Polymer Testing 75 (2019) 291–297

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Polymer Testing
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/polytest

Test Method

Experimental and theoretical analysis of laterally pre-stretched pure shear T

deformation of dielectric elastomer
Dilshad Ahmad, Karali Patra*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Patna, 800013, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Recently laterally pre-stretched pure shear deformation is considered as the most compatible and easier way of
Elastomer achieving higher actuation performances of dielectric elastomer actuator due to improvement of its dielectric
Pure shear test strength and pull-in stability. However, an accurate experimental investigation and modelling criteria of di-
Pre-stretch electric elastomer under various lateral pre-stretches up to failure have still not been reported in details. In the
Ogden model
present work, different pre-stretch levels are incorporated in commonly used material, VHB 4910 under pure
Modulus
shear loading at sufficiently slow strain rate to obtain stress-stretch curves up to failure. It has been also es-
Failure stretch
tablished that Ogden model parameters obtained by fitting pure shear test data are more accurate for pre-
stretched pure shear modelling than those obtained from commonly used uniaxial pull test.

1. Introduction 100% and successfully improved the electromechanical instability in

Dielectric elastomer has become a potential material to be applied
in actuators, sensors and energy harvesting devices because it under-
goes large deformation when stimulated electrically [1–4]. With new
emerging technologies like robotic eyes [5], micro fluidics [6], artificial
muscles [7], tactile displays [8], acoustic transducers [9], pneumatic
valves [10], micro fluidics [6], energy harvesting devices [7], the de-
mand of this material is increasing day by day. The performances of the
products involving dielectric elastomer materials are greatly influenced
by ‘pre-stretch’ i.e. stretching the material prior to its application. This
is because pre-stretching of dielectric elastomer improves the break
down strength and actuation efficiency of the dielectric elastomer ac-
tuators [11–14]. More over pre-stretching reduces the electro-
mechanical instability or pull-in instability [12,15].
With such enormous advantages of pre-stretch, experiments invol-
ving pre-stretch conditions were performed by many researchers.
Variation of actuation strain with voltage was experimentally and
theoretically investigated for VHB material in pure shear loading and it
was claimed that actuation strain increased up to 67% with increase in
lateral pre-stretch [16]. Lateral pre-stretch was also applied to present a
comprehensive electro-mechanically coupled experimental work on
VHB 4910 samples. It was established that lateral pre-stretching of
samples improved electromechanical response when the tests were
carried at 300–400% deformation in longitudinal direction [17]. It was
further shown that pre-stretch raised the voltage induced strain up to
case of equi-biaxial deformation [18]. Pre stretch was also shown to
provide stability to the dielectric elastomer actuator material by con-
trolling breakdown strength and electrostriction force [11]. Through
modeling and numerical analysis, it was also revealed that pre-stretch
could decrease drive voltage for desired bending deformation of di-
electric elastomer actuator [19]. Another study showed that pre
stretching actually induced stretch hardening effect which in turn im-
proved breakdown strength and maximum energy density [20]. Dy-
namic behavior due to pre-stretch induced stretch hardening on VHB
4910 was also investigated [21]. Recent study also reveals that laterally
pre-stretched actuators under pure shear loading can be used to get
actuation stroke in the range of 1000% for VHB elastomers [22].
There are fundamentally three modes of pre-stretching: uniaxial,
equi-biaxial and pure shear. For pre-stretching in the most fundamental
deformation modes i.e. uniaxial mode, force is applied from one di-
rection and lateral direction is free to contract. This involves most
common application areas like wearable multifunction textiles like
smart shirts, life shirts and sensorized sleeves [23]. Application areas
like micro pumps, disk drives, pneumatic valves and loudspeakers [24],
involve equi-biaxial pre-stretching which allows the material to stretch
from both directions equally. However, with the emergence of new
technologies like haptic feedback, artificial skin and artificial muscles
[25], the pre-stretched pure shear application areas are on the rise in
which force is applied from one direction and the lateral direction is
constrained. This mode of deformation has the advantage of creating

*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kpatra@iitp.ac.in (K. Patra).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2019.02.030
Received 16 November 2018; Received in revised form 20 February 2019; Accepted 23 February 2019
Available online 28 February 2019
0142-9418/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Ahmad and K. Patra
larger ratio of active area to passive area and more importantly keeping
the actuation strain in one direction which provides more compatibility
for actuators and sensor based applications [21,26,27]. Some re-
searchers experimentally investigated the mechanical behavior under
pure shear loading [28]. conducted pure shear test for VHB 4910 and
fitted a Gent model with experimental results for higher stretching up to
10. Hodgins et al. [29] used pure shear membrane to study the elec-
trode stiffening feature of dielectric elastomer. Pharr et al. [30] used
pure shear samples to obtain stress-stretch curve in order to study the
effect of pre crack in the material.
Very few researchers have experimentally investigated the effect of
width pre-stretch or lateral pre-stretch on the mechanical behavior of
dielectric elastomers. Pancheri et al. [31] conducted width pre-stretch
experiment on natural rubber up to longitudinal stretch of 2.5 for pure
shear sample. The material parameters were obtained from uniaxial and
equi-biaxial six parameters Ogden model to validate the results. Qu
et al. [32] conducted pre-stretched pure shear experiments and con-
ducted rate dependent test with electrical loading simultaneously up to
longitudinal stretch of 5 and four parameter viscoelastic model was
fitted in the experimental results. Kofod [13] applied a four parameters
Ogden model in which the parameters were obtained from uniaxial
tests and simulated the pre-stretched pure shear stress-stretch curves up
to p = 5 to investigate the electro-mechanical behavior of pre-stret-
ched pure shear samples.
Though it is seen that some researchers have taken into account the
effect of lateral pre-stretch on dielectric elastomers under pure shear
loading but they used parameters from uniaxial test to model pure shear
experimental results that could be erroneous as indicated by Rosset
et al. [33]. It was showed that using model parameters coming from
uniaxial test to predict equi-biaxial deformation behavior produced
erroneous results [33]. Therefore, an equi-biaxial test setup was de-
veloped by them to obtain correct biaxial hyperelastic parameters for
further applications. In the similar line, the present work also devel-
oped experimental setup for measurement of stress-stretch under lateral
pre-stretched pure shear test up to the failure of VHB 4910 membrane
to obtain the parameters for hyperelastic Ogden model. The perfor-
mance of four parameters Ogden model using pure shear experimental
data is compared with that using uniaxial experimental data. The
Ogden model parameters obtained through pure shear measurement
show better prediction accuracy than those obtained using uniaxial test
data. The major contribution of this work is that it is the first of its kind
of work to perform laterally pre-stretched pure shear experiments till
failure of the elastomer membrane. Additionally, we also made an effort
to apply pure shear test data for model fitting of the experimental data
for better accuracy.
2. Experimental approaches
2.1. Material properties and geometry
The material used for pre-stretched pure shear testing is VHB 4910
which is commercially produced by 3M in roll form. The density of the
material is 960 kg/m3 and recommended operating range is −10 °C to
90 °C. All the specimens prepared from VHB 4910 are tested at standard
room temperature of 23 °C. A 2.5 kN load cell is used to measure the
applied load to the sample and Test Xpert-II software is used to control
the test environment in Zwick/Roell Z050 model as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
The coordinate axes are chosen in such a way that 1st direction is
the stretching direction, 2nd direction is the width pre-stretching di-
rection and 3rd direction is the thickness direction. The geometry of the
pure shear sample shown in Fig. 1(b) is a cuboid structure where
thickness of the VHB 4910 is 1 mm and width is 320 mm. The initial
length is taken to be 18 mm for all the testing conditions. The width to
height ratio is kept approximately 18:1 in order to ensure that there is
sufficient lateral constraint developed in the sample to obtain pure
shear deformation [3]. The process of tensile testing of the structure is
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Polymer Testing 75 (2019) 291–297
assume to be isochoric and width pre-stretch p is fixed, i.e.,
1 2 3 =1 (1)
where, 2 = p = constant
True stress induced in the specimen during tensile testing can be
calculated from the following equation [13]
F× p
T = × 1
(wf × ti ) (2)
Where
F = Force required for stretch the sample.
wf = Final width which is fixed.
ti = Initial thickness of the sample.
p = Lateral pre-stretch ratio.
3. Experimental set up
The most common and straight forward method of fitting experi-
mental data to any hyperelastic model in order to obtain the values of
its parameters is uniaxial pull test because this is the most fundamental
test and easier to perform. However, it is seen that using uniaxial pull
test to determine material parameters for understanding the pure shear
or equi-biaxial behavior cannot be sufficient and accurate [33]. In the
present work both uniaxial and pure shear experiments are performed
in order to obtain parameters for fitting of pre-stretched pure shear
experimental results.
3.1. Uniaxial pull test
Uniaxial pull test is performed in universal testing machine using
2.5 kN load cell. For uniaxial test, the width of the rectangular sample is
6.5 mm and length is 52 mm. Therefore, the width to length ratio is 1:8
which is large enough for the specimen to contract in the width di-
rection when stretched longitudinally. This test is performed at a very
slow strain rate of 0.0043/s in order to assess equilibrium state or long
term behavior of VHB 4910 [34]. From Fig. 2, it is seen that the sample
is rectangular in shape initially but as pulling starts the sample is free to
contract along width direction.
3.2. Pre-stretched pure shear test
Pure shear tests at different pre-stretch ratios are also performed in
universal testing machine with the use of a specially designed pure
shear fixture. A sample having width and length of 320 mm and 18 mm,
respectively, is used. Therefore, the width to height ratio is 18 which is
sufficient enough to induce lateral constrain in the specimen. The
specially developed pure shear fixture with the sample which is fitted
with 2.5 kN load cell in the UTM is shown in Fig. 3 (a).
The steps involved in pre-stretching and fixing the elastomer are
clearly shown in Fig. 3(b) where normal pure shear sample is taken first
and then pre-stretched in the width direction. Next, the pre-stretched
sample is fixed on the pure shear fixture as shown in the figure and
extra parts of the specimen from both sides are removed by a scissor.
When the pre-stretched specimen is cut from both sides the lateral re-
laxation of the specimen takes place which is negligible as compared to
its very large width. The advantage of using very large width specimen
is that it remains valid for pure shear deformation even after some re-
laxation from both sides because the width to height ratio will still
remain more than 10 to keep the specimen laterally constrained [26].
The pre-stretched specimen is then allowed to stretch at a very slow
strain rate of 0.0043/s in the longitudinal direction 1 up to failure
using UTM.
D. Ahmad and K. Patra
Fig. 1. (a) Complete experimental test set up with UTM (b) Structure and dimensions of pre-stretched pure shear sample used for testing in universal testing machine
(UTM).
Fig. 2. Uniaxial pull test diagram in (a) undeformed and (b) deformed state.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Experimental analysis of pre-stretched pure shear deformation
Tensile tests of pure shear samples are conducted for P = 1,2,3 and
4 pre-stretched condition. Each test is conducted at least for five times
to check the repeatability of the experiment. As the variations of these
repeated experiments are very small, one out of these five tests are
chosen to represent force-stretch and then subsequently stress-stretch
curves for a particular lateral pre-stretch condition as shown in Fig. 4(a)
and Fig. 4(b). To check the accuracy of the experiments, the coefficient
of variations (%) of all the repeated experiments at a particular con-
dition are reported in Table 1 as illustrated in earlier literature [35]. All
Fig. 3. (a) Specially developed pure shear set up to conduct pre-stretched pure shear test in Universal Testing Machine (UTM) at a very slow strain rate of 0.0043/s
(b) Step wise method to fix the pre-stretched sample on specially developed pure shear fixture (i) Pristine specimen (ii) Specimen is laterally pre-stretched up to
p = w/wo (iii) Fixing of pre-stretched sample on specially designed pure shear fixture (iv) Elongation of pre-stretched sample in loading direction 1.
293
Polymer Testing 75 (2019) 291–297
the five experiments for p are plotted in one graph to show the var-
iation in error which is very less as shown in Fig. 5 (a). From Fig. 4 (a),
it has been investigated that as pre-stretch increases the force required
at a particular stretch seems to be lesser. This is because of the fact that
as the pre-stretch increases thickness of the material falls markedly
which consequently results into lesser force requirement. Another
reason could be the increase of compliance or reduction of stiffness in
the transverse direction due to lateral pre-stretching as shown by Fig. 5
(b). The initial secant modulus at a particular strain (20% strain) is
shown to be decreasing with increasing p as shown in Table 2. The
variation of secant elastic modulus is clearly shown to be decreasing
with increasing p in the initial stretching ( 1 = 3) region and after that
the secant elastic moduli for all p increase appreciably and gradually
coalescence together. This parabolic behavior of secant moduli with
stretch is in line with the material like VHB 4910 as reported by Jiang
et al. [12].
True stress versus stretch graphs pre-stretched pure shear experi-
ments are shown in Fig. 4 (b). From the graphs it can be seen that there
is a sharp initial decrease in the slope of the curve with increasing width
pre-stretch and stretch in the elongation direction starts from a value
lesser than 1. This starting stretch value will decrease with increasing
width pre-stretch. This experimental results are first kind of pure shear
mechanical test incorporating lateral pre stretch and the results are in
quite good agreement with earlier proposed simulated results by Kofod
[13]. Failure stretch values for different pre-stretch conditions are also
obtained from these graphs and reported in Table 2. It is observed that
failure stretch keeps on decreasing with increasing p . For p = 1, the
failure stretch is about 9.14 while it decreases to 7.22, 5.78 and 4.95 for
D. Ahmad and K. Patra Polymer Testing 75 (2019) 291–297

Fig. 4. (a) Force versus stretch diagram for P = 1,2,3,4 (b) Experimental True stress versus stretch diagram compared with Kofod (violet dashed line) simulated
results for P = 1,2,3,4 .

Table 1
Coefficient of variations of true stress for all five repeated experiments for p = 2.

Stretch Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 4 Exp 5 Standard Deviation Mean Coefficient of Variance (COV) COV (%)

0.707 0.0003 0.0004 0.0004 0.0003 0.0003 5.22E-05 0.0003 0.1476 14.76
0.81 0.0137 0.0153 0.017 0.015 0.013 0.0015 0.0148 0.1045 10.46
0.9 0.0281 0.0288 0.0302 0.0245 0.025 0.0025 0.0273 0.0904 9.04
1 0.0433 0.0431 0.0434 0.0337 0.037 0.0045 0.0401 0.1120 11.20
2 0.159 0.153 0.146 0.116 0.126 0.0183 0.14 0.1306 13.06
3 0.28 0.278 0.27 0.224 0.228 0.0276 0.256 0.1081 10.81
4 0.462 0.398 0.444 0.385 0.368 0.0399 0.4114 0.0971 9.71
5 0.651 0.692 0.696 0.623 0.561 0.0556 0.6446 0.0863 8.63
6 1.02 1.044 1.072 0.982 0.825 0.0972 0.9886 0.0983 9.83
7 1.58 1.65 1.52 1.55 1.62 0.05225 1.584 0.0329 3.30

Fig. 5. (a) Initial secant elastic modulus with different lateral pre-stretch representing decrease in modulus with lateral pre-stretch (b) figure showing repeatability of
experiments.

Table 2 4.2. Modeling of the pre-stretch pure shear deformation

Variation of secant modulus and failure stretch with pre-stretch.
Secant Modulus (kPa) at 20% Strain
A number of researchers had already discussed and compared dif-
p Failure Stretch ( f )
ferent hyperelastic models for fitting large deformation of rubber like
1 145 9.14 materials [36–38]. Steinmann et al. [36] elaborately derived the tan-
2 138 7.22 gent operators for a selection of both phenomenological and micro-
3 132 5.78 mechanical models which were also validated by the classical Treloar
4 108 4.95
data on vulcanized rubber. Hossain and Steinmann [37] proposed the
extended tube model to be the best fitted with the Treolar's data of
natural rubber. Marckmann & Verron [38] analysed twenty different
p = 2, 3 and 4, respectively. This is because of the reason that in-
creasing pre-stretch decreases the available stretch before failure as the hyperelastic models and concluded that the best model was the ex-
elongation of polymer chain is limited. tended-tube model which best fitted with Treolar's data because it had
only four parameters and its derivation was physically motivated. They

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D. Ahmad and K. Patra Polymer Testing 75 (2019) 291–297

Fig. 6. (a) Uniaxial and (b) Pure Shear experimental fitting with, 1 term Ogden and 2 terms Ogden model fitting at 0.0043/s strain rate. Note that both the axes are
logarithmic.

Table 3 Ogden models to verify the pre-stretched pure shear experimental data.
Parameters and normalized root mean square error obtained after fitting uni- Least square curve fitting algorithm ‘lsqcurvefit’ in MATLAB was used
axial and pure shear experimental data with Gent and Ogden models. to fit the experimental results with Ogden model [36].
Model Fitting Ogden Model Type Parameters NRMSD (%) The Ogden model for obtaining parameters from uniaxial experi-
mental data can be written as [39]
Uniaxial 2 Parameters Ogden 0.01122, 2.252 2.25
N
( µ1 , 1 ) G = 12.6 kPa 1
= µi i 2 i
4 Parameters Ogden 0.04931, 0.0000013, 9.65 TU 1 1
i=1 (3)
( µ1 , µ 2 , 1, 2 ) 1.49, 5.467
G = 36.7 kPa Where,
Pure Shear 2 Parameters Ogden 0.0182, 2.078 8.67
( µ1 , 1 ) G = 19.5 kPa
4 Parameters Ogden 0.1663, 0.00362, 0.13 TU = True stress for uniaxial test in Ogden model.
( µ1 , µ 2 , 1, 2 ) 0.3992, 2.751 µi and i are constants.
G = 38 kPa 1 = Stretch in the 1st direction.

The Ogden model for obtaining parameters from pure shear ex-
perimental data can be written as [39].
N

S = µi ( 1
i
1
i
)
i=1 (4)
The Ogden model used to fit in the lateral pre stretched experi-
mental data can be written as [13].
N

TS = µp ( 1
i
1
i
p
i
)
i=1 (5)
Shear modulus from Ogden model is
N
1
G= µi i
2 i=1 (6)
where,

= True stress for pure shear test in Ogden model.

Fig. 7. Pre-stretched pure shear experimental data (red line) and simulated TS

plots of four parameters Ogden models using parameters from uniaxial ex- p = Width pre-stretch of pure shear sample.
perimental results (black line) and using pure shear experimental results (blue
line) for (a) P = 1 (b) P = 2 (c) P = 3 and (d) P = 4 . The accuracy of different models to fit the experimental data can be
calculated in the form of normalized root mean square deviation per-
centage {NRMSD (%)} given as follows in equation (7).
also concluded that six parameters Ogden model could also be one of
the best fit model but because of six parameters, it required a large n
1
2
1
experimental data base for fitting. NRMSD(%) = ( pred exp) ×100/(ymax ymin)
However, Ogden model has been frequently used for fitting de- n i= 1 (7)
formation of acrylic elastomers because of its advantageous character-
where, pred is the predicted stress value through constitutive models,
istics [13,39]. This model provides accurate representation of elasto-
exp is the experimental stress value, n is the number of data points, ymax
mers like VHB 4910 for very large deformation. Moreover, this model is
and ymin are the maximum and minimum experimental values of stress
simple enough for mathematical analysis. To avoid the computational
respectively.
complexity and large data requirement of a six parameters Ogden
Ogden hyperelastic models with two parameters and four para-
model [38], this work applies two parameters and four parameters
meters are fitted with the experimental data obtained from uniaxial pull

295
D. Ahmad and K. Patra
Table 4
NRMSD and corresponding shear modulus for four parameters Ogden model using uniaxial parameters and pure shear parameters.
Pre-stretch ( P) NRMSD (%) between experimental results and when Uniaxial Parameters used
in four parameters Ogden Model
1 7.084
2 13.93
3 10.25
4 12.63
test till failure at sufficiently slow strain rate of 0.0043/s using equation
(3) as shown in Fig. 6 (a), The slow strain rate is employed to obtain
equilibrium stress response of the dielectric elastomer [34,40]. The
curve fitted parameters for different hyper elastic models are shown in
Table 3. For 2 parameters Ogden model, the obtained parameters are
µ1 = 0.01122 and 1 = 2.252 with normalized root mean square de-
viation (NRMSD) of 2.25%. For 4 parameters Ogden model, the four
parameters obtained as µ1 = 0.04931, µ 2 = 0.0000013, 1 = 1.49 and
2 = 5.467 with NRMSD of 9.65%. The shear modulus G obtained in
this case is 36.7 kPa.
Similarly, pure shear experimental data is fitted with all hyper-
elastic models (two parameters Ogden model and four parameters
Ogden model) as shown in Fig. 6 (b) using equation (4). The parameters
obtained are shown in Table 3. For two parameters model, the para-
meters obtained are µ1 = 0.0182 and 1 = 2.078 with NRMSD of
8.67%. Now if we fit four parameters Ogden model, the four parameters
obtained as µ1 = 0.1663, µ 2 = 0.00362, 1 = 0.3992 and 2 = 2.751
with NRMSD of 0.13% which shows very good fitting. The shear
modulus obtained in this case is G = 38 kPa.
Therefore, from Fig. 6 (b), it is clearly shown that four parameters
Ogden model is very well fitted with the pure shear experimental data
with a very small NRMSD of 0.13%. In the same way, the four para-
meters Ogden model fitting with uniaxial data results into NRMSD of
9.65%. Fitting of uniaxial data with 2 and 4 parameters Ogden model as
shown in Fig. 6 (a) is not coming good because of extreme stretching of
the VHB 4910 up to almost 1 = 14 where strain hardening takes place.
Hence, in order to consider the strain hardening region, the Ogden
model fittings (2 and 4 parameters) are not in good agreement in the
initial part up of the stretching as shown in Fig. 6 (a). Therefore, the
fitted model lines are initially deviated from starting point 1 = 1. On
the other hand, under pure shear loading as shown in Fig. 6 (b), there is
maximum stretching up to 1 = 9 where very less strain hardening
takes place. Hence, the Ogden models (2 and 4 parameters) are fitted
with the pure shear experimental data with quite good agreement.
Therefore, initial deviation is very less and fitted models start from 1
= 1 for pure shear deformation as shown in Fig. 6 (b).
Since four parameters Ogden model provides better fitting with
minimum NRMSD, the parameters obtained from four parameters
Ogden model in uniaxial and pure shear experimental data are used in
equations (4) and (5) respectively to model different pre-stretched pure
shear deformations. Simulated pre-stretched pure shear stress-stretch
curves obtained from four parameters Ogden models using the para-
meters values of pure shear experimental data fitting and uniaxial ex-
perimental data fitting are compared with the experimental results and
shown in Fig. 7.
The performances of these two approaches to model the pre-stret-
ched pure shear deformations are compared in terms of normalized root
mean square deviation percentage (NRMSD) and shown in Table 4. It is
observed that NRMSDs for pre-stretched pure shear model when uni-
axial parameters are used are 7.084%, 13.93%, 10.25% and 12.63% for
P = 1,2,3 and 4, respectively. On the other hand, when pure shear
parameters are used in the same model then NRMSDs are 0.14%,
11.65%, 8.91% and 8.90%, respectively, for P = 1,2,3 and 4. This
comparison of NRMSDs for uniaxial and pure shear parameters shows
that using uniaxial parameters in the 4 parameters Ogden model for
pre-stretched conditions leads to erroneous results. This may be because
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Polymer Testing 75 (2019) 291–297
NRMSD (%) between experimental and when Pure Shear Parameters used in
four parameters Ogden Model
0.14
11.65
8.91
8.90
of the reason that softening effect for the uniaxial pull test is quite
different from the pure shear test as the latter is constrained laterally
[33].
Here, it has been established that lateral pre-stretched pure shear
experimental results are well fitted with four parameters Ogden model
using pure shear parameters with minimized error.
5. Conclusion
The present work investigated the effects of lateral pre-stretching on
the stress-stretch curve of highly nonlinear dielectric material, VHB
4910 up to failure. This is the first of its kind of mechanical testing of
lateral pre-stretched pure shear sample till failure. These highly non-
linear stress-stretch curves are also successfully predicted with four
parameters Ogden model using parameters obtained from both uniaxial
pull test and pure shear test. It is investigated that the four parameters
Ogden model for pre-stretched pure shear deformation using para-
meters obtained from pure shear test provide less error as compared to
that using the parameters obtained from uniaxial test. This is because
mode of pure shear deformation is quite different from uniaxial mode.
Acknowledgement
This work has been supported by Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India through project no. INT/SIN/P-03.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.polymertesting.2019.02.030.
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