Anatomy and Physiology
alveoli (trachea, bronchi, lungs,
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi and their smaller branches
 The lungs containing alveoli
WHAT
- Provides oxygen to the body,
disposes carbon dioxide, and help
regulate pH
HOW
- Gas exchange occurs in the air sacs
of the lungs in the alveoli
WHY
- Without oxygen, cells will
eventually die. Too much carbon
dioxide in the blood will cause the
blood pH to become acidic, which
will interfere with cellular-function
Cardiovascular and Respiratory
system shares the responsibility for
supplying the body with oxygen and
dispose carbon dioxide
Blood – used for transporting oxygen
and carbon dioxide
TWO PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
(1) Upper Respiratory Tract – nose to
larynx (nose, pharynx, larynx)
(2) Lower Respiratory Tract – trachea to
alveoli)
NOSE
- “button” or “hooked” in shape
- Only externally visible part of the
respiratory system
- During breathing, air enters the nose
by nostril/nares
- Consist of the nasal cavity divided
by a midline nasal septum
 Olfactory receptors are for sense of
smell; located in the mucosa
(beneath the ethmoid)
 Respiratory mucosa are mucosa
lining the nasal cavity; located on
thin walled veins that warms the air
as it pass
FUNCTION:
- Sticky mucus are produced to
moisten and trap bacteria and foreign
debris
- Lysozome enzyme in the mucus
destroy the bacteria chemically
 Conchae
- Greatly increases the surface area of
the mucosa exposed to the air
- Increase air turbulence in the nasal
cavity
 Palate
- Separates the nasal cavity from the
oral cavity
- Two parts: Hard palate – support by
bone; Soft palate – unsupported
posterior part
 Sinuses
- Frontal sinuses
 - Ethmoid sinuses
- Sphenoid sinuses
- Maxillary sinuses
PHAYNX
- “throat”
- Muscular passageway about 13 cm
or 5 inches long
- Serves as passageway for food and
air
- Posterior Nasal Aperture links the
pharynx in to the nasal cavity
3 REGIONS:
 Nasopharynx – air enters here and
located in the superior portion
 Oropharynx – middle region behind
mouth
 Laryngopharynx – inferior region
attached to larynx
 Esophagus – food passes here;
posterior to the epiglottis
 Pharyngotympanic tubes – drains the
middle ear, open into the
nasopharynx
 Tonsils – clusters of lymphatic
tissue; protects the body from
infection; but can cause
inflammation
3 TYPES OF TONSILS
(1) Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoid)
located high in the nasopharynx
(2) Palastine tonsils (2) – located high in
the oropharynx
(3) Lingual tonsils (2) – located at the
base of the tongue
LARYNX
- “voice box”
- It routes air and food into the proper
channels and plays a role in speech
- Located inferior of the pharynx
- Formed by: eight rigid hyaline
cartilage and epiglottis – spoon
shaped flap of elastic cartilage
 Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s Apple)
- Largest of the hyaline cartilage and
is shield shaped
- Protrudes anteriorly
 Epiglottis (guardian of the airway)
- Protects the superior opening of the
larynx
- Allows the passage of air into the
lower respiratory passages
 Cough reflex
- Prevents the substance going to the
lungs
 Vocal folds (true vocal cord)
- Vibrate with expelled air
- Allow us to speak
 Glottis
- Slit-like passageway between vocal
cords
TRACHEA
- “windpipe”
- Located at the level of the fifth
thoracic vertebra, approximately at
midchest
–
- Lined with ciliated mucosa which is
produced by goblet cells
  Hyaline cartilage – provides fairly
rigidity because it walls are
reinforced with C-shaped rings
- Structure: Rigid but can expand
BRONCHIAL TREE
Main Bronchi
- Right and left (primary) bronchi
- Formed by the division of trachea
- Right main (primary) bronchi is
wider, shorter, and straighter than the
left
- Each main bronchus runs obliquely
before it plunges into the medial
depression (helium)
LUNGS
- Fairy large organs
- Occupy the entire thoracic cavity
except for the most area of the
mediastinum
 Mediastinum
- Houses the heart, blood vessel,
bronchi, esophagus, and other organs
 Apex
- Narrow superior portion of each lung
- Deep to the cavicle
 Base
- Broad lung area resting on the
diaphragm
 Pulmonary pleaura
- Surface of each lung is covered with
its own visceral serosa
 Parietal pleaura
- Lined the walls of the thoracic cavity
 Pleural fluid
- Produced by pleaural membrane
- Allows the lungs to glide easily for
breathing
- Cause the 2 pleural layers to cling
together
 Pleural space
- More of a potential space than an
actual one
- The main bronchi subdivides into
smaller and smaller branches
- Bronchioles – smallest passageways
- Also referred as
bronchial/respiratory tree
- Terminal bronchioles lead into
respiratory zone structures and lead
to the end in alveoli
 Respiratory Zone
- Respiratory membrane
- Alveolar ducts
- Alveolar sacs
- Alveoli (only site for gas exchange)
 Conducting Zone structure
- Serves as conduits to and from the
respiratory zone
 Stroma
- Balance of lung tissue
- Mainly elastic connective tissue
- Allows the lungs to stretch and recoil
 Alveolar pores
- Connect neighboring air sacs and
provide alternative route for air to
reach the alveoli
 Respiratory Membrane (air-blood
barrier)
- Has gas (air) flowing past on one
side and blood flowing past on one
side and blood flowing past on the
other
- Gas exchange occur through
diffusion in the alveoli
 Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
 - Picks up bacteria, debris, and carbon
particle
Muscles of Respiration
 Surfactant
- Lipid (fat) molecules; coats the gas
exposed alveolar surfaces and very
important in lung function
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
(PHYSIOLOGY)
4 Events of Respiration
(1) Pulmonary Ventilation
- Moving if air in and out of the lungs
(commonly called breathing)
- Functions: supply body with oxygen
and dispose of carbon dioxide
(2) External Respiration
- Gas exchange between pulmonary
blood and alveoli
(3) Gas Transport
- Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide via blood stream
(4) Internal Respiration
- Gas exchange between pulmonary
capillary and tissue cells
MECHANICS OF BREATHING
 Pulmonary Ventilation
- Mechanical process that depends on
volume changes in thoracic cavity
- Volume changes lead to pressure
changes, which lead to the flow of
gases to equalize pressure
2 Phases
(1) Inspiration
- Inhalation
- Flow of air into the lungs
(2) Expiration
- Exhalation
- Air leaving the lungs
(1) Diaphragm
(2) External intercostals
(3) Internal intercostals
 Inspiration (Inhalation)
- Diaphragm and external intercostal
muscles contract
- Intrapulmonary volume increases
- Gas pressure decreases
- Air flows into the lungs until
intrapulmonary pressure equal to the
atmospheric pressure
 Expiration (exhalation)
- Largely a passive process that
depends on natural lung elasticity
- Intrapulmonary volume decreases
- Gas pressure increases
- Gas passively flow out to equalize
pressure
- As air passageways of the lungs
become smaller, the lining of walls
also changes
- As air passageways beyond terminal
bronchioles become smaller, their
walls become thinner
- The elastic fiber surrounding the
alveoli allow them to expand during
inspiration and recoil during
expiration
- Lungs are elastic
- Specialized secretory cells within the
walls of alveoli secrete a chemical
called surfactant that reduces the
tendency of alveoli to recoil
  Intra-pleural pressure - Usually around 3,100ml
- Pressure within is always negative  Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 Surfactant - Amount of air that can be taken out
- Mixture of lipoprotein moleculesby forcibly over the tidal volume
secretory cells of the alveolar - 1, 200ml
epithelium  Residual volume
- Reduces surface tension - Air remaining in lungs after
 Pressure in pleural cavity expiration
- Decrease pleural pressure – increase - Allows gas exchange to go on
alveolar pressure = alveoli expand continuously even between breaths
and helps to keep the alveoli open
(inflated)
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION - 1, 200ml
Relax External intercostals
 Vital capacity
muscles and
diaphragm - Total amount of exchangeable air
Internal intercostals Relax - VC = TV + IRV +ERV
muscles - 4, 800ml in men; 3, 100ml in female
Contract Internal intercostal  Dead space volume
muscles - Air remains in the conducting zone
External intercostals Contracts and never reaches the alveoli
muscles and
- 150ml
diaphragm
 Functional volume
- Air that reaches the respiratory zone
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND - 350ml
CAPACITIES  Spirometer – measure respiratory
capacity
 Factors affecting respiratory capacity
 Spirometry – diagnostic test
- Size
- Age NONRESPIRATORY AIR
- Physical condition MOVEMENTS
- Sex
- Can be caused by reflex or voluntary
 Tidal volume (TV) actions
- Inhale and exhale - Examples
- Normal quiet breathing  Cough and sneezes – clear
- 500ml of air is moved in and out of lungs of debris
lungs with each breath  Crying and laughing –
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) inspiration followed by
- Amount of air that can be taken in release of air in number of
forcibly over the tidal volume short expiration
  Hiccups – sudden inspiration
resulting from spasms of
diaphragm
 Yawn – very deep inspiration
RESPIRATORY SOUNDS
- Sounds are monitored with a
stethoscope
- 2 recognizable sounds can be heard
with stethoscope
(1) Bronchial sounds
- Produce by air rushing through large
passageways such as trachea and
bronchi
(2) Vesicular breathing sounds
- Soft sounds of air filling the alveoli
 External Respiration
 Oxygen is loaded into blood
- Oxygen diffuses from oxygen-rich
air of alveoli to the oxygen-poor
bloodof pulmonary capillaries
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of
the blood
- Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood
of pulmonary capillaries to alveoli
 Pulmonary gas exchange
 Gas Transport in Blood
 Oxygen transport in blood
- Most oxygen travels attached to
hemoglobin and forms
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
- A small dissolved amount is carried
in the plasma
- Not all oxygen will attach to
hemoglobin but some go to the
plasma
 Carbon dioxide transport in blood
- Most carbon dioxide is transported in
plasma as bicarbonate ion
- Small amount is carried inside red
blood cells on hemoglobin, but a
different binding sites from those
oxygen
 For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of
blood into alveoli, it must be
released from its bicarbonate form
- Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
- Combine with hydrogen ions to form
carbonic acid
- Carbonic acid splits to form water
and carbon dioxide
 Internal Respiration
 Exchange of gases between blood
and tissue cells
 An opposite reaction from what
occur in lungs
- Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue
cells to blood (called loading)
- Oxygen diffuses from blood into
tissue (called unloading)
 Systemic capillary gas exchange
 Carbonic anhydrase – special
enzyme that speeds up reaction
between carbon dioxide and water to
form carbonic acid
RESPIRATORY AREAS IN BRAIN
 Medullary Respiratory Center
- Medulla – sets basic rhythm of the
lungs
(1) Dorsal Respiratory group
 Responsible for contraction
of diaphragm
(2) Ventral Respiratory Group
 Responsible for stimulating
external intercostals, internal
intercostals, and abdominal
muscles
  Pontine Respiratory Group
- Collection of neurons in the pons
- Inspiration and expiration
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
 Eupnea (normal respiratory rate) –
12 – 15 rr/minute
 Hyperpnea – increased respiratory
rate, often due to extra oxygen
 Dyspnea – unlabored breathing or
difficulty of breathing
 Tachypnea – fast breathing; more
than 20 breaths/min
 Bradypnea – slow breathing
 Orthopnea – difficulty of breathing
while lying down
 Cheyne Stoke – irregular breathing
with seasons of apnea
 Apnea – sensation of breathing;
breathing stops
DEVELOPMENTAL
 Newborn: 40-80 rr/min
 Infants: 30 rr/min
 Age 5: 25 rr/min
 Adult:12-18 rr/min
 Rate often increases during old age
AGING EFFECT
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
 Elderly often has hypoxic and sleep
apnea
 More rules of respiratory tract
infection

NON-NEURAL FACTORS
INFLUENCING RESPIRATORY RATE
AND DEPTH

 Physical factors
- Increased body temperature
- Exercise
- Talking
- Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors such as fear,
anger, and excitement
 Chemical factors
- Body rid itself with of carbon
dioxide
- Increased level of carbon dioxide in
blood increase the rate and depth of
breathing
- Changes in carbon dioxide