MCV4U: Calculus & Vectors - AP

Chapter 1: Introduction to Calculus

1.1 Radical Expressions: Rationalizing Denominators
Learning Goal: simplify radical expressions and rationalize denominators

Recall: A radical is:

Radicals are terrible to divide by, so as a general rule when simplifying functions, we never leave radical
numbers in the denominator of a fraction. The process of taking a fraction and changing its denominator
from a radial to a rational number is called rationalizing the denominator. It is not necessary BUT it
leads to a trick called “multiplying by the conjugate” which turns out to be super-useful in calculus.

!
Example: Simplify by rationalizing the denominator.
√#







$
Example: Simplify %√! by rationalizing the denominator.








When the denominator has two terms, we can rationalize by multiplying by the conjugate.

Recall: Solve 𝑥 % = 9









Conjugate pairs are two brackets; each with the same terms but different signs between them. Since
conjugate pairs multiply to a difference of squares, they cannot have radicals in their answers (i.e. the
squares cancel the square roots).

&
Example: Simplify %√#'$√! by rationalizing the denominator.
















%√#'(
Example: Rationalize the numerator: %√#)! .



















Practice: Page 9 Green book #1acdf, 2cd, 3ef, 4bc, 7

Need
Success Criteria Yes, I can
Clarification
I can simplify radical expressions ☐ ☐
I can rationalize the denominator by multiplying its conjugate ☐ ☐
1.2 The slope of a tangent

Learning Goal: find the slope of a tangent

Recall:

The slope of a line can be calculated using: 𝑚 =
*+,- ∆1 1 '1
*./
= ∆2 = 2! '2"
! "

And the equation of a line can be represented in
more than one form:

Slope y-intercept form:


Standard form:


Example: Find the equation of the line perpendicular to 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 7 that goes through the point (3, 4).








A secant line is a line that passes through a function. We
can calculate the slope of a secant line by identifying
where the secant line intersects the function, and then
find the slope between those two points.




A
tangent line is a line that touches a function at one single
point. Because we only know one point on the tangent, to
calculate its slope we have to estimate with the slopes of
secant lines.



To calculate the slope of a tangent, we can estimate by calculating the slope of secant lines with points
getting closer and closer to the point of the tangent. This method works because we can look at the
pattern of the slopes to see if the slope is approaching a specific value.
While calculating a selection of slopes will get you a fairly accurate estimation, there is a better way that
won’t have you guessing at the end!

For example, for 𝑦 = 𝑥 % at the point (3,9) we want to calculate the general slope for the tangent point, P,
and any other point, 𝑄(3 + ℎ, (3 + ℎ)% ). Then we allow h to approach zero, so that P & Q are actually the
same point, the tangent point!
In a more mathematical way, we use limits to calculate the slope of a tangent:

𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑃;𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)< = lim
3→5 ℎ

Example: Find the slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 % + 4𝑥 + 1 at 𝑥 = 3.


!2)6
Example: Determine the slope of the tangent to the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
at (2, 6).

Example: Find the equation of the tangent line to 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 at 𝑥 = 9.

Practice: Page 19 Green Book #3cde, 5a, 6c, 8, 9, 10, 11df, 15

Need
Success Criteria Yes, I can
Clarification
I can find the slope of a tangent using limits ☐ ☐
I can find the equation of the tangent to a graph at a given point or x- ☐ ☐
coordinate
1.3 The Limit of a Function

Learning Goal: find the limit of a function

We have already used limits to find the slope of a tangent, but there are more uses for limits…

The notation 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 is read as “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 equals 𝐿”.
𝒙→𝒂

It means that the value of 𝑓(𝑥) (i.e. all the 𝑦’s) gets arbitrarily close to 𝐿 by choosing 𝑥 values sufficiently
close to 𝑎. If the limiting value 𝐿 is the same as we approach the 𝑥-value “𝑎” from both the left side and
the right side then the limit exists.

For continuous functions like 𝑦 = 𝑥 % − 1 the limiting value is the function value at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

As 𝑥 → 2 from both the left and right side, the graph or 𝑦-value
approaches the limiting value of 3.
I.e. lim 𝑥 % − 1 = 3
2→%

Using values less than 𝑥 = 2 we can find the left hand limit:
𝑓(1.9) = 𝑓(1.99) = 𝑓(1.999) =

So, lim# 𝑥 % − 1 =
2→%

Similarly, using values greater than 𝑥 = 2 we can find the right hand limit:
𝑓(2.1) = 𝑓(2.01) = 𝑓(2.001) =

 So, lim$ 𝑥 % − 1 =
2→%

And, because the left hand limit and the right hand limit approach the same value, then we can say the
overall limit exists and is equal to that value.
lim 𝑥 % − 1 = lim$ 𝑥 % − 1 = 3 ∴ lim 𝑥 % − 1 exists and lim 𝑥 % − 1 = 3
2→%# 2→% 2→% 2→%

However, continuous functions aren’t really the place to use limits since there isn’t any new information
gained. Finding limits in discontinuous functions is where we can really use limits of functions.
2 ! '9
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2'9 , is the function continuous or discontinuous? State the point or points of
discontinuity if they exist.

We really need limits when dealing with piecewise functions such as:
𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 < 1
𝑓(𝑥) = V 1, 𝑥 = 1 .
2 + √𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 > 1
In this case, 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 actually exists 𝑓(1) = 1 but does the graph have continuity at that point? That is,
does lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist and equal 𝑓(1)?
2→9

So…
Limits may exist even if 𝑓(𝑎) is not defined

at times 𝑓(𝑎) will not equal lim 𝑓(𝑎)

2→a

lim 𝑓(𝑎) may not exist even if 𝑓(𝑎) does.

2→a

Practice: Green Book Page 37 #3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11bc

Need
Success Criteria Yes, I can
Clarification
Determine the limits graphically by using right and left side limits ☐ ☐

1.4 Continuity

Learning Goals: determine whether a function is continuous

A continuous function has no breaks, jumps or gaps, i.e. the graph of a continuous function can be
drawn without lifting your pencil. A graph is discontinuous if:
1. There is a hole/gap.

2 ! '9
E.g. 2'9

2. There is a jump.

𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 < 1
E.g. 𝑓(𝑥) = Z
2 + √𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 ≥ 1

3. There is a break.

2
E.g. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2'9

To prove continuity a function must pass the three continuity tests at every point 𝑥 = 𝑎.

Test 1: 𝑓(𝑎) exists

Test 2: lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists (i.e. the left & right side limits agree)
2→;

Test 3: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

2→;

If one of the three tests fails, then the function is discontinuous at that point for 𝑥 = 𝑎.


Practice: Determine the values of x for which each function is continuous

a.) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 # + 2𝑥 ! − 𝑥 b.) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝜋𝑥 % − 4.2𝑥 + 7

2 ! )96
c.) ℎ(𝑥) = 2 ! '#2 d.) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2

3. What are the basic types of discontinuity? Give an example of each.
96
4. Find=the
e.) 𝑔(𝑥) 10value(s)
2
of
x at which
each
function
is discontinuous.
f.) ℎ(𝑥) = 2 ! )6#
9 # x2 x2 % 1 13x
a. f 1x2 ! c. h1x2 ! e. g1x2 !
x#3 3
x 2
x %x#6
7x # 4 x#4 #x, if x " 3
b. g1x2 ! d. f 1x2 ! f. h1x2 ! e
x x2 # 9 1 # x, if x 7 3

PART B

K 5. Determine all the values of x for which each function is continuous.
x 2 % 16
a. f 1x2 ! 3x 5 % 2x 3 # x c. h1x2 ! 2
e. g1x2 ! 10x
x # 5x
2 16
b. g1x2 ! px # 4.2x % 7 d. f 1x2 ! Vx % 2 f. h1x2 ! 2
x % 65
6. Examine the continuity of g1x2 ! x % 3 when x ! 2.

7. Sketch a graph of the following function:
x # 1, if x 6 3
h1x2 ! e
5 # x, if x $ 3

Determine if the function is continuous everywhere.
Since ℎ(𝑥) is made up of two continuous functions (i.e. lines) the only issue would occur at the point
8. Sketch a graph of the following function:
where we switch from one line to the other, i.e. 𝑥
x 2, if x 6 0 = 3. Use the 3 continuity tests to see if ℎ(𝑥) is
1x2 e
continuous at 𝑥 = 3.
f !
3, if x $ 0
Is the function continuous? Need
Success Criteria Yes, I can
Clarification
A 9. Explain why a function is discontinuous
Recent postal rates for non-standard and oversized
letter mail within Canada ☐ ☐
are given in the following table. Maximum dimensions for this type of letter
mail are 380 mm by 270 mm by 20 mm.

Between 100 g Between 200 g


1.5 Properties of Limits

Learning Goals: find the limit of a function & know the properties of limits

For any real number “𝑎”, suppose that 𝑓 and 𝑔 both have limits that exist at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

1. lim 𝑘 = 𝑘, for any constant 𝑘.

2→;

2. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
2→;

3. lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)

2→; 2→; 2→;

4. lim 𝑐 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 ∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥), for any constant, 𝑐.

2→; 2→;

5. lim [𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)] = clim 𝑓(𝑥)d ∙ clim 𝑔(𝑥)d

2→; 2→; 2→;

<(2) @AB <(2)

6. lim ?(2) = %→'
@AB ?(2)
, provided lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
2→; %→'
2→;

/
7. lim [𝑓(𝑥)]/ = clim 𝑓(𝑥)d , for all rational numbers 𝑛.
2→; 2→;

We use these properties to evaluate limits.

Example: lim (3𝑥 % + 4𝑥 − 1)
2→%


2 ! '#2)%
Example: Evaluate lim %2 ( )!2)9
2→'9

2!
Example: Evaluate lim f2'9
2→#


We can see that when the function has no issues around the value that is being used to find the limit we
can simply substitute. But what do we do around points when the function doesn’t exist? For example,
2 ! '%2'!
something like lim 2'!
.
2→!

2 ! '9 2 ! '9
Recall when we found lim 2'9 we used three different techniques to get lim 2'9 = 2 (tables, graphs &
2→9 2→9
simplifying). Using tables becomes too much work when functions become more and more complex, and
graphing (as we saw) can be hard to tell. The best method is to use your algebra skills!
5
There are three basic types of problems to deal with if substitution leads to “ D ”.

Factor and cancel:

2 ! '%2'!
Example: lim
2→! 2'!

Rationalize the numerator, simplify & cancel

√2)9'9
Example: lim 2

2→5


Get a common denominator, simplify, invert multiply & cancel
"!$(%
!$%
'6
Example: lim 2

2→5

There is a fourth technique that requires substitution of variables called ‘u substitution’
"
(2)()( '%
Example: lim 2

2→5
"
Let 𝑢 = (𝑥 + 8)( then 𝑥 = and as 𝑥 → 0, 𝑢 →
"
(2)()( '%
So, lim 2
becomes
2→5

This becomes important later, and we’ll come back to this idea.

Practice: Green Book Page 45 #3, 4acf, 7abd, 8b, 9, 12

Need
Success Criteria Yes, I can
Clarification
Determine the limits algebraically by direction substitution, factoring, ☐ ☐
rationalizing, change of variable, or one-sided limits


1.6 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions

Learning Goal: understand the properties of exponential functions and properties of logarithmic functions

Exponent Rules:

Characteristics of exponential functions:

Graph y = 2 x and y = 2(3x ) − 4 , and list all of the important characteristics (domain, range, intercepts and
asymptotes) of each function.

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Example: Suppose the half-life of certain radioactive substance is 20 days and that there are 5 grams
present initially. When will there be only 1 gram of the substance remaining?

The function y = ka x , k > 0 is a model for exponential growth if a > 1 and a model for exponential decay if
0 < a < 1.
A relation is a function if each input has a unique output. Additionally, a function is considered “one-to-
€
one” if each output has a unique input, i.e. if
€ € whenever a ≠ b .
f (a) ≠ f (b)

For example: In the function y = x 2 , the output 4 has two inputs, both 2 and -2. So, this function is not
one-to-one. However, the function y = x 3 produces no output that has more than one input,
€ €
making it a one-to-one function.
The graph of a one-to-one function will not only pass a vertical line test (VLT) but will also pass a
€
horizontal line test. (HLT). €

The function defined by reversing a function is the inverse of f, denoted f −1 . To find an inverse,
interchange x and y. The result will be the inverse. The inverse may or may not also be a function.

Example: Show that the function y = f (x) = −3x + 8 is one-to-one and find its inverse function.
€

€


Logarithmic Functions:
A base “a” logarithmic function y = log a x is the inverse of the base “a” exponential function y = a x . The
domain of y = log a x is x ∈ (0,∞) , which is the range of y = a x . The range of y = log a x is y ∈ (−∞,∞) which
is the domain of y = a x .
€ €
Properties of Logarithms:
€ € € € €
Product Rule:
€


Quotient Rule:

Power Rule:

Example: Using logs to solve a problem: 100(4) t = 17300

Changing to base e:
In Calculus, we will use ln x (“lawn of x”) for the change of base rule, which represents log e x .

Some properties of ln:

ln 𝑒 = 1 € €
ln 𝑒 2 = x

𝑒 @E 2 = 𝑥

Example: Solve for y

ln(𝑦 + 1) − ln 3 = 𝑥

Practice: Extra digital text PDF Page 26 #21, 23, 28, 39, 41-46

Page 44, #33, 37, 38, 39, 47

Page 43 #10
Need
Success Criteria Can Do Clarification
I can find the inverse of a function ☐ ☐
I can identify when a function is one-to-one ☐ ☐
I can use the properties of logarithms to solve problems ☐ ☐
I can find the domain and range of a logarithmic function ☐ ☐


 1.8 Trigonometric Functions

Learning Goal: properties of trigonometric functions

In Calculus, we always use radian measure when working with trigonometric functions, unless we are
told otherwise.
The radian measure of an angle at the centre of the unit circle equals the length of the arc that the angle
cuts from the unit circle. We can use this information to find the arc lengths an angle cuts through other
circles, too.
i.e. s = rθ , where r = the radius of the circle (1, in the unit circle), θ is the angle measurement in radians,
and s is the length of the arc of the larger circle.
We can use the ratio ________________________________ to convert between degrees and radians when
€ necessary. €

Review: The unit circle & Trig Ratios

y r
sin θ = csc θ =
r y

x r
cosθ = sec θ =
r x
€ €
y r
tan θ = cot θ =
x x
€ €


€ €
The six basic trig graphs:

The period of the six basic trig functions is as follows:

sin x: csc x:
cos x: sec x:
tan x: cot x:

Even and Odd trig functions:

Cosine is an even function, while Sine is an odd function.
Transformations of Trig Functions:
$ 2π '
The general equation of a sine function can be written: f (x) = Asin& ( x − C )) + D , where A is the
%B (
amplitude, B is the period, C is the phase (horizontal) shift, and D is the median line (vertical shift).

€
€
€
Inverse Functions:
None of the six basic trig functions is one-to-one, and none these have inverses. However, in ease case the
domain can be restricted to produce a function that does have an inverse.
The inverse function is referred to either the inverse of the function, or the arc__ of the function. For
example, the inverse of Sine is either denoted as sin−1 x or arcsin x . Read through page 47-51 for more on
Inverse Trig Functions.

€ €
Practice: Extra digital text PDF Page 52 #1, 5, 9, 13, 23, 25, 27, 31, 50-55
Need
Success Criteria Can Do Clarification
I can calculate angle measurements in degrees and radians ☐ ☐
I can graph the trig functions and the inverse trig functions ☐ ☐
I can identify transformations of trig functions ☐ ☐
I know how to represent inverse trig functions ☐ ☐

1.9 Parametric Equations

Learning Goal: graphing parametric curves & representing functions as parametric equations

If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are given as functions x = f (t) and y = g(t) over an interval of 𝑡-values, then the set of points
(x, y) = ( f (t),g(t)) defined by these equations is a parametric curve. The equations are parametric
equations for the curve.
€
For example, the parametric equations 𝑥 € = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 % , 𝑡 ∈ [−1,2] is an example of how to parameterize the
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 % . If we graph it, we get a parabola that starts at 𝑥 = −1 and ends at 𝑥 = 2.
There are several techniques we use to sketch a curve generated by a pair of parametric equations. The
simplest is to evaluate 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑔(𝑡) for several values of t. We then plot the points (𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡)) in the
plane and through them draw a smooth curve (assuming this is valid).

On a fixed interval, a parametric curve has both an initial point of the curve (where we start tracing)
and a terminal point of the curve. These points can be determined on the fixed interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 using
(𝑓(𝑎), 𝑔(𝑎)) and (𝑓(𝑏), 𝑔(𝑏)) for your given parametric equations.


Example: Graph the curve, and determine the initial and terminal points. Indicate the direction in
which the curve is traced.

𝑥 = 4 sin 𝑡, 𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
































Practice: Extra digital text PDF Page 34 1-4, 18-22(a), 37-42.

Need
Success Criteria Yes, I can
Clarification
I can simplify radical expressions ☐ ☐
I can rationalize the denominator by multiplying its conjugate ☐ ☐
I can graph a parametric curve ☐ ☐
I can represent a function as parametric ☐ ☐