classification: CBFS...Calcareous Brown Floodplain Soil. Gev...Verti-
Eutric Gleysoil.
DGFS...Non calcareous Dark Grey Floodplain Soil.
Colour: g...grey. og...olive-grey. ob...olive-brown. dg...dark grey.
dgb...dark grey-brown. lob..b light olive-brown.
Texture: sil...silt loam. sicl...silty clay loam. sic.c silty clay. c...clay.

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 Laboratory data: OM...organic matter. CaCO,...calcium carbonate (lime).

Table 4 shows the mean lengths of all T and e zones shown on Figure 4, together with
standard deviations. (Temperatures during the monsoon season are almost uniform across the
country, so thermal zones were not differentiated for this
season.)
Table 4
Mean duration of reference thermal zones of rabi temperatures (T) and extreme
maximum temperatures (e)
T zone a zone
Duration (days) Duration (days)
Zone Mean Mean SD Zone Mean SD
T1 30-40 22 e1 0-0.5 NA
T2 40-50 20 e2 0.5-5 NA
T3 50-70 21 e3 5-10 NA
T4 70-90 17 e4 10-15 NA
T5 90-110 20
N.B. 1. Source: FAO, 1988
2. SD = Standard Deviation (see Table 3)
3. NA = Not available

The duration of the cool winter period is critical mainly for the cultivation of temperate crops
such as wheat, potato, and some pulses and oilseeds. In general, the longer the period when
mean daily temperatures are below 20 °C and minimum temperatures are below 15 °C, the
more suitable are conditions for producing these crops. For instance, potential yields of wheat
in thermal zone T1 are less than half those in zone T5. On the other hand, minimum
temperatures below 15°C retard the growth of HYV boro paddy seedlings (and sometimes kill
them in northern regions). The relatively high standard deviation figures imply that
conditions vary significantly between years. This temperature variability aggravates the
uncertainty of moisture conditions for sowing rabicrops on time referred to above and for
sustaining them through to maturity, especially on nonirrigated land.
The extremely high temperatures experienced in April-May (occasionally in early June) can
affect crop growth in two ways. The associated very high potential evapotranspiration rates
may exceed the capacity of plant roots to supply moisture to leaves, especially in young
kharif crops, whose growth is consequently retarded (on non-irrigated land). Such high
temperatures can also reduce yields of boro paddy by preventing pollination if they occur
when the plants are at the panicle initiation orflowering stages; they may also reduce grain
filling. Since days with extremely high temperatures can occur erratically over a period of
almost three months, it is impractical for farmers in the west, where the incidence is highest,
to avoid.the risk of damage by selecting different boro varieties or planting dates; the best
hope for them is that plant breeders will be able to identify varieties more tolerant of high
temperatures (as well as of low winter temperatures which also delay planting dates in the
north-west).
CONCLUSIONS
The diversity of physical and climatic conditions within Bangladesh provides it with a wide
range of physical and biological environments which are reflected in regional and local
differences in land use and cropping opportunities. The latter opportunities are enhanced by

16
the possibility of year-round crop production (where moisture supplies are adequate, either
naturally or with irrigation), including the production of temperate crops in the winter
months. Local environmental complexity due to different soil and hydrological conditions
associated with different positions on the ridge and basin floodplain relief provides farmers
with diverse cropping opportunities which, interalia, may enable them to spread the period of
their labour inputs and reduce the risk of total crop loss if disastrous floods, droughts or
pest/disease attacks occur.
The variability of hydrological and climatic conditions from year to year means that the risks
of crop production can be relatively high. These risks include uncertainty of sowing or
planting dates, and whether floods or moisture stress will reduce yields or destroy crops. Such
risks vary between agroecological regions and between soils and land types within regions.
They influence farmers’ choice of crops and investment in production inputs. The provision
of irrigation, where this is feasible, can reduce or eliminate the risk of drought and make
timely sowing/planting possible. Flood protection (where feasible) is needed to reduce the
risk of flood damage; in many areas, drainage (by gravity or by pumping) is needed in
addition in order to remove the restriction which deep flooding places on wider cropping
opportunities. The environmental implications of providing flood protection and drainage
will be examined in a future article (Brammer, forthcoming, a).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The assistance of Mr. J.I.M. Dempster in computer generating Figures 1-4 is gratefully
acknowledged.

REFERENCES
Ahmad, Q.K., R.A. Warrick, N.J. Ericksen and M.Q. Mirza (1994), “A National Assessment
of the Implications of Climate Change for Bangladesh: A Synthesis”, Asia Pacific
Journal on Environment and Development, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 46-80.
Brammer, H. (forthcoming, a), “Floods, Flood Mitigation and Soil Fertility in Bangladesh”,
Asia Pacific Journal on Environment and Development.
Brammer, H. (forthcoming, b), “Environmental Aspects of Flood Protection in Bangladesh”,
Asia Pacific Journal on Environment and Development.
Brammer H. (forthcoming, c), “The Agroecology of Bangladesh’s Hill and Terrace Areas”,
Asia Pacific Journal on Environment and Development.
FAO (1971), Soil Survey Project, Bangladesh, Soil Resources Technical Report 3,
AGL:SF/Pak 6, FAO, Rome.
FAO (1988), Land Resources Appraisal of Bangladesh for Agricultural Development: Report
2, Agroecological Regions of Bangladesh, FAO, Rome.
Huizing, H.G.J. (1971), “A Reconnaissance Study of the Mineralogy of Sand Fractions from
East Pakistan Sediments and Soils”, Geoderma, Vol. 6, pp. 109-133.
Kingdon-Ward, F. (1953), “The Assam Earthquake of 1950”, Geographical Journal, Vol.
119, pp. 169-182.
Kingdon-Ward, F. (1955), “Aftermath of the Great Assam Earthquake of 1950”,
Geographical Journal, Vol. 121, pp. 290-303.
Morgan, J. P. and W.G. McIntire (1950), “Quaternary Geology of the Bengal Basin, East
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319342.

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