C H A P TE R  20 
The Ear1
Key Readings Index
Structure and Function, 1223 Disorders of Domestic Animals, 1243
Dysfunction/Responses to Injury, 1235 Disorders of Horses, 1256
Portals of Entry/Pathways of Spread, 1239 Disorders of Ruminants (Cattle, Sheep,
Defense Mechanisms/Barrier and Goats), 1258
Systems, 1241 Disorders of Pigs, 1259
The ear is a specialized sense organ formed by a highly organized
mixture of cutaneous, nasopharyngeal, osseous, and neurologic
tissues. Within the ear are several air- and fluid-filled interfaces
involved in the transduction of sound waves to action potentials
that are conducted by the nervous system to the brain for interpreta-
tion and appropriate motor and cognitive responses.
In the context of interacting with animals, hearing is often
considered of secondary or tertiary importance when compared to
vision or olfaction. For many years, specific breeds predisposed to
auditory dysfunction were maintained in colonies to facilitate inves-
tigation as animal models of human disease. More recently, through-
out the world, deaf and hearing-impaired human beings are greatly
benefiting from professionally trained hearing dogs. In addition,
animal trainers, pet owners, and producers rely on a fully function-
ing auditory system to train, address, keep safe, or herd their animals.
Therefore a much better understanding of conditions affecting this
special sense is needed.
Many current textbooks focus on one species or one aspect of
the ear. The focus of this chapter is to (1) clarify the anatomy of
the ear by comparing and contrasting anatomic features of the
domestic animal species, (2) address the responses to injury and the
defense mechanisms protecting against injury, and (3) delineate
various otic diseases that either affect many different species or are
more unique to certain species.
Structure and Function
External Ear
The external ear comprises the auricle (also known as the pinna)
and external acoustic meatus terminating medially at the tympanic
membrane. Developmentally, the external ear arises from tissue
elevations called auricular hillocks, three from the first branchial or
pharyngeal arch and three from the second branchial or pharyngeal
arch. The first pharyngeal groove or cleft between the two arches
forms the external acoustic meatus. As they come into apposition
early in development, the auricle and external acoustic meatus form.
The auricle is a highly mobile and flexible, cartilaginous structure
1
For a glossary of abbreviations and terms used in this chapter see
E-Glossary 20-1.
Bradley L. Njaa
Disorders of Dogs, 1259
Disorders of Cats, 1262
that is covered by haired skin with adnexa more dense on the
convex than concave surface. The structural characteristics of auri-
cles are closely tied to breed specifications. Among the species and
breeds covered in this chapter, auricles can be erect, semierect, lop-
eared, pendulous, microtic, or folded.
The auricle functions to collect, focus, and direct sound down
the funnel-shaped external acoustic meatus to the tympanic mem-
brane (Fig. 20-1). Movement of the auricle around its central axis
requires coordinated movement of the complex dorsal, rostral,
caudal, and ventral groups of auricular muscles. All muscles are
innervated by the motor branches of the facial nerve. The position
of the auricle can signal an animal’s behavior or emotion. Fearful
cats often flatten their ears in a defensive posture, whereas angry
horses often completely flatten their ears caudally as an initial
warning before they strike. Alternatively, a dog may flatten its ears
when content or when it is being verbally scolded.
The external acoustic meatus (ear canal) is a conical opening made
up of elastic cartilage and bone (Fig. 20-2). The more lateral por-
tions are composed of auricular cartilage that narrows and overlaps
with annular cartilage. Dense fibrous connective tissue forms a
bridge between the annular cartilage ring and the osseus portion of
the external acoustic meatus. In cats and dogs the osseous portion
(1) is a very narrow rim of bone and (2) is a broad opening exposing
the tympanic membrane that is readily visible during otic examina-
tion. In horses, ruminants, and pigs the osseous portion of the
external acoustic meatus is an elongate cylinder of bone with a
narrow lumen (Fig. 20-3). In horses the junction between the car-
tilaginous and osseous portions of the external acoustic meatus is
grossly identified by an abrupt change from pigmented to nonpig-
mented epithelium. Visualization of the deeper portions of the exter-
nal acoustic meatus in livestock species requires specialized
equipment and heavy sedation.
Although there are wide species variations, the cartilaginous and
osseous portions of the external acoustic meatus are lined by a thin
epidermis formed by stratified squamous epithelium and a thin
dermis that contains a relatively uniform allotment of sebaceous
glands, fewer hair follicles, and greater ceruminous glands when
comparing medial to lateral portions (Fig. 20-4). Sebaceous glands
are composed of 6 to 10 club-shaped acini surrounded by thin fibrous
tissue with ducts opening into associated hair follicles. Relative to
ceruminous glands, sebaceous glands tend to be located in the more
1223