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The threshold of salt taste recognition among a sample of Moroccan

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Article  in  Nutrition & Food Science · December 2020

DOI: 10.1108/NFS-08-2020-0319

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Salt taste
The threshold of salt taste recognition
recognition among a sample of
Moroccan population
Yasmine Guennoun, Nada Benajiba, Habiba Bajit, Amina Bouziani,
Laila Elammari, Ayoub Al-Jawaldeh, Noureddine Elhaloui,
Received 17 August 2020
Amina Barkat, Hasnae Benkirane and Hassan Aguenaou Revised 5 October 2020
12 October 2020
(Author affiliations can be found at the end of the article) 18 October 2020
Accepted 18 October 2020

Abstract
Purpose – This study aims to determine the threshold of salt taste recognition and to evaluate differences
by sex, age and body mass index (BMI) among a sample of Moroccan population.
Design/methodology/approach – A simple-blind experimental study was conducted among 201
healthy subjects to determine the threshold of salt taste recognition and to evaluate differences by sex, age
and BMI among a sample of Moroccan population. The threshold of salt taste recognition was determined
based on the validated the three alternatives forced choice method. A total of 11 prepared solutions of sodium
chloride at different concentrations ranging from 0–500 mmol/L were used.
Findings – The average of the total population was 14.6 6 10.9 mmol/L. And, 84% of the total population
recognized the salt taste at the concentration of 15 mmol/L. Women participants detected the salt taste at a
lower rate (53% versus 38% at 8 mmol/L, p = 0.02, in women and men, respectively). The mean values of the
threshold among women was significantly lower (12.6 6 8.1 mmol/L) compared to men (16.7 6 12.8 mmol/L),
p < 0.001. No statistical difference was obtained among either age groups or BMI categories.
Originality/value – The present study showed that the average threshold of salt taste recognition is high,
and that it is even higher in men compared to women. At a community level, a progressive reduction of salt in
food items is recommended.
Keywords Threshold, Recognition, Moroccan subjects, Salt taste
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
It is well established that taste is one of the main determinants of food intake (El-Sohemy
et al., 2007; Garcia-Bailo et al., 2009), as it is a very known enhancing flavor that influences
food choice (Nettore et al., 2020). Sodium chloride, the prototypical salt taste molecule,
imparts an almost pure salt taste, leading to an improvement in the perception of the food
product thickness. Besides, it enhances sweetness, masks metallic or chemical off-notes and
rounds out overall flavor while increasing flavor intensity (Ayed et al., 2020). By definition,
the salt taste threshold is the lowest concentration at which the subject identifies the salty
taste (Nilsson, 1979).

The authors would like to thank the subjects who participated in this study.
This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Princess Nourah bint
Abdulrahman University through the Fast-track Research Funding Program. Nutrition & Food Science
Declaration of interest statement: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest with © Emerald Publishing Limited
0034-6659
research conducted. DOI 10.1108/NFS-08-2020-0319
NFS There are two taste receptors for salt, which are epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and
transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V (TRPV1). ENaC belongs to the
degenerin/ENaC super-family of ion channels. It is a heteromer composed of different
subunits. In humans, four ENaC channel subunits have been identified (a, b , g and d ),
encoded by different non-voltage-gated sodium channel 1 genes (Kellenberger and Schild,
2002). While, TRPV1 does not contribute to oral chemosensory responses to salts in taste
bud cell, but rather through its expression in trigeminal (somatosensory) nerve endings, as
demonstrated by Riera et al. (2007) and Smith et al. (2012).
Such a concentration might differ according to sex, age and some morbidities (Puputti
et al., 2019; Cattaneo et al., 2019) reported that variation in consumption of food rich in
sodium might result from individual variations in salt taste sensitivity. For example, a
reduced sense of taste for sodium was observed among patients suffering from hypertension
and diabetes, along with aging patients (Gondivkar et al., 2009; Methven et al., 2012;
Piovesana et al., 2012). In terms of sodium sources, it has been demonstrated that only
10-12% of the total intake of sodium comes from natural resources, and a similar proportion
is obtained from the optional use of table salt. Whereas, processed foods and food consumed
in restaurants contribute to 75–80% of sodium intake (Brown et al., 2009). Interestingly,
bread has been identified as one of the major sources of salt because of both reasons:
relatively high salt content and large quantities consumption (AbuKhader et al., 2019).
Although the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends not to exceed an average of 2
g of sodium per day, 99.2% of the adult population from 187 countries reported an excessive
consumption of sodium (>2 g/day) (Mozaffarian et al., 2014). As stated by Bakris (2000),
high salt intake might cause high blood pressure due to chronic kidney disease. Moreover, a
direct association between sodium and obesity was determined and could be mediated
through high energy intake, as salty foods are usually high in fat and energy (Azadbakht
and Esmaillzadeh, 2008; Rouhani et al., 2012). Thus, Ma et al. (2015) demonstrated that
consumption of high quantities of salt is correlated positively and significantly associated
with high body fat mass. In more detail, an increase in obesity risk of 26% among adults is
registered with an addition of 1 g/day in salt intake (Ma et al., 2015). Besides, a review study
concluded that reducing salt consumption by 5–10 g per day could lead to a reduced rate of
strokes and cardiovascular disease by 23 and 17%, respectively (Tucker and Maher, 2012).
As the case of many developing countries, Morocco was undergoing a nutritional
transition over the past decades characterized by an increase in consumption of processed
and fast food; therefore, an increase in salt consumption by Moroccan population was
indicated by the Ministry of Health (2018), reaching a daily intake of 10.6 g among adults.
Being concerned about the public health of the Moroccan population, the Moroccan
government adopted the recommendations agreed during the second International
Conference on Nutrition (ICN2), the United Nations Decade of Action for Nutrition
(2016-2025), as reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (FAO,2014) and
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (FAO, 2014). In response to this political and
international commitment, an action plan was developed by Morocco, aiming to achieve a
10% reduction in salt consumption by 2019. Hence, research studies that aimed to define the
threshold of salt taste recognition among the Moroccan population are highly needed. Such
studies will provide evidence-based findings on the level of salt sensitivity among the
Moroccan population, which is important in obtaining salt satisfaction. Therefore, this study
aimed to determine salt taste recognition based on the three alternatives forced choice
(3-AFC) method (ASTM International, 2011) and to evaluate differences based on gender,
body mass index (BMI) and age among Moroccan subjects.
Methods Salt taste
Study design and subjects recognition
In total, 201 subjects (men and women) participated in the study. A simple-blind
experimental study was conducted to test the threshold of salt taste recognition among
Moroccan subjects. The study was carried out from June 2018 to December 2018, in two
different locations: Ibn Tofail University (Kenitra) and Joint Unit of Nutrition and Food
Research (URAC-39) (Rabat). An announcement of the study was made at the two locations,
and interested subjects were recruited. The same study protocol was applied by the same
trained researchers. All recruited participants were healthy and literate. While any subjects
with one of the following criteria were excluded: aged less than 15 years, smoker, pregnant
and/or breastfeeding, suffering from any form of taste disorders or a non-communicable
chronic diseases (diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, etc.), being under medical
treatment affecting taste quality, being under antibiotics treatment during the three months
prior to the study (Steinbach et al., 2009), having medical conditions that could alter
gustatory functions (e.g. chemotherapy, weight loss programs), history of sinusitis or any
current sinus-related problems at the time of the study.
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved
by the Ethical Committee and Biomedical Research (CEBR) of College of Medicine and
Pharmacy of Mohammed 5th University (Rabat, Morocco) (Approval number: 38/15,
delivered on March 01, 2018). Authorization was taken also from Ibn Tofail University to
conduct the experiment in appropriate laboratories. All subjects were informed about the
aim of the study and were provided complete information regarding their participation,
including confidentiality, anonymity, volunteering, withdrawing at any time with no
penalties, expected benefits and risks. Every subject who decided to participate signed an
informed consent before taking part of the study.
Data collection and measurements.
Demographic data. Each participant was asked to answer questions on their age and sex.
Participants were classified into different age categories 15–29 years, 30–44 years, 45–
59 years and 60 years (Chollet et al., 2013).

Anthropometric measurements
Anthropometric measurements were taken according to the WHO standard procedures (World
Health Organization, 1995). BMI was calculated as weight in kilogram divided by the square of
height in meter (kg/m2). BMI classes were categorized according to the WHO standards (World
Health Organization, 2000) as follows: underweight: BMI < 18.5 kg/m2, normal weight range:
18.5–24.9 kg/m2, overweight: 25–29.9 kg/m2 and obesity: BMI  30 kg/m2.
Assessment of the threshold of salt taste recognition. Assessment of the threshold of salt
taste recognition was performed by trained researchers. Sodium chloride and distilled water
were used to prepare 11 different salt concentrations, ranging from 0–500 mmol/L as
follows: 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500 mmol/L (Hladik et al., 1986). The salt solutions
were prepared daily, kept at room temperature and poured into glass bottles (Chollet et al.,
2013). The threshold of the salt taste recognition was determined using the 3-AFC method. It
is a very common and simple technique, appropriate for identifying differences in taste
sensitivity among different subjects (International Organization for Standardization, 2002;
ASTM International, 2011). As it is a rapid technique participants did not feel any tiredness
during the test, consequently, recruiting a large number of subjects and different population
subgroups was feasible (Giguère et al., 2016).
Subjects were requested to brush their teeth and to stop chewing, eating and drinking
anything except water at least 1 h prior to the sensory test. Because International Guidelines
NFS for Sensory Analysis recommend eliminating any auditory and other sensorial stimulation
during the sensory tests (AFNOR, 1987), each test was conducted in a private and quiet
room equipped with a sensory analysis booth. This allowed for good concentration when
taking the sensory test. The salty solutions were presented in similar plastic cups covered
with a lid and labeled with a random three-digit code containing 20 mL of the solution, as
described by Wiriyawattana et al. (2018). The three-digit code was used to avoid any
possible recognition of the samples by participants. Before taking the test, it was explained
to each participant every single presentation consisting of two samples containing only
water and one taste sample.
Each subject received a series of 11 3-AFC presentations as follows:
 The first presentation consisted of two blank samples (distilled water) and a sodium
chloride solution (0 mM) to introduce the subject to the procedure.
 The second presentation contained two blank samples (distilled water) and a
sodium chloride solution (1 mM).
 The third presentations corresponding to the next 19 presentations contained two blank
samples (distilled water) and ascending concentrations of salt solution (from 2–500 mM).

Subjects were requested to try the samples in a specific sequence (from left to right) and to
taste each sample solution for each presentation. The concentrations of salt in the solutions
were not disclosed to participants during the test period.
The order of presentation was reversed between test sessions using the 3-AFC method,
as described by Drake et al. (2011); furthermore, the proportional distribution among the
three positions along the series was guaranteed.
The “sip-and-spit” procedure was applied. Subjects were requested to perform rinsing
between operations using the same water used for the preparation of the sample solutions,
then to spit it out after a brief gargling for a few seconds (5–10 s) (Chollet et al., 2013).
Rinsing was recommended, as it allowed sufficient time for the subject to comment on his/
her perception (Hladik et al., 1986). Subjects were requested to specify the samples that
contained the taste, which indicated the “detection threshold” and then to describe the
detected taste, which indicated the “recognition threshold.” Each test was repeated three
times for confirmation and ended once the subject commented on the identified salt taste.
The recognition of the salt taste threshold was defined as the concentration at which the
participant identified the salt taste. While detection was determined as the lowest concentration
at which a stimulus is perceived as being different from water. In case a participant was unable
differentiate between the three samples, he/she was requested to make a single choice (forced
choice). Trials were spaced at least 15 s apart (Giguère et al., 2016).
Statistical analysis. Data were analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (IBM
SPSS, version 20). Results were presented as mean 6 standard deviation (SD), frequencies and
percentages. For quantitative variables, the distribution normality was tested by Kolmogorov–
Smirnov test and variables normally distributed were presented as mean 6 SD. T-test and
analysis of variance (ANOVA) test were used to compare variances for independent variables
normally distributed, while chi-square test was used to compare differences between nominal and
ordinal variables. Statistical significance of differences was set at a p-value < 0.05.

Results
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the participants according to age categories and
BMI category by sex. Overall, no significant differences were observed for the studied
parameters.
 Total (n = 201) Women (n = 101) Men (n = 100) p-value
Salt taste
recognition
Ages groups (years)
15–29 128 (64) 59 (29) 69 (69) 0.24
30–44 36 (18) 25 (12) 11 (11)
45–59 22 (11) 11 (5) 11 (11)
Over 60 17 (7) 6 (3) 9 (4)
BMI categories
Underweight 3 (1) 3 (3) 0 (0) 0.05
Normal weight 95 (47) 35 (35) 60 (60)
Overweight 52(26) 23 (23) 29 (29)
Obesity 51 (25) 40 (40) 11 (11)
Total 201 (100) 101 (100) 100 (100) Table 1.
Characteristics of the
Notes: Data were analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (IBM SPSS, version 20). The
results were presented as effectives (percentages). For quantitative variables, the distribution normality study population
was tested by Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. p-values are determined by x 2 test. Statistical significance of according to age and
differences was set at a p-value < 0.05 BMI categories

Table 2 presents the distribution of participants according to their threshold of salt taste
recognition for different concentrations by sex. Among the 201 participants of this study,
84% recognized the salt taste at a concentration of 15 mmol/L, while 97% did at a
concentration of 30 mmol/L. A significant difference between women and men was
observed, as women participants detected the salt taste at a lower rate (53% versus 38% at
8 mmol/L, p = 0.02 and 100% versus 95% at 30 mmol/L, p = 0.029, in women and men,
respectively). With regard to age categories, no significant difference was observed between
different age groups in terms of threshold of salt taste recognition (p > 0.05 for the 11
concentrations) (Table 3). At the concentration of 8 mmol/L,  80% of the participants
recognized the salt taste among all age groups.
Table 4 summarizes results of the threshold of salt taste recognition distributed
according to BMI categories. As per age, no significant differences were obtained among
BMI categories for each of the 11 studied concentrations. However, more than half (57%) of
the obese subjects confirmed that they recognized the salty taste, while subjects of
overweight and normal weight recognized the salty taste at 46 and 41%, respectively.

Salt concentrations Total Women Men

(mmol/l) (n = 201) (n = 101) (n = 100) p-value

1 1 (0) 0 (0) 1 (1) 0.49

2 5 (2) 2 (2) 3 (3) 0.49
4 27 (13) 18 (18) 9 (9) 0.05
8 92 (46) 54 (53) 38 (38) 0.02
15 168 (84) 89 (88) 79 (79) 0.06
30 196 (97) 101 (100) 95 (95) 0.029

Notes: *The effective present the number of participants having answered by “yes” for the recognition of
the taste. All subjects were able to detect the salt at and above the concentration of 60 mmol/L. Data were Table 2.
analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (IBM SPSS, version 20). The results were
presented as effectives (percentages). For quantitative variables, the distribution normality was tested by Saltiness recognition
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. p-values are determined by x 2 test. Statistical significance of differences was set threshold according
at a p-value < 0.05 to sex*
NFS Age groups (years)
Salt concentrations 15–28 30–44 45–59 60
(mmol/L) (n = 128) (n = 36) (n = 22) (n = 15) p-value

1 1(1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0) 0.90

2 4 (3) 0 (0) 1(4) 0 (0) 0.59
4 16 (12) 8 (22) 1(4) 2 (13) 0.26
8 58 (45) 19 (53) 8 (36) 7 (47) 0.67
15 108 (84) 30 (83) 18 (82) 12 (80) 0.96
30 123 (91) 36 (100) 22 (100) 15 (100) 0.40

Notes: *The effective present the number of participants having answered by “yes” for the recognition of
the taste and the percentage present the % of participants having answered by “yes” for the recognition of
Table 3. the taste. All subjects were able to detect the salt at and above the concentration of 60 mmol/L. Data were
analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (IBM SPSS, version 20). The results were
Saltiness recognition presented as effectives (percentages). For quantitative variables, the distribution normality was tested by
threshold according Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. p-values are determined by x 2 test. Statistical significance of differences was set
to age categories* at a p-value < 0.05

BMI categories
Normal Overweight Obesity
Salt concentrations (mmol/L) Underweight (n = 3) (n = 95) (n = 52) (n = 51) p-value

1 0 (0) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0.77

2 0 (0) 3 (3) 1 (2) 1 (2) 0.94
4 0 (0) 8 (8) 8 (15) 11 (22) 0.13
8 0 (0) 39 (41) 24 (46) 29 (57) 0.11
15 3 (100) 78 (82) 44 (85) 43 (84) 0.84
30 3 (100) 91 (96) 51 (98) 51 (100) 0.45

Notes: *The effective present the number of participants having answered by “yes” for the recognition of
Table 4. the taste. All subjects were able to detect the salt at and above the concentration of 60 mmol/L. Data were
analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (IBM SPSS, version 20). The results were
Saltiness recognition presented as effectives (percentages). For quantitative variables, the distribution normality was tested by
threshold according Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. p-values are determined by x 2 test. Statistical significance of differences was set
to BMI categories* at a p-value < 0.05

Table 5 represents the mean values of the threshold of salt taste recognition of the study
population according to sex, age and BMI. The average of the total population was
14.6 6 10.9 mmol/L. The threshold among women was significantly lower (12.6 6 8.1 mmol/L)
compared to men (16.7 6 12.8 mmol/L), p < 0.001. No statistical difference was obtained among
either age groups or BMI categories.

Discussion
The objective of this descriptive and quantitative study was to evaluate the threshold of salt
taste recognition among Moroccan subjects. It is well established that the assessment of
salty taste sensitivity is used to classify individuals who either are at risk or consume salt in
excess amounts (Piovesana et al., 2012). Accordingly, salinity recognition needs a specific
concentration of sodium chloride, which varies among individuals. Even though a saline
solution of 10 mmol/L was determined as the concentration needed to identify the taste of salt by
 Mean 6 SD (mmol/l) p-value
Salt taste
recognition
Total population 14.6 6 10.9
Sex
Women 12.6 6 8.1 0.001
Men 16.7 6 12.8
Age groups (years)
15–29 15.1 6 12.0 0.74
30–44 12.9 6 8.7
45–59 14.9 6 8.2
60 14.2 6 9.0
Underweight 15.0 6 0.0 0.29 Table 5.
Normal weight 16.1 6 12.3 Mean 6 SD of
Overweight 14.0 6 10.2
threshold of salty
Obesity 12.6 6 8.6
taste recognition of
Notes: p-values were calculated by t-test for sex and one-way ANOVA test for age and BMI. The results the study population
are presented as mean 6 SD. Significance level at p < 0.05 (N = 201)

humans (Hall, 2011). Thus, the salt gustatory sensitivity could be considered as altered in case a
more concentrated solution is needed (Nilsson, 1979). Taken together, carrying out the present
study was necessary in response to the nutrition and public health commitments of Morocco to
reduce salt consumption among its population. The findings of this study revealed that the
average of threshold of salt taste recognition is high (14.7 6 10.9 mmol/L). In addition, more than
half of the subjects did not confirm taste recognition at 8 mmol/L. These results could be
considered as scientific evidence to explain the high consumption of salt by Moroccans (an
average of 10.6 g/day) (MOH, 2018). In fact, research studies demonstrated that dietary intake and
preference could affect taste thresholds (Duffy, 2007). Therefore, decreasing salt consumption at
the community level could be challenged by limited compliance with salt reduction programs, as
stated by Öner et al. (2016). These authors further specified that reducing salt intake by no more
than 10–20% per year or per bi-year should be implemented to guarantee a non-detectable
change by human salt taste receptors. Such a level of salt reduction could lead to a significant
decrease to the salt taste threshold values among populations (Öner et al., 2016). Hence, obtaining
values of the threshold of salt taste recognition among the Moroccan population would be of great
help to ensure a follow up of potential impact the salt reduction program on the Moroccan
population’s salt taste threshold and an evaluation of the long-term efficacy of this program.
Threshold salt taste recognition seems to be lower among women compared to men. In our
study, the average values were 12.6 6 8.1 and 16.7 6 12.8 in women and men, respectively (p #
0.001). Furthermore, the percentage of women who recognized the salt taste was significantly
higher compared to men at a concentration of 8 mmol/L with 53% versus 38%, p = 0.02. These
results indicated that sensitivity in women is high. Congruent findings were reported by Öner
et al. (2016). Similarly, Fischer et al. (2013) in a large epidemiological study found a statistical
significance between women and men, with lower values obtained among women. However, Heft
and Robinson’s (2010) stated that there is no gender difference in terms of salty taste sensitivity;
this could be explained by possible errors in the recognition of thresholds among men compared
to women (Cohen and Gitman, 1959).
According to Methven et al. (2012), aging is one of the several factors that influence taste
thresholds in humans. From a physiological perspective, taste buds that are responsible for
the sense of taste decrease significantly over the age of 60 years, leading to remarkable
NFS changes in the taste threshold (Monteiro, 2009). Indeed, a study on the European population
aged from 18–80 years old showed an important decrease in the perception of different
tastes, including salty taste with the increase of age (Barragan et al., 2018). This change
could be noticed through the higher concentration of sweet, salty, acid or bitter substances
needed by older persons to distinguish a given taste. Therefore, it is difficult for old people to
detect the salty taste, and adding salt to food is a common practice among this age group
(Lima, 2007). However, the results of the present study showed that there was no significant
decrease of recognition in salt taste threshold among age groups. This could be explained by
two reasons. The first reason is the decrease as the previous study started from the age of
60 years and on, while our study includes participants starting from the age of 15 years and
on. The second reason is the small size of the subgroup of participants who are  60 years
(n = 15) old.
Concerning BMI, no significant difference in the threshold of salt taste recognition was
obtained. This result is in agreement with the findings reported by other researchers
(Simchen et al., 2006; Monneuse et al., 2008). Indeed, previous studies have confirmed that no
difference existed in salty taste sensitivity between obese and lean participants (Simchen
et al., 2006; Pepino et al., 2010; Bertoli et al., 2014). However, recent studies demonstrated a
general lowering of taste sensitivity, including salt taste, with the increase of BMI (Hardikar
et al., 2017; Vignini et al., 2019). In our study, it was observed that as the mean of the
threshold decreased, the BMI increased (16.1 6 12.3 in normal weight, 14.0 6 10.2 in
overweight and 12.6 6 8.6 in obese), but the difference was not significant. This could be
explained by the relatively small number of sample size in the different subgroups.
There are some noteworthy limitations within this study. First, participants’ level of satiety
before the sensory test was not examined. This could affect the hedonic score as explained by
Laeng et al. (1993); however, no specific comments related to this aspect were shared with any of
the participants, as reported by the trained researchers responsible for this study. Secondly, salt
intake was not assessed among participants, which could be associated with the threshold of salt
taste recognition. But, this interesting analysis could be tackled in future research, as it would
require greater depth and detail of analysis given the multi-dimensionality of Moroccan diet
(Allali, 2017). Finally, as the data was collected only from one region in Morocco, the results could
only provide a first insight about the threshold of the salt taste recognition among the Moroccan
subjects. A global study at national level is recommended.

Conclusion
This study showed that the average threshold of salt taste recognition among Moroccan
subjects is high. It also demonstrated that this threshold is even higher in men compared to
women. This study provided valuable information to be considered as a baseline for the
monitoring the population and evaluating the action plan aiming to reduce salt consumption
in Morocco. At community level, a progressive reduction of salt in food items is
recommended. Further research is needed to determine the association between salt intake
and the threshold of salt taste recognition at both national and regional levels, which would
help tailor adequate and specific long-term interventions to meet the international nutrition
recommendations.

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Further reading
Caterina, M.J., Schumacher, M.A., Tominaga, M., Rosen, T.A., Levine, J.D. and Julius, D. (1997), “The
capsaicin receptor: a heat-activated ion channel in the pain pathway”, Nature, Vol. 389 No. 6653,
pp. 816-824.
NFS Corresponding author
Yasmine Guennoun can be contacted at: yasmine.guennoun@uit.ac.ma

Author affiliations
Yasmine Guennoun, Department of Biology, Joint Research Unit in Nutrition and Food, Regional
Designated Center of Nutrition (AFRA/IAEA), Ibn Tofaïl University – CNESTEN, Kenitra,
Morocco
Nada Benajiba, Department of Basic Health Sciences, Deanship of Preparatory Year, Princess Nourah
Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Habiba Bajit, Department of Biology, Joint Research Unit in Nutrition and Food, Regional Designated
Center of Nutrition (AFRA/IAEA), Ibn Tofaïl University – CNESTEN, Kenitra, Morocco
Amina Bouziani, Department of Biology, Joint Research Unit in Nutrition and Food, Regional
Designated Center of Nutrition (AFRA/IAEA), Ibn Tofaïl University – CNESTEN, Kenitra,
Morocco
Laila Elammari, Ministry of Health, Direction of the Population, Ministry of Health Morocco, Rabat,
Morocco
Ayoub Al-Jawaldeh, World Health Organization, Copenhagen, Denmark
Noureddine Elhaloui, Department of Biology, Joint Research Unit in Nutrition and Food, Regional
Designated Center of Nutrition (AFRA/IAEA), Ibn Tofaïl University – CNESTEN, Kenitra,
Morocco
Amina Barkat, Mother and Child Couple Health and Nutrition Research Team, Faculty of Medicine and
Pharmacy, Mohammed V University, Rabat, Morocco
Hasnae Benkirane, Department of Biology, Joint Research Unit in Nutrition and Food, Regional
Designated Center of Nutrition (AFRA/IAEA), Ibn Tofaïl University – CNESTEN, Kenitra,
Morocco, and
Hassan Aguenaou, Department of Biology,Joint Research Unit in Nutrition and Food, Regional
Designated Center of Nutrition (AFRA/IAEA), Ibn Tofaïl University – CNESTEN, Kenitra,
Morocco

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