‘oxitlations in many different Son tne) ms ‘of a guitar string), for timing (the fof a pendulum or the vibrations of a quarts weaken sound, the molecules ‘air oscillate, passing the sound ceray along satorns of & solid vibrate more and! more as the rature rises ‘examples of oscillations and vibrations may seem different from one another, In this chapter, we Jook at the characteristics that ure shared by many peasiest oscillations to understand are free lations If you pluck « guitar string, it continues rate for some time after yo released it. The , Aring vibrates at a particular frequency (the FOF vibrations per unit time), This is called its “are transrnitted ( with the same freq cele eae not the na ° the forcing frequency of the by In the same way, you cary, oscillate by waving it up and frequency of vibration will hem you will discover if yo hold one and then quickly prish down ing (Figure 18,2), qure 18.2: A ruler vibrating frealy at stion e which of the following aie d which are forveds the wing beat of & the movement of thé clock struck the shaking of a earthquake,loaded with extra masses, is tethered by in Between two clamps (Figure the trolley to one side and it will | osllate back and forth along the bench Listen to “Besound of the trolley moving, Where is it mov fastest? What happens to its speed as xcs ofits oscillation? What is happening |) Sings as the trolley oscillates? Figure 18.3; Atrolley tethered b Stites realy ftom side to sie Sse toside, Pking Pendulum Sha eat sts long, hangs from the ceiling Pillthe preg ast fixed at the end (Figure 18.4), NES Some distance to one side, and let ea will swing back and forth at its ‘of oscilation. Try to note the notion. in what ways is it similar the oscillating trolley? In what ways Activity 18, situations to ene How does this motion ‘compare with that of the pendulum and the mase-« Try using a higi an electronic s fr ment of the cone, {itmay help to paint a white spot on the centre Of the cone.) Do you observe the same pattern of movement? Figure 18.4: 4oscillation, “object must go from oneside to} (or the equivalent), The frequency. oscillations per unit time, and so fis; frequency having the form ofa the amplitude of a vibrations seximples discussed so far show the same imum joe of a parties "movement. The trolley accelerates as it mc rium position “" he period of an oscillating jon. At the extreme position, it stops en to make one complete 6 Reverses ils direction and accelerates back ion ie displacement-time gt 18.8, determine the amt juency of the oscillations: Displacement /emit conc Mating ponrir le His Lethe pha A we aphaoy, tia dharani the Graves th cn jgpnitiches rrenmeesid 1) cyan on vache differenue ah werd 18,305 thin egAncwrrnrn-sirrn yasi® (02 = 100F in the suttin pried phiaee difference « 0.209% 2a rad Sloe ioe unstesvals crwth ( A Thad = LE ribbing gostture re tlie goseple Iifacone kennplte . a4‘oscillations called simple harmonic Some are more obvious than others. For le, the vibrating strings of a musical instrument ‘sh.m. When plucked or bowed, the strings move forth about the equilibrium position of their lation. The motion of the tethered trolley in Figure 3and that of the pendulum in Figure 18.4 are also (Simple harmonic motion is defined in terms of acceleration and displacement of an oscillator —see 18.5 Representing s.h.m. graphically.) “imple harmonic motion: a body executes simple harmonic motion if its acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement from its equilibrium position, and in the opposite ‘direction to its displacement = -are some other, less obvious, situations where simple motion can be found: (Single tone) sound wave travels through 6 of the air vibrate with sh.m. Figure 18.11: We can think of the bonds! 8 1 being springy; this leads to Vibrations, alner and b in a solid orystal juirements for pendulum swinging (Figure 18.12), the: pullled te one side of its equilibrium on the 1ass are unbalanced and s9i its equilibcium position. The mass: and continues until it comes to restm other side; the process is then repeated tm direction. Note that a complete is from right to left and back again, The three requitements for sh.m. of a system a: : a mass that oscillates a position where the mi12; This swinging pendulum has positive atxand negative velocity v The changes of vel ins.h.m. sthe pendulum swings back and forth, its velocity Figure 18.13: A motion sensor can be used to investigate ‘Ss constantly changing. As it swings from right to left hm. of @ spring-trolley system. i in Figure 18,12) its velocity is negotive. — Mi avcelerates towairds the equilibrium posi then decelerates as it approaches the other (Meillation, Ithas positive velocity as it sw lift to right, Again, it has maximum spesd through the equilibrium position and d The motion sensor allows you to record how the displacement of the trolley varies with time. Ultrasonic pulses from the sensor are reflected by the card on the trolley and the reflected pulses are detected. This “sonar” technique allows the sensor to determine the Swings up toits starting position. displacement of the trolley. A typical screen display is shown in Figure 18.14, ‘This pattern of acceleration-decelcration-changing direction-acceleration again is characteristic of simple harmonic motion. There are no sudden changes of Velocity. In this next topic, we will see how we can ‘observe these changes and how we can represent them iy the features of the motion of the trolley in 118.3 that satisfy the three requirements forvelocity= rate of change of displacement acceleration = rate of change of velocity i203 04.05 06 0.7 raphs of displacement x, velocity van JON @ against time t for s.h.m ie smooth curve shown in Figure 18.15a. this is a sine curve; its variation is |. Note that this graph allows us and this is where it is moving fastest, has its maximum Value at this point, because at time t= 0 itis moving eleration—time (am Finally, the acceleration a of the ost can be determined from the gradient time graph: AL ves a third curve of the same which shows how the acgele is on time ¢. At the start of the still is at its equilibrium position, ce acting on it so its accelerations the right, the restoring force acts to ing it a negative acceleration. The t value when the mass isd the equilibrium position. Notice that th aph is ‘upside-down’ compared Wi ‘aph, This shows that: accelerationthe snug ‘by the Greek letter « (omega), Figure 18.16: 4 lacement-time ah for an arf the frequency of a sinuscidal inane. For CUBES ee ‘oscillation expressed in radians per second single cycle of shim. is shown, but The angular frequency «is related to frequency fby the ‘marked with the phase of the motion in equation: w=2nf Relationship of angular frequency w to frequency f w= 2xf eer =+, the angular frequency «is related to the od T of the oscillator by the equation. Figure 18.17: The phase of an oscillation varies from Oto a me 2x during one cycle ‘ Questions 5 11 Anobject moving with sh.m_ goes through two. ‘shown in Figure i 15 to determine complete eyeles in 1.08 Calculate; following quantit a the period T b the frequency ! ¢ theungular frequency a.tal vibrates with shim. with He, The amplitude of its motion “Sheich w_graph to show how the displacement ‘of the atom varies during one cycl=, B he your graph to estimate the mint ‘eelocity af the atom. ‘Equations of simple harmonic x= xy Sie X= Xp CORON imusmn 18.7 Equations of ‘The difference between these {wo s.h.m. Phe graph of Figure 18.152, shown earlier, represen's in Figure 18.19. The sine venga tow the displacement of an oscillator varies during the oscillating mass is at 15 eM ‘chim. We have already mentioned that this is sine t= curve. We can present the same information in the The cosine version starts at x= X01 form of an equation. The relationship between the its maximum displacement when =I tis as follows: . Note that, in calculations using! displacement x and the time x= X, Sinwr quantity ‘at is in radians. Make st where xs the amplitude of the motion and © in radian mode forany frequency, Sometimes, the same mation is example 2). The presence of the remind you of this. ‘pat rest, tethered between i Rseria cre nocund when ine reo, released so that it oscillates back and forth with ‘The period of its motion is 20.5 3 ‘Write an equation for its displacement x from its equilibrium position and ‘Jae faerie thar tletactioa ‘easel direction to the displacement. by frictional forces). If a.and x were in the same direction (apm b Sketch a displacement-time graph to show the body's acceleration would increase as it two cycles of the motion, giving from the fixed point and it would move away appropriate. faster, never to return. Figure 18.20 shows the: acceleration-displacement | graph for an oscillator executing sh.m. Note the’ al : = ; : + ‘The graphis straight line through the origin (a=), Tnshm,,an object’s acceleration depen : se itis di aeanaiGas + Tthasa negative slope (the minus sign in {rit is deplaced from its equilibrium position and i : the equation a =~aFx), This means that the ess A mus eotlets acceleration is always directed towands the | fi ais proportional to x, We can vite the following equilibrium postion : equation to represent this: + The magnitude of the gradieat of the graph is ah. a=-wx ‘where a = the acceleration of an object vibrating iilsh.m., avis the angular frequency of the object, x=dis it a=-0%x “Acceleration of an object vibrating in simple Figure 18.20: Graph of acceleration a agpinst displacement x for an oscillator execJuin oscillates with frequen aimplitude 0.0m, If itis passing through equilibrium position when t= ‘equation fo represent its displacement i of amptitude x, angular frequency 0 and Determine its displacement when t= 0.50 “Step 1 Select the correct equation. In this cate is zero when f= 0.80 ¢ form: From the frequency /, calcula angular frequency @ w=2nf 3.0 Substitute val x= 0.100, ¢=0,10 sin (3.0n1) Hint: Remember to put you into radicns roid Equations for velocity The velocity y of an oscillator varies as it moves back ‘and forth. Jt has its greatest speed when it passes “through the equilibrium position in the middle of the ‘oscillation. If we take time ¢= 0 when the oscillator ‘through the middle of the oscillation with its st speed ¥,, then we can represent the changing function to represent the velocity 0.10 sin (4.713) =-0.10m js means that the peadulm is at tha sis osilation; the minus in a ve or left-hand ef, gaa onside displacements ent like this in(2mex1.SKOS0) rc equation V=vycos bt tells us how y dependsiae We write another equation to show how they depends on the oscillator’s displacement This equation can be used to deduce these oscillator at any point in an oseillation, intl maximum speed. Maximum speed of anv If an oscillator is executing simple it has maximum speed when it passes &‘Asimplé harmonic oscillator has a period that is tof the amplitude. A greater amplitude qneuns that the oscillator has to travel 4 greater distance othe sume time-hence it has a greater speed. ‘The equation also shows that the maximum speed is froportional to the frequency. Increasing the frequency Me seed, A given distance i covered n'a shorter time-henice it has a greater speed. Have another look at Figure 18.15. The ps motion is 0.40 s-and the amplitude 002m. The frequency fean be « “040 SH We'can now use the equation v= (2nf xp to determine the maximum speed Vo vex Qnf p= RX 2.5) X2.0% 10" 18.8 Energy changes yy=0.31ms! show the values on Figure 18.15b were calculated. n s-h.m.. orgy mi We oan represent these energy changes in two ways tial enor 18.22 shows how the kinetic energy and Idlastic potential energy change with time. Potential Energy is maximum when displacement is maximum i harif theme (positive or negative), Kinetic energy i enero ene a when displacement is zero, The total energy remain: ‘constant throughout. Note that both kinetic energy he cycle, all the energy il energy, so the total energy potential energy go through two complete cycles ‘one period of the oscillation. This is because kine ignergy ts maximum when the mass is passing thr t ithe equilibrium position moving to the left Ey ==iiyg Dpnioving to the right. The potential energy is maximum st both ends of the oscillation. total energy ‘Total energy of & system: harmonic motion,7 shows how the different forms of “ceeray change with displacement during sm, ithe graph, and show how the graph would if the oscillating mass were given only half the initial input of energy. 2 Fire 18.24 shows bow the velocity v of 0 .0kg ease was found to vary with time r during an Prastigation of the shmn. of a pendulum, Use the fgaph to estimate the following for the mass its maximum velocity 2 its maximum kinetic energy its maximum potential energy 4 its maximum acceleration fe themaximumn restoring foro 04 03 02 He 10 - 0 — = oi] 02 04 06 08 “02 “03 “04 Figure 18.24: A velocity-time graph for a pendulum For Question 22 18.9 Damped oscillations Tnprincipl, oscillations can go on for ever, In practic oscillations we observe ‘around us do not. They die out, either rapidly or gradually. A.child on ® ming knows that the amplitude of her swinging will anil eventually she will come to res! Unies SF Yome more energy into the s Jinging to keep it f friction, On a swing, there attached to the frame oe ao ‘This is shown in Figure 18.25. Figure 18.25: Damped osailatio pad scons 1 a damped oscillation is an Sseillation in which resistive forces cause the energy of the transferred to the surroundings as The amplitude lamped oscillations: docs not decrease linearly, It decays exponentially with time: An exponential decay is @ particular mathematical pattern that arises as follows. At first, the SWinE fnoves rapidly, There is lot of air resistance to eyereome, so the swing loses enery quickly and ityamplitude decreases at a high rate, Later, itis mnoving more slowly, There is lest air resistance and saenergy is lost more slowly-the amplitude decreases ata lower rate. Hence, we get the characteristic carved shape, which is the ‘envelope’ of the graph in Figure 18.25. Notice that the frequency of the oscillations does, not change as the amplitude decreases, This is & characteristic of simple harnionic motion, ‘The child may, for example, swing back and forth once every two Seconds, and this stays the same whether the amplitude istarge or small,f using a sinipite ta ‘ Ment (Figure 18.26), A hacksaw blade or oh of amplitude againat Springy metal strip is clamped (vertically or A Ek ‘ctaristic exponential dees nitally) to the bench. A mass is attached to cna altlfe’ of this exponential deck the free end. This will oscillate freely if you displace Os ermining the time It takes to it to one side. ‘ritial amplitude Figure 18.27) A card is attached to the mass so that there is By changing the size of the card, a yum significant air resistance as the mass oscillates. change the degree of damping, andiat f the motion halflife oft fuer Prem ‘card rey pf = miy mass —— \ hacksaw blade ——— bench clamp —— off Figure 1 8.27: At san be very useful if we want to get rid of : ns. For examiple, a car’has (Figure 18.28) mike the ride much mare co rable for us whe the car goes over a bump. However, we wouldn't want 10 spend every car journey vibrating up and down a reminder of the last bump we went over. So the spr are damped by the shock absorbers, and rapidly toa smooth ride after ¢ we return bump, Damping is achieved by introducing the force of friction into a mechanical system. In an undamped oscillation, tion remains constant between potential and friction, damping has from the oscillating id maximum speed of the Figure 18.28: The springs and shod Suspension system form @ dampeding quantities changes during the “Aninglecomplete oxcitlation of an Panduliiny: kinetic energy, potential State how your graphs would be different for a Hightly damped pendulum 48.10 Resonance kam Bridge in London. aaratic exami i t ge in London u a é e June 2000 (Figure 14:29), With up to 2000 a rect probleme aun king on the bri ‘ycle results in the A Barton's pendulurns Panan's pendulums is a derorst 18.30). Several puridulums af diffe hom a horgontal string. Each has of eacillation. The ‘driv : ttt has a large Be lergth is ecqual to thut of one of the others pi at the end, and Whenhere? All the pendulurns are by tho suspension, As the driver joves the ROTA e .dulums. The frequency of the dade {8 the same as that of the driver, igaina energy and its amplitude gradually builds up. The other pendulums have different ‘hatural frequencies. £0 the driver has little effect. Ine similar way) if you were to push the child on the wing once every three-quarters of an oscillation, {youl would s00n find that the swing was moving backwards as you tried to push it forwards, so that {your push would slow it down A mass-spring system You cen observe mass-spring system. You need @ ofaspring (Figure 18.31), escilates up and down of about THz. Now hold th ah amplitude of a c happens. Now move your hi slowly, close to 1 Hz. Defining resonance For resonance to occur, we must have @ sy ‘capable of oscillating freely, We must also ha way in which the system is forced to oscillate, When the forcing frequency matches the natural frequency Of the system, the amplitude of the oscillations grows dramatically, . If the driving frequency does not quite match the natural frequency, the amplitude of the oscillations wil Bonen: Hol to the same extent as when resonance achieved. Figure 18:32 shows how the amplitude of ‘depends on the driving frequency in the fo resonance. natural frequency Figure 18.32: Maximurn amplitude isa Giving frequency matches the ritual resonance does not occur. Fore the Millennium Bridge, energy wast the pedestrians to the bridge, oscillations.rations of the Earth. Resonance can occur, jin serious damage (Figure 18.33). In regions of Jd where earthquakes happen regularly, buildings be built on foundations that absorb the energy of Ishock waves: In this way, the vibrations sre “damped” ‘gothat the amplitude of the oscillations cannot reach us levels. This is an expensive business, and so faris restricted to the wealthier parts of the world. Figure 18.33; Resonance during the Christchurch, New Zediand, esrthcqiaka of 22 Februaty 2011 caused the ‘selapse of many buildings. The earthquake, whos? Sscienire was in Lyttelton, just 10 kilometres south-east of ‘Gristchurch’s certral business district, measured 0.3 esivaDiinswerctos. ‘eseful if we want fo reduce the damaging ‘shows how damping Eire 1824 Deng rarer ca ofr vibrations ‘An everyday example of damping can be seen om some doors. For example, a restaurant may have a door leading to the kitchen; this door can swing open im either direction. Such a door is designed to close by itself after someone has passed through it, Téeally, the door should swing back quickly without overshooting: itsclosed position. To achieve this, the door hinges (or the closing mechanism) must be correctly damped. If the hinges are damped too lightly, the door will swing: buck and forth several times as it closes. If the damping, ig too heavy, it will take too long to close. With erilteal the door will swing closed quickly without oscillating, the minimum damping thet causes the oscillating system to retum to its equilibrium position in the minimum time and without oscillating, Any lighter damping will allow the system to oscillate one or mare times; any heavier damping will cause the system to take a longer time to return tolts equim | position Critical damping is the minimum amount of damping: required to return an oscillator to its equilibrium. position without oscillating. Under-damping results in unwanted oscillations; over-damping results in a slower return to equilibrium (see Figure 18.35), A car’s. suspension system uses springs to smooth out bumps in the road. It usually critically damped go that passengers do not experience nasty vibrations every time the car goes over a bump, ’Underdamped Figure 18,35: that a damped o8eillating Critical diriping is just enough to ensure system returns to equilbty without AS We have seen, resonane, Mechanical systems, Howe fn bea problem in 7 1 Figure 18,36; ver, it ean also be usefl g For exaniple, many musical instrame Saree resonance se Resonance is not confined to mechanical systems It = semade Use OF in, for example, microwave cooking The microwaves used have a frequency that matches the natural frequency of vibration of water molecal This st (themictowave is the ‘driver’ and the molecule is the portant aspects of ‘esonating system’). The water molecules in food site forced to-vibrate and they absorb the e1 * Pt take a complex problegy Microwave radiation, The water hotter and the n a solid vibrate) agg absorbed energy spreads through the food and cook heatsit Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used in he Medicine to produce images such as Figure 18.46 ae showings aspects of a patient's internal organs. Radic gene Waves having a range of frequencies are use d, and ic ns that will hem Particular frequeticies are absorbed by particular 1 s, The equation g==# Foe ort The frequency absorbed depends on t s sn, can be solved to gietie type of nucleus and On its surroundings By analysing ions we have considered the absorption of the radio waves, a compute : ee Senerited image can be produced . nave solved one pith ound for other situations! ‘aN use the same ideas all over agai Spring theory also works:wel for and molecules, for objects bobbing Water, and in many other situntExample of a situation where resonance is miyand a second example where resonance In each examp! ait the osciftating emis and what forces it to resonate Make a list of equations used inthe: examples. How are they related? Can youuse these similarities to understand simple harmonic motion fu What things might you need help with to understand the chapter even better? Some oscillators have motion de 4 as simple harmonic motion (sh.m.). For these systems, graphs of displacement, velocity and ace against time are sinusoidal curves-see Figure 18.37. Displacement, « Velocity, v