INTRODUCTION TO

DIFFERENTIATION
RATES OF CHANGE, INSTANTANEOUS RATES OF CHANGE, DIFFERENTIATION
FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES, DIFFERENTIATING POLYNOMIALS
Straight line graphs:

In a straight line graph the gradient represents a rate:

e.g. distance / time graph the gradient is speed e.g. gallons / time as I fill the car with petrol
the gradient is the rate gallons/second

How can we find rates on graphs which aren’t straight lines?

Consider points A and B on the green curve in this diagram:

The average rate from A to B is the gradient

of the black line. The black line is called a
Secant.

The instantaneous rate at A is the gradient of

the blue line.

The blue line is called the Tangent to the

curve at A.

To find the gradient of tangent lines we use a

process called Differentiation.
Let us look at the theory:

On a general curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)

Let A have coordinates 𝑥𝑥, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥

and B be at 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ

The red triangle’s height will be

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

The red triangle’s base will be ℎ

So the gradient of the line AB will be

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
ℎ
(𝑥𝑥, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ) ℎ
As we reduce the size of ℎ point B will slide a long the curve to get closer and closer to point A

And the gradient of line AB will get

closer and closer to the gradient of
the blue tangent line at A!

Let us have a look on Geogebra

too…
We can write this process in mathematical terms as follows:

′
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

where 𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 is the gradient function which gives the gradient of the tangent to 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 at the point 𝑥𝑥, 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥

This will become clearer when we look at an example so let us consider 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 and see if we can work out
𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 which will be the gradient of the tangent at 1,1 .

Let us apply the formula above for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑥𝑥 + ℎ 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥 + ℎ2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑥𝑥 + ℎ 2
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑥𝑥 = lim = lim = lim = lim (2𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 2𝑥𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

So this means that the gradient of the tangent line at a point on 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 is always twice the value of the 𝑥𝑥-coordinate!

So at 1,1 the tangent will have gradient 2 × 1 = 2

There is a picture on the next slide…

Here…

We can work out the equation of

the tangent line using 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑐𝑐

We know 𝑚𝑚 = 2

⇒ 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐

And it passes through 1,1

⇒ 1 = 2 × 1 + 𝑐𝑐

⇒ 𝑐𝑐 = −1

⇒ 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 1
Now consider 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 3

3 3 3 2 2 3 3
𝑥𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 ℎ + 3𝑥𝑥ℎ + ℎ − 𝑥𝑥
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑥𝑥 = lim = lim = lim 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥𝑥 + ℎ2 = 3𝑥𝑥 2
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

Similar working shows that for 𝒇𝒇 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒙𝒙𝒏𝒏 , 𝒇𝒇′ 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒏𝒏𝒙𝒙𝒏𝒏−𝟏𝟏 for 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ

This process for finding gradient functions is called differentiation

We call 𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 the derivative of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
We can also write for 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 , = 𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 calling the derivative of 𝒚𝒚 with respect to 𝒙𝒙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

We can now differentiate polynomials by repeatedly applying the above results e.g.

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 5𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 7

⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑥𝑥 = 5 × 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 2 × 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 3 × 2𝑥𝑥 + 2

⇒ 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑥𝑥 = 20𝑥𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 2

A worked example to finish off:

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 5 at the point 2,7

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 5

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
⇒ = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
when 𝑥𝑥 = 2, = 3 × 22 + 2 = 14
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

⇒ equation of tangent line 𝑦𝑦 = 14𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐

2,7 ⇒ 7 = 14 × 2 + 𝑐𝑐

⇒ 𝑐𝑐 = −21

⇒ 𝑦𝑦 = 14𝑥𝑥 − 21