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 CHAPTER 11
Effect of Food Processing on Nutritional
and Anti-nutritional Components
Radha Kushwaha, Vinti Singh, Monika Singh,
Vinita Puranik and Devinder Kaur*
Centre of Food Technology, University of Allahabad,
Prayagraj 211002, India

Abstract
This chapter is based on the beneficial aspects of food processing with main
focus on cooking/heat treatment, including other food-processing techniques
and their consequent results as inactivation of natural toxins and food-borne
pathogens, or other detrimental compounds, extension of shelf-life, improved
digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients, improvement of flavor, taste,
palatability, texture and enhanced functional properties, including improved
antioxidants and other defense reactivity or augmented antimicrobial
effectiveness, and removal of mycotoxins. The effects of various techniques on
nutrient value of food also have been discussed here in detail.
Keywords: Processing, Toxins, Pathogens, Bioavailability, Shelf-life.
INTRODUCTION
Food processing means operations used on raw materials obtained from
plants or animals into various food or food ingredients. Since agriculture
and animal husbandry were established postharvest procedures and are
necessary to preserve for a longer time the increasing food supplies
getting from fields and domesticated animals. Food is one of the best
culture medium for many microbes that causes spoilage to the food and
prevention of food spoilage whether it is caused by microbes and/or
enzymes is very essential (Vitale and Schillaci, 2015). Processing of food
is necessary to bring the food and nutrition security and it is a

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 Challenges and Opportunities in Nutrition, Environment and Agriculture

worldwide challenge, and a prerequisite for a healthy and safe society.

While considering food demand whether in terms of calories to fulfill
energy requirements and/or requirements of macronutrients and
micronutrients for good health is only achieved by food processing
(Augustin et al., 2016).
Food processing is required to increase shelf life of foods, enhance
bioavailability of some nutrients and quality, and reduce the postharvest
losses and waste (Floros et al., 2010; Johnston et al., 2014). Reduction in
the incidence of food insecurity in present scenario as well as in future
require technological approach through collaborative actions among the
field of agriculture, food, nutrition and health for improvement of
wellness of society (Burlingame & Dernini, 2012, Africa & Asia 2015).
The focal point of this chapter is to summarize the role and
importance of novel and sustainable prime production systems and
processing in dealing with challenges of food and nutrition security.
FOOD PROCESSING
Food processing is any deliberate change in a food that occurs before it is
available. Typically, inedible raw materials are processed into more
useful, shelf stable and palatable foods or potable beverages for human
consumption (International Food Information Council Foundation,
2010). Since prehistoric times, food processing has been a key aspect of
the food production 226 chain that links agricultural production with the
provision of food to people in the form and at the time it is required
(Floros et al., 2010). Some of the common industrial processes used in
food manufacturing include milling, cooling/freezing, smoking, heating,
canning, fermentation, drying, extrusion cooking. Processing causes
changes to the components of food and some of these changes can result
in both detrimental as well as beneficial effects on the food quality,
depending on the process used (Weaver et al., 2014). Although there
have been many reports about the negative aspects of food processing
which has focussed on issues such as the detrimental effects of heat
treatment on food quality (ex. formation of acrylamide, nutritional
degradation, high sugar in formulated foods, introduction of trans fats
into foods), it is essential to have a balanced view which includes the
benefits of food processing (van Boekel et al., 2010). Some of the benefits
of food processing include destruction of food-borne microbes and
toxins, improved bioavailability of nutrients, extension of shelf life,
improved sensory characteristics and functional properties (van Boekel
et al., 2010). Food processing also encompasses the use of additives
which are used to increase quality (ex. taste and appearance), extend

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Effect of Food Processing on Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Components

shelf life and improve the safety of foods. The management of risks to
food safety and stability constitutes an essential element of food security.
Traditionally, brining and pickling were used. A range of chemical
additives (ex. sulfur dioxide for preservation of wine, nitrites in bacon),
anti-microbials (ex. benzoic acid) and antioxidants (ex. tertiary
butylhydroquinone for retarding oxidation of oils) has been employed
over the years. However, there is now a trend towards the incorporation
of natural preservatives and the phasing out of some synthetic chemical
additives. There is increasing awareness in the use of natural anti-
microbials (ex. bacteroicins, essential oils), preservatives (ex. citric acids,
ascorbic acid, from fruits) and antioxidants (ex. Maillard reaction
products, polyphenols, rosemary extract) to advanced food quality and
shelf life (Kumar et al., 2015; Vergis et al., 2015). In addition to the move
to natural food additives, novel delivery systems (ex.
nanoencapsulation), smart additives and packages are also being
developed as an alternative to direct incorporation of additives to food
(Carocho et al., 2014).
FACTORS IN PROCESSING THAT IMPACT FOOD
The most important beneficial aspects can be sum up as follows:
(i) Food safety (pathogens): The main advantages of food processing is to
inactivation of food-borne pathogens microorganisssms.
(ii) Food safety (other aspects): inactivation of enzymes and natural
toxins, prolongation of shelf-life.
(iii) Nutritional value: improved digestibility, bioavailability of nutrients.
(iv) Sensory quality: appearance texture, taste, and flavor.
(v) Functional health benefits: ex. probiotics, prebiotics, Maillard reaction
products, flavonoids, other food constituents and their reaction
products.
(vi) Convenience: availability of ready-to-eat and semiprepared foods,
ex.. microwavable frozen meals.
(vii) Cost: economy of scale.
(viii) Diversity: independence from the seasonal availability of foods,
and introduction of global food supply chain.
(ix) Quality of life: improved because less time required for food supply
and preparation.
Types of food processing
Processing can be broadly divided in to two main headings i.e.
traditional processing and emerging processing techniques

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 Challenges and Opportunities in Nutrition, Environment and Agriculture

Traditional Processing
To a great extent, food processing has been used to preserve food,
improve food safety and maintain quality. Over the last hundred years,
traditional food preparation and preservation processes have been
industrialized. The industrialization of food processing, with its
economies of scale, has increased the availability of foods in both in local
and export markets. Processing can occur at various levels along with the
supply chain. It can be applied proximate to food harvest or capture
(ex.initial processing of agricultural commodities such as milling or fish
canning) or further downstream when it is used in the manufacturing of
various food products (ex.noodles, bread, biscuit, yogurt).Some of them
are as follows
Heat treatment
The temperature of the food materials is raised to a level at which they
inhibits the growth of bacteria, even destroys viable bacteria and
inactivates enzymes by changing their nature.
Low temperature/freezing
The lower temperature of the food is used to slow down the
deterioration of the food by inactivating enzymes or through bacterial
growth retardation. In conventional cooling methods various techniques
includes 1.) refrigeration where temperatures are around 5 °C; and 2.)
freezing, where temperatures are lowered to ˂-18 °C (and sometimes
even more down upto -196 °C in commercial deep freezers). The lower
the temperature, the longer shelf life can be achieved to the foods
(Heldman and Hartel, 1997).
Drying/dehydration
Removal of free water available for the growth of microbes is known as
drying. The reduction of water content from foods is reduced to the level
where biological reactions (like enzyme activity and microbial growth)
cannot take place and the probability of food spoilage is finally lowered.
Drying can be performed by various ways viz. freeze-drying (ex. herbs
and coffee), sun-drying (ex. tomatoes, apricots) spray-drying (ex. milk
powder),or tunnel-drying (ex. vegetable pieces) (Von Saravacos, 1965;
King, 1968; Thijssen 1979; Viollaz and Alzamora, 2005).
Salting/Brining
The addition of salt into foods items has been applied for centuries as a
preservation technique. This method works on the principle that the salt
reduces the water activity (aw) of the food going to be preserved, and this
phenomenon prevents the growth of spoilage causing organisms. Similar
effects may be achieved with sugar depending on the type of food. It is
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Effect of Food Processing on Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Components

also feasible to slow or halt growth sometimes kill certain micro-

organisms by changing the pH of the food (for example the addition of
acids such as vinegar in pickling).
Pickling
Pickling often describes salting or brining, or addition of vinegar/ oils in
combination of them for preservation of vegetables (ex. sauerkraut,
peppers, cucumbers, onions and olives) and fish (ex. herring).
Curing
Curing is a generally used in food processing related to fish and meat
food products, in which nitrates or nitrite and /or combinations of salt
and sugar are used (which prevents the development of the harmful
bacteria Clostridium botulinum and gives the meat an appealing pink
color) food for preservation and enhancement of apperance.
Fermentation
In fermentation, specific microorganisms are used to give a food its
desired texture and flavor, but it is also a way of changing the
biochemical characteristics of foods and so prevents the growth of
spoilage causing micro-organisms. Yeast fermentation is used in
processes such as the baking of bread and the production of alcoholic
beverages. Similarly soy sauce is a result of yeast fermentation.
Food additives
Food additives are those substances that are being added to foods to
provide specific technical purposes, and are grouped depending on the
purpose and work they achieve when added to foods, ex. preservatives,
antioxidants, stabilizers, packaging gases or anti-caking agents. Only
substances that are not on average consumed as a food in it and that are
not usually used as a characteristic constituent of food, qualify as
additives.
Emerging Novel Processes
The past about 3 decades have witnessed the progression of several non-
conventional food processing and preservation techniques to develop
safer nutrients rich functional foods. These are (1) thermal processing
like microwave and ohmic heating, and (2) other non-thermal processing
methods like ultra-high pressure (UHP), pulsed electric fields, ultrasonic
waves, high-intensity pulsed light, cold plasma processing, and so forth.
The aim of all the novel techniques are used to reduction of processing
time temperature with better quality attributes and extended shelf life in
foods, to replace conventional methods.

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Thermal processing
Type of thermal processing that is also faster and provides extended
shelf life to food as compared to traditional canning.
Microwave processing
Microwave processing is heating by radiation as different to the
onventional convection or conduction methods. Microwaves are
transmitted efficiently in water but not by glass or plastics and are
reflected by metals. The oscillation of the water molecules occur in food
which leads to the heating of the food internal temperature. Occasional
stirring is essential for even heating and safe food handling since the
water is usually distributed unevenly in a food. Microwaving food is a
quick method of heating that requires little addition of water and thus
show to less nutrient losses than other methods of cooking.
Ohmic heating process
This is a thermal process where heat is internally generated by the
passage of alternating electrical currents by the food which acts as
electrical resistance. Ohmic heating is also called as ‘resistance heating’,
or ‘direct resistance’ heating. It is not dependent on transfer of energy by
water particles so it is an essential development for the competent
heating of low water, low particulate foods. It is a HTST method, thus
decreasing the possibility of high-temperature over-processing and
finally related less loss of nutrients. Another benefit of this processing is
that it keeps delicately structured foods such as strawberries intact
(Ramaswamy et al., 2005).
Short Light pulses
This method uses discontinuous flashes of white light (50% visible, 30%
infra-red, and 20% UV) with an intensity declared to be 20,000 times that
of the sun at the earth’s surface. One to 20 flashes/second are distinctive
pulse rates which lead to important surface reductions in organisms
when used on fish, meat, and bakery products. This method is principle
for surface sanitization of packaging materials and mechanism best on
smooth, dust-free surfaces.
Ultra-high pressure (UHP)
High pressure technology inserted foods to pressures of 100 to 1000
Megapascal for 5 to 20 min. It has many benefits including micro-
organism inactivation, modification of biopolymers such as gel
formation and quality retention such as color, flavor and nutrients. This
is because of its sole ability to straightly affect non-covalent bonds (like
ionic, hydrophobic bonds and hydrogen) whilst leaving covalent bonds
intact, and both without employing heat. Significantly, it offers the
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Effect of Food Processing on Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Components

possibility of retaining vitamins, pigments and flavor components while

inactivating enzymes or microorganisms that could otherwise negatively
affect food functionality through spoilage of food.
Irradiation process
Processing by ionising radiation is a particular type of energy transfer
with the piece of energy transferred per treatment being sufficeient to
cause ionisation. It is used to control and interrupt biological processes
in order to expand the shelf-life of fresh produce, and it can be useful to
sterilize packaging materials. Irradiation includes various beneficial
biological effects like inhibition of sprouting, delay in ripening and
sometimes also used as insect disinfestations. In microbiological point of
view irradiation restrain disease and other spoilage-causing
microorganisms. The main benefit of irradiation is that it passes through
the food and kills microorganisms without giving any heat to the food it
has an insignificant effect on the nutritional composition. Irradiation
nutritionally showed a very little effect on proteins and carbohydrates
(Sivasankar, 2013).
Pulsed electric fields (PEF)
This PEF process involves applying repetitive short pulses of a high-
voltage electric field (10 to 50kV/cm) to a pumpable fluid flowing stuck
between two electrodes. No electricity used to generate heat and finally
inactivates micro-organisms by disrupting the walls and membranes of
cells exposed to the high-voltage pulses. Pulsed electric fields are mainly
used in refrigerated or ambient products and because it is used for just 1
sec or less, it does not result in heating of the product. That is why it has
nutritional advantages over more conventional thermal processes which
degrade heat-sensitive nutrients (Sanchez- Moreno et al., 2009).
Preservation by Control atmospheric/Modified atmospheric
techniques
The storage of fresh foods has been extended by changing the gas
composition inside the container in direct contact with the food. For
short shelf-life products susceptible to chemical or enzymatic
degradation, like oxidation, and shelf life of products can be extended by
evacuating oxygen from the package (Floros, 1990). The freshness of
fruits and vegetables can be enhanced by manipulating the O2, CO2 and
N2 ratio in the package.
Food Processing and Nutrition
Food processing can have many beneficial effects on food and nutritional
security. Beneficial and adverse effects of food processing are of
increasing importance to food science, nutrition, and human health. A

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better understanding of the molecular alteration during food processing

and the resulting nutritional and safety consequences is needed to
optimize advantageous effects such as bioavailability, food quality, and
food safety, and to minimize the development and facilitate the
inactivation of deleterious compounds (Augustin et al., 2016).
Food processing and nutritional value
Almost every food preparation process decreases the amount of
nutrients in food. Particularly, processes that expose foods to high levels
of heat, light, and/or oxygen cause the greatest nutrient loss. Nutrients
can also be leached out of foods by water that is introduced during a
cooking process like vitamin C and B complexes (Van Boekel, 2010).
Similar losses also occur broiling, roasting, or frying and then draining is
done. Food processing/cooking can have significant effect on the
carbohydrates too. Some polysaccharides get hydrolyzed and it may also
alter the rate and extent of digestion of starch and dietary fibre during
the processing. Food processes like heating and frying lead to
polymerization of fats and oils that leads to change in molecular weight,
color, refractive index and viscosity of the fat and oil used. The presence
of enzymes, application of high temperature and atmospheric oxygen are
the main factors liable for such changes. The deteriorative transformof
fats and oils are coined as rancidity (Devi, 2015). Processing can alter the
solubility of the fibre by dropping its molecular weight, enzymatically or
mechanically, such as during extrusion by applying different shear
forces (Lue, et al., 1991; Quaglia, and Carletti, 1995; Esposito et al., 2005;
Napolitano, et al., 2006).
FOOD PROCESSING AND ALLERGENICITY
Processing may also modify the allergenic property of food proteins. The
impact of processing (thermal and non-thermal) on the allergenic
probability of proteins, and on the antigenic (IgG-binding) and allergenic
(IgE-binding) properties of proteins has been evaluated earlier. A variety
of allergens related to various foods peanuts, tree nuts, cows’ milk, hens’
eggs, soy, wheat and mustard have also been reviewed. Bu et al. (2009)
found that IgE-binding by α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin increased
significantly after pasteurization at temperatures between 50 and 90 °C,
compared to non-heated milk, by means of indirect competitive enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). These findings are backed up by
epidemiological studies showing a lower prevalence of milk allergy
upon ingestion of raw milk compared to consumption of commercially
available milk products (Loss et al., 2011; Waser et al., 2007).

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Effect of Food Processing on Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Components

Extensive heating reduces the allergenicity of egg white proteins and

the majorities (50–85%) of egg allergic patients are tolerant to heated egg
products. Another treatment method irradiation might alter the
allergenic properties of eggs (Julia et al., 2007; Manzocco and Nicoli,
2012; Maeno et al., 2013). Heat processing has mainly an effect on the
allergenicity of allergens related to Bet v 1 (PR-10 and profilins) by
lowering the IgE-binding in various nuts and. Hardly any effects on
allergenicity of allergens from the seed storage protein and lipid transfer
protein family were observed. Solely two DPBCFC were performed with
raw and roasted hazelnut. In other studies, in vitro techniques were used
with a limited amount of sera from allergic patients. In none of the
studies, the allergenicity was completely abolished (Cucu et al., 2012;
Polenta et al., 2012; Masthoff et al., 2013; Cabanillas et al., 2014).
Allergenicity of soybean and products exists that it may be reduced or
retained by food processing, but yet there has been no indication for
increased allergenicity due to food processing (Yang et al., 2010;
Cuadrado et al., 2011; Takacs et al., 2013; Ladics et al., 2014). Apart from
highly refined soybean oil and other soybean products in which the level
of soybean proteins is reduced below clinically relevant levels, one-step
processing may not fully abolish soy allergenicity. Allergens involved in
wheat food allergy were identified among the different wheat protein
fractions. Heating at high temperature in the presence of carbohydrates
may induce the formation of protein aggregates with allergenic potential
that are resistant to digestibility. Acid hydrolyzed wheat gluten may
induce allergenicity in wheat tolerant people, including also allergenicity
to traditional wheat products (Rizzello et al., 2006; De Angelis et al.,
2007; Chinuki and Morita, 2012; Denery-Papini et al., 2012). Thermal
processing and enzyme digestion are not sufficient for abolishing the
allergenic potential of mustard seed allergens. A combination of
physical- and thermal treatment (ex. extrusion) can suppress
allergenicity of mustard seed allergens by extracting the potential
allergens from oil. Edible oils that are bleached and deodorised are
devoid of allergenicity (Palomares et al., 2005; Jyothi et al., 2007; Lee et
al., 2008).
FOOD PROCESSING AND ENHANCEMENT OF NUTRIENTS
The fortification, enrichment and supplementation of foods with some
basic nutrients during the processing have beneficial effects on
population health. For example, endemic brain damage, goiter and
cretinism, anemia can be prevented by addition/fortification of with
iodine/iron in salt which overcome the deficiency of these elements
(Hetzel, 2012). Low levels of folic acid in the diet of women going to be

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 Challenges and Opportunities in Nutrition, Environment and Agriculture

mother cause neural tube defects and severe congenital malformations,

which may affect the brain and spinal cord of developing foetus. For the
reduction of occurrence of such the incidence many countries started to
fortify food with folic acid for the betterment of counties future (Castillo-
Lancellotti, Tur, & Uauy, 2013). The role of Vitamin A and D is also
identified significantly the oil is being fortified to enhance the
availability of them. Long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
(LC n-3 PUFAs) are necessary for many biological functions, brain
development to immune function (Lorente- Cebrian et al., 2013). The
shelf-stable encapsulated fish oil ingredients have been enabled by
Sanguansri et al. (2015) into a wide range of food products including
infant and toddler formula, breads and baked goods. Processing like
fermentation and sprouting etc. also enhance the bioavailability of some
nutrients of the food like iron, vitamins etc.
FOOD PROCESSING AND DETOXIFICATION TREATMENTS
Food processing can reduce mycotoxin exposure to the food by
destroying or eliminating mycotoxins, /by transforming them into less
toxic derivatives, or by adsorbing mycotoxins to solid surfaces and/or
by dropping their bioavailability due to chemical addition to food matrix
structures (Karlovsky et al., 2016). Several processing techniques of
established (mostly physical treatments) have been in use as mycotoxin
reduction form a long time. Mycotoxin mitigation methods currently
related to human food. Detoxification of mycotoxins can also be done by
various enzymes (He et al., 2015). Some enzymes able to convert
mycotoxins naturally occur in food commodities or are formed during
fermentation but more competent detoxification can be achieved by
deliberate inclusion of purified enzymes. Detoxification of grain
mycotoxins during food processing has recently been reviewed
(Kaushik, 2015). Effective decontamination should be permanent,
modified forms of mycotoxins should be affected together with parent
compounds, the products should be edible and non-toxic, and the food
should keep its nutritive value and remain palatable (Milani and Maleki,
2014). For ex. aflatoxin and ergots contamination is usually
heterogeneous so that separating damaged kernelsor dehulling can
effectively reduce contamination (Siwela et al., 2005; Kabak et al., 2006;
Miedaner and Geiger, 2015). Heat treatments like roasting frying,
roasting, toasting, and extrusion might reduce mycotoxin contamination
i.e. aflatoxin, ocratoxin, DON and nivalenol (NIV) (Bullerman and
Bianchini, 2007; Wu et al., 2011; Oliveira et al., 2013; Bittner et al., 2015).
Photodegradation of aflatoxins in cereals has been found to decrease
toxin levels by about 40 % after 3 h and up to 75 % after 30 h of direct

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Effect of Food Processing on Nutritional and Anti-nutritional Components

sunlight (Herzallah et al., 2008). Similarly, low-pressure cold plasma

destroyed up to 50 % of alfatoxins on nut surfaces (Basaran et al., 2008).
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE TRENDS
Modern food production/processing industries and the society seem to
be facing tough trade-offs. Decreament and recovery of food losses
throughout the food chain from production to consumption and
improvements in preservation, transportation, nutritional content, safety
and shelf life of foods will be key strategies to combat food and nutrition
demands of the future. The main aim is to improve health of the
consumer and to achieve healthier ageing for the population. A multi-
sectorial approach for improvement of food and nutrition security is
required to address the complex societal challenge to feed the world
responsibly and to minimize global food and nutrition insecurity in a
changing world. Engagement and effective communication between all
stake holders along the food supply chain, including consumers and
government, is essential for delivering innovative solutions for food and
nutrition security.
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