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Application of inulin in bread: A review of technological properties and factors

affecting its stability

Article  in  Food Science & Nutrition · November 2022

DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3141

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Received: 26 November 2021    Revised: 3 September 2022    Accepted: 3 November 2022

DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3141

REVIEW ARTICLE

Application of inulin in bread: A review of technological

properties and factors affecting its stability

Faezeh Mohammadi1 | Ameneh Shiri1 | Sima Tahmouzi1 |

Neda Mollakhalili-­Meybodi1,2  | Amene Nematollahi3

1
Department of Food Sciences and
Technology, School of Public Health, Abstract
Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical
Due to its dual function, inulin is an important prebiotic compound in the cereal indus-
Sciences, Yazd, Iran
2
Research Center for Food Hygiene and
try, especially in bread production. In other words, improving technological features
Safety, Shahid Sadoughi University of and creating health properties (such as reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes, heart
Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
3
disease, metabolic syndrome, and osteoporosis) have led to the widespread use of
Department of Food Safety and Hygiene,
School of Health, Fasa University of this compound. Inulin has many important technological functions in bread, including
Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran its ability to interact with water, create structure, and influence rheological proper-
Correspondence ties, texture, and overall acceptability of the final product. Nevertheless, bread pro-
Neda Mollakhalili-­Meybodi, Department cessing conditions can influence the structural integrity of inulin and thus affect its
of Food Sciences and Technology,
School of Public Health, Shahid Sadoughi technological efficiency. Therefore, this review article aims to investigate the techno-
University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran. logical properties and factors affecting the stability of inulin during bread processing
Email: neda_mabodi@yahoo.com
conditions. Generally, the addition of inulin could considerably improve the technical
Amene Nematollahi, Department of Food
Safety and Hygiene, School of Health,
performance of bread. However, the stability of inulin depends on the formulation
Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, components, type of fermentation, and baking process.
Iran.
Email: amene.nematollahi@gmail.com
KEYWORDS

Funding information
bread, inulin, prebiotics, stability, technological characteristics
Fasa University of Medical Sciences,
Grant/Award Number: 400148

1  |  I NTRO D U C TI O N the use of whole-­wheat flour improves the nutritional properties of

Bread is one of the essential components of the diet, which is mainly
made from wheat flour (Mohammadi et al., 2021). Gluten protein
is responsible for the unique properties of wheat dough (Meybodi
et al., 2019), which constitutes more than 80% of wheat proteins.
It consists of two proteins, gliadin and glutenin, which play a critical
role in producing the viscosity and elasticity of the dough. Gluten
can also affect some factors such as water absorption, dough mixing
time, the storage capacity of gas (produced during processing), and
ultimately the quality of bread (Natalia Drabińska et al., 2016).
There are some challenges regarding the production and con-
sumption of some bakery products, especially wheat bread. Although
the finished bread due to its high content of fiber and antioxidant
compounds, there are several problems with this type of flour. Some
of these vulnerabilities include nutritional issues such as reduced
mineral bioavailability (due to phytic acid and insoluble fibers) and
technological problems, including reduced specific volume, mois-
ture, and water activity as increased hardness (Boita et al., 2016).
Therefore, white wheat flour (containing 21% bran) is recommended
to produce bulk wheat bread (Dastmalchi & Razavi, 2016). In addi-
tion, wheat flour-­based baked goods are also prohibited for peo-
ple with celiac disease and other gluten-­related disorders. Despite
switching to a gluten-­free diet such as gluten-­free bread, it is im-
possible to benefit from the desired technological features of these

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2022 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Food Sci Nutr. 2022;00:1–12.  |

wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/fsn3     1
 |
2      MOHAMMADI et al.
products (Horstmann et al., 2019). Furthermore, there is also a need
to freeze dough as it is a convenient and cost-­effective way to meet
the nutritional needs of people who are pressed for time and do not
have access to various food sources such as travelers, mountaineers,
astronauts, and soldiers (Rahman, 2007). However, this procedure is
associated with adverse changes in the technological characteristics
of wheat bread, including a reduction in specific volume, increased
fermentation time, and a weakening of the gluten network structure
(Ke et al., 2020). Hence, it is challenging to fortify white wheat bread
and simulate gluten structure in gluten-­free bread.
In recent years, dietary fiber has attracted much attention be-
cause of its beneficial effects on health, including improving gastro-
intestinal health and preventing constipation, cardiovascular disease,
and cancer (Chen et al., 1988). These compounds are divided into
two categories depending on their solubility in water: “soluble di-
etary fiber” and “insoluble dietary fiber” (Sciarini et al., 2017). It is re-
ported that the addition of insoluble dietary fiber negatively affects
the technological properties of the final product (Arp et al., 2020).
It may also increase the postprandial glucose level of fortified food
formulation by providing a physical barrier and preventing structure
formation. Soluble fiber, on the other hand, can increase lipid and
carbohydrate metabolism and lower cholesterol and blood glucose
levels after eating (Kalyani Nair et al., 2010).
Prebiotics are indigestible and soluble dietary fibers that are
resistant to gastric acid and hydrolysis by mammalian enzymes. In
the digestive tract, they could selectively stimulate certain probi-
otic bacteria. Consequently, prebiotics may reduce the risk of type
2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, osteoporosis, inflammatory bowel
disease, irritable bowel syndrome, obesity, and dysentery (A Parnell
& A Reimer, 2012). One of the most important prebiotic compounds
with wide application in the bakery industry is inulin, which, in ad-
dition to functional and desirable effects on the technological prop-
erties of bread, has several beneficial effects on health (Glibowski &
Bukowska, 2011).
Considering the importance of wheat bread in human nutri-
tion and the need for its enrichment and mimicking of the three-­
dimensional network of gluten in some applications, the inclusion of
inulin as soluble dietary fibers needs to be studied. Since the tech-
nological properties of bread, which are crucial for consumer accep-
tance, are highly influenced by the formulation, this study aims to
review the effects of inulin on the technological properties of bread.
Furthermore, since inulin's health-­promoting effects are attributed
to its regular and specific consumption in intact form, the factors
affecting its stability during bread processing will be investigated.
Increase the number
Aid in calcium Helps you feel fuller
of beneficial
absorption for longer
intestinal bacteria
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2  |  I N U LI N : C H E M I C A L A N D H E A LTH
PRO PE RTI E S
Inulin is a water-­soluble storage polysaccharide composed of fruc-
tose units linked by 1: 2 beta bonds with a degree of polymerization
(DP) of 2–­60 (Shoaib et al., 2016). Figure.  1 illustrates its benefits.
Although the main extraction source of inulin is chicory root (Wang
et al., 2002), it can be found in more than 36,000 plant species such
as bananas, onions, artichokes, asparagus, leeks, chicory root, garlic,
and pickled potatoes. There are three categories of inulin, including
short chains (DP < 10), long chains (DP > 23), and natural (DP =  2–­60)
types. Short-­chain inulin has higher solubility and sweetness than the
long-­chain type and is used as a sugar substitute and mouthfeel en-
hancer in low-­calorie products. Long-­chain inulin, on the other hand,
is used as a filler and fat substitute because it is less soluble and more
viscous (Natalia Drabińska et al., 2016). The inulin compound is color-
less and tastes neutral. Although it has little effect on the taste of the
finished product, it can significantly affect the organoleptic proper-
ties of this product in terms of DP (Kalyani Nair et al., 2010).
The β-­configuration of inulin prevents it from being hydrolyzed
by enzymes in the upper gastrointestinal tract of humans, allowing
it to enter the large intestine intact and be selectively fermented
by beneficial intestinal bacteria. According to this property, inulin
belongs to the category of prebiotics and low-­calorie dietary fi-
bers (compared to other carbohydrates) (Morreale et al., 2019). This
compound can also reduce the glycemic response, enhance gastro-
intestinal health, affect fat metabolism, and reduce the risk of os-
teoporosis and colon cancer (Kalyani Nair et al., 2010). The use of
artichoke extract (as a source of inulin) in rat's drinking water has
been shown to lower total cholesterol and low-­
density lipopro-
tein (LDL) and increase high-­density lipoprotein (HDL) levels (Naci
et al., 2019). Considering the functional benefits for celiac patients,
the addition of 12% inulin-­t ype fructans (ITFs) to gluten-­free bread
formulation (based on rice flour (50%) and potato starch (50%)) has
also been documented to increase calcium absorption, reduce glyce-
mic index (from 71 to 48), and glycemic load (from 12 to 8) (Capriles
& Arêas, 2013). The use of 100 g inulin in the diet of heterogeneous
rats with human flora is also associated with increased sulfomucin
production and decreased sialomucin (indicating a less risk of colon
cancer) (Fontaine et al., 1996).
Since the health benefits of inulin require adequate consump-
tion, including inulin in bread may be a good strategy in a cereal-­
based diet to ensure adequate intake. However, the technology
performance of this combination is also crucial. Considering the
Improve good
cholesterol
F I G U R E 1  Benefits of using inulin

MOHAMMADI et al.
importance of the technological properties of bread for consumer
acceptance, the following section examines the influences of inulin
addition on these properties.
3  |   TEC H N O LO G I C A L C H A R AC TE R I S TI C S
O F B R E A D CO NTA I N I N G I N U LI N
Technological characteristics are effective parameters in predict-
ing the mixing behavior of the dough, fermentation characteristics,
baking efficiency of food production, and textural characteris-
tics of the final product. The textural, rheological, and sensory
characteristics of bread are the most important technological
characteristics that determine the final product's quality and the
consumer's acceptance (Morris & Morris,  2012). In this regard,
water absorption of bread formulation can significantly affect its
technological characteristics by influencing the above parameters.
Consequently, an increase in water absorption can improve the
specific volume properties, dough expansion (Han et al., 2012),
and the formation of large cavities in the bread crumb (the bread
crumb is a white porous structure located under the crust, while
the crust is the brown surface layer of the bread) (Mohammadi
et al., 2021), as well as the reduction in the hardness and stal-
ing rate of the bread (Morris & Morris,  2012). Furthermore, the
amount of water absorption also determines the color of the bread
crust, with low humidity promoting the Millard reaction and creat-
ing a darker color (Mohammadi et al., 2021).
It is worth mentioning that the incorporation of inulin into bread
formulation could improve its technological properties due to its
high capacity to interact with water (Hager et al., 2011). Moreover,
it can prevent the formation and recrystallization of ice crystals and
avoid damaging the proteins during the dough-­freezing process.
Additionally, the presence of hydrogen groups in the inulin struc-
ture and the hydrophobic reactions between inulin and proteins can
have a protective effect on the gluten network. For instance, it was
reported that frozen dough containing 2.5% long-­chain inulin had a
greater protective effect on gluten protein compared with that con-
taining 5% short-­chain inulin. This phenomenon can be explained by
the formation of denser gluten structures by the former type of inu-
lin. Long-­chain inulin is also used in gluten-­free bread as a substitute
for gluten (due to the formation of the gel structure) which could
improve the technological properties of the final bread (Selmo &
Salas-­Mellado,  2014). Several parameters, including the presence or
absence of gluten and the strength of the gluten network, influence
the effects of inulin on the main technological properties of wheat
bread, such as water absorption, special volume, texture, color, and
staling, which will be discussed in detail in the following sections.
3.1  |  Water absorption
Water is one of the main components in the formation and stability
of dough. Water absorption is defined as the ratio of water volume
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      3
to flour weight required to produce dough with standard consist-
ency (Belz et al.,  2012). The quality and shelf life of products are
strongly influenced by the moisture distribution and the interac-
tion of water with other compounds in the dough formulation (Luo
et al., 2017). In this regard, as the baking temperature of the bread
increases, the water acts as an insulator, preventing the evaporation
of moisture from the bread crumb. Furthermore, water absorption of
the dough and the resulting moisture can directly affect the texture,
volume, color, and stale properties of bread (Morris & Morris, 2012).
Since inulin hydrocolloids have abundant hydroxyl groups in their
structure and form gel-­like structures, they may play an important role
in water absorption by maintaining and increasing it (Luo et al., 2017).
Factors such as the amount and strength of protein, the type and con-
tent of starch, the presence of dietary fiber in the formulation, DP,
and the level of inulin replacement affect the performance and be-
havior of inulin concerning water absorption by influencing gel forma-
tion (Bojnanska et al., 2015; Ziobro et al., 2016). Additionally, adding
gluten protein to the dough increases its water absorption, stability
time, and strength (Fan et al., 2021). Considering the effect of protein
strength on dough water absorption, Shiri et al. (2021) revealed that
an enhanced replacement level of acorn flour compared to rice flour
in gluten-­free bread containing 10% w/w long-­chain inulin decreased
the water absorption capacity. This can be explained by the lower
amount of acorn flour protein (5.40 wt%) and the potential effect
of protein on water retention (Shiri et al., 2021). Similarly, Hrusková
et al. (2019) found that the dough's water absorption decreased with
a higher proportion of chestnut flour in white wheat bread due to the
high increase in sucrose and the inhibitory effect of gel formation by
chestnut flour (Hrusková et al., 2019).
Table 1 presents the effect of inulin with different properties on
water absorption of different pieces of bread investigated in pre-
vious studies. According to the previous research, the addition of
inulin reduces the water absorption and moisture of the dough, as
inulin creates a structure with low elasticity and high viscosity, by
weakening the gluten network and at the same time forming areas
of high water inclusion capacity (Ahmed et al.,  2020; Mohammadi
et al., 2021). Therefore, less water is needed to achieve a dough with
the desired consistency. It should be noted that short-­chain inulin
had a greater effect on reducing dough water absorption compared
with long-­chain inulin in constant water content. This can be a result
of the fact that low DP inulin contains simple mono-­and oligosac-
charide sugars that compete with starch granules for water absorp-
tion, which delays the gelatinization of starch and reduces the dough
water absorption. However, long-­chain inulin was not significantly
different from the control sample in terms of water absorption. This
could be due to the lower solubility and ability to form a gel-­like
structure of the longer chain (Ziobro et al., 2013). Additionally, the
powder form of inulin reduces the water absorption of the dough
more than the gel form due to its low water solubility. However, gels
have a higher rate of interaction with water (Chiavaro et al., 2007;
Morris & Morris, 2012). As a consequence, it can be argued that in-
ulin contributes crucially to the stability and structure of the final
dough by influencing water absorption.
 |

TA B L E 1  Effect of inulin properties on water absorption in different breads

4     

Inulin Moisture
substitution level Water absorption content
Inulin properties Type of bread (w/w %) ratio (%) (%) Results Reference

Short-­chain (S, DP ≤ 10), Native (N, Plain wheat bread 5 (S) 56.76 (S) 38.03 (S) Water absorption and moisture content Luo
DP2 ~ 60), Long-­chain (L, DP ≥ 23 5 (N) 56.01 (N) 38.15 (N) were reduced with the substitution of et al. (2017)
2.5 (L) 60.98 (L) 39.35 (L) 5% of FS and 5% of FI, but 2.5% of FXL
was not significantly different from the
control sample.
Short-­chain (S, DP ≤ 10), Native (N, Wheat bread 10 40.24 (S) –­ The amount of freezable water was reduced Luo
DP2 ~ 60), Long-­chain (L, DP ≥ 23 39.60 (N) with the addition of three types of inulin et al. (2017)
39.60 (L) compared to the control sample.
Short-­chain (S, DP ≤ 10), Native (N, Gluten-­free bread 12 59 (S) Water absorption of the dough was reduced Ziobro
DP2 ~ 60), Long-­chain (L, DP ≥ 23 59 (N) with the addition of short-­chain and et al. (2013)
65 (L) natural inulin, but long-­chain inulin
increased water absorption.
Inulin gel: Low-­sugar inulin, DP ⩾ 8 Wheat bread 2.5 59.5 (Inulin gel) –­ Water absorption of the dough decreased O'brien
Inulin powder: Low-­sugar inulin, 56.3 (Inulin with the addition of inulin in powder et al. (2003)
DP ⩾ 8 powder) form. In contrast, the addition of
gel-­form inulin increased the water
absorption of the dough compared to the
control sample.
Short-­chain (S, DP ≤ 10), Native (N, Wheat bread 10 53.71 (S) 35,00 (S) Water absorption and moisture decreased Mohammadi
DP2 ~ 60), Long-­chain (L, DP ≥ 23) 57.52 (N) 31.07 (N) with the addition of inulin et al. (2021)
62.01 (L) 25.94 (L)
Long-­chain inulin Gluten-­free bread (Acorn flour 10% 10 73 (Acorn: Rice Water absorption and moisture absorption Shiri
and 90% Rice flour) 10:90) reduced with the replacement level of et al. (2021)
Gluten-­free bread (Acorn flour 64 (Acorn: Rice acorn flour increased.
30%:70% Rice flour) 30:70)
Gluten-­free bread (Acorn flour 63 (Acorn: Rice
50%:50% Rice flour) 50:50)
Chicory-­derived inulin Arabic bread (brown wheat flour) 1.25, 2.5 3.75 63.1, 59.9, –­ The water absorption of the dough was Ahmed
and 57.5, significantly reduced by replacing 3.75% et al. (2020)
respectively inulin.
(ascending
ratio)
Inulin from chicory Wheat bread 5, 10, 15, 20, and 56.2, 57.1, –­ The water absorption of the dough Bojnanska
25 58.5, 60.3, decreased with the substitution level et al. (2015)
and 61.8, of lower inulin (5 and 10). However,
respectively replacing higher levels of inulin (15%–­
25%) increased the dough water
absorption compared to the control
sample.
MOHAMMADI et al.

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MOHAMMADI et al.
3.2  |  Specific volume
The specific volume index determines the ability of the dough to re-
tain and develop the carbon dioxide produced during the fermenta-
tion and baking process (Nunes et al., 2009). It is affected by factors
such as water absorption rate, the intensity of the baking process,
the performance of the fermentation process, and the aeration rate
during kneading (Carr & Tadini, 2003).
The addition of inulin, as one of the factors affecting the specific
volume, is influenced by several factors, including the type of dough
matrix (presence or absence of gluten and gluten network strength),
type of fermentation process (Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast and
sourdough), amount, DP, and form of inulin (powder or dehydrating
[gel]). Generally, the inclusion of inulin in the dough may alter the
formation of disulfide bonds and retention of CO2 gases by delaying
the gelatinization of starch and reducing water absorption (Ziobro
et al., 2013). It is revealed that the addition of inulin to gluten-­free
bread improves several features such as viscosity, gas storage capac-
ity during the baking process, and specific volume. These positive
effects are attributed to its hydrophilic properties and the formation
of a gel-­like structure. However, inulin addition to gluten-­containing
bread reduces the specific volume compared with the control sam-
ple due to a reduction in the elasticity of the dough and weakening
of the gluten network (Kou et al., 2019). There have been inconsis-
tent results in previous studies, which were discussed below.
Regarding inulin DP, it is reported that short-­chain inulin can-
not form a gel; natural inulin forms a gel in concentrations above
30% w/w. In contrast, long-­chain inulin forms a gel in the range of
20%–­4 0% w/w at room temperature due to its lower solubility in
water. Consequently, it positively affects the increase in the specific
volume (Chiavaro et al., 2007). Likewise, Morris and Morris  (2012)
revealed that compounds containing long-­
chain inulin in gluten-­
containing bread had a higher specific volume than short-­
chain
types which is due to the formation of a gel-­like structure and
compensation for the weakening of the gluten network. However,
short-­chain inulin in gluten-­free bread is easily hydrolyzed by yeasts
due to the presence of simple monosugars and oligosaccharides, in-
creasing gas production and thus increasing specific volume (Ziobro
et al., 2013). As observed in a study by Ziobro et al. (2013), by adding
short-­and medium-­chain inulin (DP < 10 and DP ≥ 10) to gluten-­free
bread (based on corn starch and potato starch), the specific volume
increased by 25%–­33% and 24%–­59%, respectively, compared with
the control sample. In contrast, the sample containing long-­chain in-
ulin did not differ significantly from the control sample.
Considering the type of fermentation, it has been reported
that fermentation with sourdough improves the specific volume
resulting from the synergistic effect of bacterial lactic acid on
the metabolic activity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the further
release of carbon dioxide. In addition, inulin can partially com-
pensate for the weakening of the gluten network caused by this
type of fermentation by producing exopolysaccharides (Katina
et al., 2006). Mohammadi et al. (2021) explored that the specific
volume of fermented wheat bread with mixed fermentation based
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      5
on sourdough was significantly higher than samples fermented
with Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Also, wheat bread containing long
inulin fermented chains with sourdough showed a higher spe-
cific volume compared with short types of chains fermented with
yeast. In this regard, the exopolysaccharides produced during the
fermentation of sourdough and fermented long-­chain inulin can
synergistically compensate the decrease in the gluten content,
due to the addition of inulin level (Kim et al., 2001). Gluten-­f ree
bread fermented with yeast with normal invertase activity (Y1)
has a higher specific volume than bread fermented with yeast
with low invertase activity (Y2) due to higher enzymatic activity
and gas production (Morreale et al., 2019). As for the effect of
inulin addition form on the specific volume, the results of O'brien
et al. (2003) showed that inulin inclusion in wheat bread as a gel
(containing 13.2% protein) led to a higher specific volume than the
powdered state because of increased water absorption (O'brien
et al., 2003). Also, increasing inulin replacement as one of the
factors affecting specific volume showed that with the increase
in inulin substitution (from 5% to 10% w/w) in Chinese steamed
bread (CSB), the specific volume decreased to 7.66%. This can be
attributed to the decrease in dough elasticity due to the weaken-
ing of the gluten network (Liu, Luo, et al., 2016).
3.3  |  Texture
The texture is one of the most important parameters in bakery prod-
ucts, which significantly affects consumer acceptance. Especially for
elderly people and those with swallowing and chewing disorders,
the texture of food is important. Therefore, the right texture plays
an important role in product superiority (Guimarães et al., 2020).
The mechanical properties of bread crumbs' texture are determined
by testing their properties with a texture profile analyzer (TPA). This
involves compressing the sample in two steps, which is similar to the
chewing test. The bread texture properties such as hardness (the
amount of force required to achieve a certain deformation, some-
times called firmness), cohesiveness (an indicator of the strength of
the internal bands that make up the body of the product), chewi-
ness (the product of three indicators of cohesion × elasticity × hard-
ness), elasticity (the rate of return of a material after removal of the
force), and adhesiveness (the ratio between the active work done
under the second force–­displacement curve) are important charac-
teristics of the bread quality that could be affected by inulin addi-
tion to the bread formulation (Guimarães et al., 2020). The effect
of inulin on these properties can be influenced by factors affecting
inulin function including polymerization degree and inulin replace-
ment level, type of fermentation, protein strength, and so on (Morris
& Morris, 2012). Table 2 presents the effect of inulin addition on the
textural properties of different bread.
As the most important indicator of textural properties, hard-
ness is directly related to chewiness (Liu, Mu, et al., 2016). It was
reported that the hardness of wheat bread samples increased with
the addition of inulin, which is related to the DP of inulin (Morris
 |

TA B L E 2  Effect of different inulin addition on textural properties of different breads.

6     

Parameters

Firmness

Type of bread Inulin properties Matrix properties (N) Cohesiveness Elasticity (mm) Chewiness (mJ) Results References

Steamed bread/ Short-­chain (S, DP ≤ 10), Inulin addition at 5, 11.02 (S) 0.66 (S) 0.89 (S) 6.48 (S) The initial firmness and chewiness Luo et al. (2017)
plain wheat Native (N, DP2 ~ 60), 5, and 2.5% w/w 16.3 (N) 0.63 (N) 0.86 (N) 8.74 (N) 8.98 (L) of steamed bread increased with
flour Long-­chain (L, DP ≥ 23 for S, N, and L, the substitution of FI 5%, FI 5%,
18.29 (L) 0.63 (L) 0.83 (L)
respectively and FXL 2.5%, but cohesiveness
and elasticity decreased. The
effect of FXL was significant.
Wheat bread Long-­chain inulin (L, Flour W (weak) 73.6 (W, L) –­ –­ –­ Long-­chain inulin had adverse Brasil et al. (2011)
DP = 23) effects on the hardness of bread and Peressini and
Short-­chain inulin (S, Flour MS (moderately 32.5 (MS, L) made with weak and strong flour. Sensidoni (2009)
DP = 10) strong) 27.2(W, S)
9.2 (MS, S)
Chinese steamed Short-­chain inulin Inulin addition at 5%, 3.53, 10.24, and 0.71, 0.58, and 0.89, 0.81, and 2.97, 4.82, and All textured parameters of steamed Liu, Luo, et al. (2016)
bread (DP ≤ 10) 7%, and 10% w/w 8.59 N for 5, 7 0.57 for 5, 7, 0.76 mm for 3.70 mJ for bread were improved by
and 10% w/w and 10% w/w 5, 7, and 10% 5, 7, and 10% replacing 5% short-­chain inulin,
inulin-­containing inulin-­containing w/w inulin-­ w/w inulin-­ and the hardness was reduced by
samples samples, containing containing 65.86% compared to the control
respectively samples, samples, sample when 5.0% inulin was
respectively respectively added
Steamed bread Short-­chain (S, DP ≤ 10), Inulin added (5%) 3.64 (S) 0.81 (S) 0.93 (S) 2.74 (S) The addition of FS (5%) and FI (5%) Kou et al. (2019)
(low-­gluten Native (N, DP2 ~ 60), 3.81 (N) 0.82 (N) 0.91 (N) 2.82 (N) improved the textural properties
flour) Long-­chain (L, DP ≥ 23 of steamed bread made from
12.7 (L) 0.74 (L) 0.91 (L) 8.45 (L)
soft flour, but the addition of
FXL had a negative effect.
Gluten-­free bread Inulin mix of oligo-­and Yeast with normal (Y1) 2.20 (Y1) 0.76 (Y1) 2.15 (Y1) 248 (Y1) The fermented bread with yeast (Y2) Morreale et al. (2019)
(rice flour) polysaccharides, DP invertase activity had higher stability of inulin and
2–­20 Yeast with reduced (Y2) 1.42 (Y2) 0.80 (Y2) 5.49 (Y2) 554 (Y2) lower hardness than yeast (Y1).
invertase activity
Wheat bread Short-­chain (S, DP ≤ 10), Common yeast 35.09 (S), 33.26 (N), 8.9 (S), 9.04 (N), 147 (S), 118 (N), The hardness decreased with Mohammadi
Native (N, DP2 ~ 60), 31.11 (L) and 9.61 (L) and 158 (L) increasing degree of et al. (2021)
Long-­chain (L, DP ≥ 23 polymerization
Gluten-­free bread Long-­chain inulin 1-­Acorn flour 10%:90% 75.67 (1) 0.28 (1), 0.40 (2), 11.50 (1), 12.50 65.72 (1), 40.92 The hardness increased, and the Shiri et al. (2021)
(rice and acorn (DP ≥ 23) Rice flour 0.24 (3) (2), 7.40 (3) (2), 180.74 (3) cohesiveness decreased with
flour) 2-­Acorn flour 30%:70% 40.97 (2) increasing the level of acorn
Rice flour flour (50%) (reducing the amount
of protein)
3-­Acorn flour 50%:50% 131.0 (3)
Rice flour
Arabic bread Chicory-­derived inulin Inulin addition at 20.09, 21.09, and 0.01, 0.02, and 0.03 The hardness and cohesiveness Ahmed et al. (2020)
1.25%, 2.5%, and 24.06 N for inulin for inulin addition increased with increasing the
3.75%, respectively addition at 1.25%, at 1.25%, 2.5%, level of inulin replacement
2.5%, and 3.75%, and 3.75%,
respectively respectively
MOHAMMADI et al.

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MOHAMMADI et al.
& Morris,  2012). Overall, the hardness of wheat bread kernels in-
creased with the addition of inulin because the elasticity of the
dough decreased, the gluten network was weakened, and thus the
gas storage capacity was reduced. The hardness degree is also af-
fected by the type of fermentation. For example, wheat bread sam-
ples fermented by mixed fermentation based on sourdough had
significantly higher hardness and chewiness than samples fermented
by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A possible explanation for this could be
increased proteolytic activity in the mixed fermentation based on
sourdough. Therefore, hydrolysis of various gluten residues results
in a system with less flexibility and elasticity (Fekri et al.,  2020).
Cohesiveness is an indicator of the internal bands' strength of the
product. Higher cohesion means a better ability to maintain the inte-
grated structure of the bread, which tends to decrease with increas-
ing inulin content in wheat bread due to the reduction in disulfide
bonds and the weakening of the gluten network.
3.4  |  Color
Color is an important quality characteristic of bread, which is
measured with a colorimeter. This characteristic can be deter-
mined by the following parameters: brightness index (L*) varying
between 0 (black) and 100 (white), as well as the blue–­yellow index
(b*) and green–­red index (a*), which range from −127 to +127
(Moghaddasi et al., 2020).
Inulin, as one of the effective factors for bread color, increases
the rate of the Maillard reaction, the formation of brown nitrogen
polymers, and melanoidin during baking. Hence, inulin addition can
improve the color of the bread crust (especially in gluten-­free bread,
which usually has a weak color compared to wheat bread) (Drabińska
et al., 2016). It is noticeable that the color of the bread crust mainly
results from the Millard reaction products, while the bread crust
color is mainly influenced by the components of the formulation
(Conforti & Davis, 2006). In this context, Mohammadi et al. (2021)
showed that the crumb color of wheat bread enriched with inulin
fermented by mixed fermentation based on sourdough had the high-
est specific volume and the lowest brightness. This is because the
increase in enzymatic activity by the sourdough microorganisms
leads to a more porous texture and greater light scattering, thus re-
ducing brightness (L*). Considering the effect of inulin replacement
level as one of the practical factors in creating crust color, Liu, Luo
et al. (2016) found that the replacement of 5% inulin increased the L*
values of CSB crust compared with the control sample. On the other
hand, inulin is whiter than flour. Also, Inulin can bind with starch,
protein, and water to create a uniform structure that reflects light.
Therefore, this structure produces a whiter color when light strikes
the uniform surface of the bread (Liu, Luo, et al., 2016).
Considering the effect of the yeast type used during the fer-
mentation process on the amount of color produced, Morreale
et al. (2019) identified that gluten-­free bread fermented with yeast
Y1 showed greater a* and b* values compared with gluten-­free bread
fermented with yeast Y2 because yeast Y1 can increase free sugar
|
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      7
production and Millard reaction rate compared to Y2 (Morreale
et al., 2019). Similarly, Mohammadi et al. (2021) explored that wheat
bread samples containing short-­chain inulin (DP < 10) fermented
with sourdough had lower L* and higher a* and b* than samples con-
taining long-­chain inulin fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae
yeast. Since crust color is mainly due to the Millard reaction, samples
with short-­chain inulin fermented with sourdough are more suscep-
tible to the Millard reaction than samples with long-­chain inulin fer-
mented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae due to the more simple sugars
and increased enzymatic activity. Overall, the bread color containing
inulin is also affected by the DP of inulin. In this regard, Peressini and
Sensidoni (2009) showed that the sample containing short-­chain in-
ulin had a higher Millard reaction rate and, consequently, a browner
crust color than the sample containing long-­chain inulin. This can be
attributed to the presence of more reducing sugars in the former
type (Peressini & Sensidoni, 2009). It should be noted that the state
of the added inulin has no significant effect on color. In this regard,
Hager et al. (2011) reported that the color of the crust was the same
for all levels (2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%) of added inulin in two forms (gel
and powder) (Hager et al., 2011).
3.5  |  Staling
The staling process occurs when hydrophilic compounds of flour
migrate from the crust to the crumb (Peressini & Sensidoni,  2009)
as a result of the interaction between hydrophilic flour compounds
(gluten-­starch) and retrograded starches (Ziobro et al., 2013). The
bread staling occurs through the accumulation of amylopectin in the
starch structure. Baking, on the other hand, causes the starch to ge-
latinize, and the amylase to separate from the amylopectin during the
process. During cooling, gelatinized starch changes from amorphous
to crystalline (retrogradation). Thus, the linear amylose molecules
and the linear part of amylopectin can be categorized as rigid crystal
structures (Drabińska et al., 2016). In general, the staling process is
associated with a decrease in bread quality as well as an increase in
hardness. This process leads to adverse changes in the appearance,
taste, and texture of the product, which lowers customer accept-
ance and increases waste (Ziobro et al., 2013). However, white bread
is one of the most important diet components but has the short-
est commercial shelf life among processed food products due to its
rapid staling (Ziobro et al., 2013).
Inulin inoculation, as one of the effective factors impacting the
staling rate, causes the partial distribution of water. It can bind to
starch through hydrogen bonds and change the water distribu-
tion between starch and protein in gluten-­containing bread (Kou
et al., 2019). Furthermore, inulin, as a hydrocolloid substance with
high water-­holding capacity, could reduce water loss during bread
storage (Hager et al., 2011). In other words, inulin prevents amylose
leaching during baking by forming a barrier around starch granules,
which affects the staling rate in the first hours of storage (Maga &
Ponte,  1975; Ziobro et al., 2013). Factors affecting inulin perfor-
mance on bread staling are shown in Figure 2.
 |
8      MOHAMMADI et al.
Fermentation
process
Water absorption Formulation
and moisture components
Inulin replacement Degree of inulin
level polymerization
Baking temperature
F I G U R E 2  Factors affecting the performance of inulin on bread
staling
The effect of inulin on the staling rate of gluten-­free and gluten-­
containing bread depends on several factors, including inulin char-
acteristics such as DP, extraction source, and addition method
(Maga & Ponte, 1975; Ziobro et al., 2013). In this regard, the study
results of Drabińska et al.  (2016) showed that the staling rate of
gluten-­free bread decreased by adding 5% inulin compared to the
control bread sample (Drabińska et al.,  2016). By contrast, Hager
et al. (2011) found an increase in staling rate with the addition of
5% inulin, probably due to differences in inulin extraction sources
(Hager et al., 2011). Similarly, Ziobro et al. (2013) study documented
that with the increasing DP inulin, the hardness and staling rate of
gluten-­free bread increased. This phenomenon can be attributed to
the reduction in specific volume (due to lower gas production) by the
use of long-­chain inulin (DP > 23) (Ziobro et al., 2013). This outcome
is contrary to that of (Kim & D'appolonia, 1977), who observed that
as DP increased, the staling rate decreased due to the formation of
gel structure and less moisture loss.
As for the effect of fermentation type on staleness, Morreale
et al. (2019) revealed that gluten-­free bread fermented with Y1 yeast
was harder than gluten-­free bread fermented with Y2 (with lower
invertase activity). This may be attributed to the reduced stability of
inulin (Morreale et al., 2019). O'brien et al. (2003) also investigated
the effect of added inulin type on staling rate. Inulin in powder form
increased the hardness of wheat bread, while inulin in gel form did
not affect this characteristic of bread staling (O'brien et al., 2003).
Bread storage time had a significant effect on inulin performance in
changing the stale rate, as a study by Kou et al. (2019) showed that
inulin increased the stale rate of soft flour bread (12.9% moisture,
9.7% protein, 0.47% ash, and 22.2% gluten protein) in a short time
(less than a day) after baking. The staling rate of bread decreased
over a long period (more than a day) because inulin increases starch
crystallization during short-­term storage. Additionally, another
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possible reason could be its high ability to enclose water and de-
crease the migration of water from the crumb to the crust (Kou
et al., 2019). Likewise, Capriles and Arêas  (2013) observed similar
results by investigating that gluten-­free bread fortified with inulin in
the first hours (2, 24, and 48) after baking was firmer than the con-
trol bread. However, over long-­term storage, inulin-­containing bread
had a softer texture caused by the redistribution of water between
components with a lower staling rate than control bread (Capriles
& Arêas,  2013). Overall, it can be argued that the staling rate of
gluten-­free and gluten-­containing bread decreased with the increas-
ing amount of inulin addition, regardless of its type. This is because
inulin contains a large number of hydrophilic groups that slow down
the migration of water from the breadcrumbs to the crust.
4  |  FAC TO R S A FFEC TI N G TH E S TA B I LIT Y
O F I N U LI N D U R I N G TH E B R E A D
PRO C E S S I N G S TAG E
The lack of dietary fiber in most bread and the worldwide impor-
tance of wheat bread as a staple food make inulin fortification an
excellent strategy for improving bread quality and human health.
Despite the resistance of β-­configuration of inulin to the hydrolytic
activity of upper gastrointestinal enzymes, its stability may be af-
fected by the formulation components, pH and acidity of the fer-
mentation process, and baking temperature during the processing
step (Mohammadi et al., 2021). Therefore, the most important fac-
tors affecting inulin stability were discussed in this study. Figure 3
illustrates the factors affecting the inulin stability during the bread
preparation process.
4.1  |  Formulation components
The main ingredients in bread are flour, water, salt, and yeast which
are consumed after fermentation and baking (El Khoury et al., 2018).
There is about 40% free water in the dough (Belz et al., 2012). Water
absorption is one of the most important parameters determining the
stability of inulin. It depends on the protein content, the presence or
absence of gluten, the degree of starch damage (starch content), and
the amount of inulin added and its properties. Also, water absorption
is effective in determining the thermal sensitivity of inulin during
the baking process. Belz et al. (2012) identified that increasing the
amount of free water at temperatures above 135°C causes thermal
degradation of long-­chain polysaccharides (Belz et al., 2012). As the
most important component of flour, protein effectively increases
the quality of the final product and the stability of inulin by improv-
ing the water absorption power, the viscosity of the dough, and the
ability to retain the fermented gas (Kadan et al., 2001). Water ab-
sorption and inulin retention are also influenced by the source and
extent of starch damage, as well as the quantity and quality of pro-
tein and flour particle size (the smaller the particle size, the more
water is absorbed and the firmer the dough). Approximately 80%

MOHAMMADI et al.
Steps of preparing bread
Bread Ingredients
Flour Yeast Inulin type Salt Water
Mixing formulation
components
fermentation
Kneading and
shaping
Baking
F I G U R E 3  Factors affecting the stability of inulin during the
preparation of bread
of wheat bread is starch, which plays a crucial role in its structure
(El Khoury et al., 2018). Starch is mainly linear, but amylopectin,
which is branched (1–­6), causes swelling or water absorption. Hence,
starches with a high concentration of amylopectin will absorb more
water compared with amylose. Furthermore, damaged starch ab-
sorbs more water than intact one; consequently, it can affect the
inulin stability (El Khoury et al., 2018). Since the increase in pH af-
fects the stability of inulin, the addition of salt together with the
strengthening of the gluten network (Pashaei et al.,  2021) can re-
duce the water activity and the activity of microorganisms in the
dough pH, especially yeast and lactic acid bacteria, and increase the
stability of inulin. In addition, salt reduction may increase yeast ac-
tivity, which may lead to increased consumption of free sugars and
decreased stability of inulin. Therefore, all of the above may affect
the stability of inulin during processing (Hutkins, 2008).
4.2  |  Fermentation process
One of the stages of bread preparation is the leavening of the dough,
which can be performed by fermentation and mechanical or chemi-
cal agents (Hui & Evranuz, 2012). During bread preparation, fermen-
tation is not meant to ensure longer shelf life, but to convert cereal
flour into a usable and consumable product (Rollán et al., 2010). In
other words, during the fermentation, yeasts in the dough use car-
bohydrates to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol and synthesize
|
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      9
acids and aromatics that improve the taste, aroma, and shelf life of
the bread (Morreale et al., 2019). Generally, the fermentation pro-
cess can be carried out by two methods: Saccharomyces cerevisiae
yeast and fermentation with sourdough. Only Saccharomyces cerevi-
siae yeast is used in the yeast fermentation process, but sourdough
is a mixture of water and flour fermented by lactic acid bacteria and
yeasts (Mohammadi et al., 2021). In comparison, yeast-­based bread
has a pH of about 5–­6, while sourdough bread has about 4 because
of the lactic acid bacteria it contains (Hutkins,  2008). Various fer-
mentation processes can alter the stability of inulin by affecting the
pH and thus the optimal conditions for enzyme activity.
Despite several benefits of fermentation, previous studies have
shown the destructive effects of fermentation on inulin stability.
Mohammadi et al. (2021) documented that inulin stability was lower
in sourdough fermentation than in yeast due to longer fermentation
time and higher enzymatic activity (Mohammadi et al., 2021). Also,
because the yeast invertase enzyme is effective in degrading inulin-­
type fructans, it was reported that gluten-­free bread fermented
with yeast with low invertase activity had higher stability of inu-
lin than gluten-­free bread fermented with yeast with normal yeast
invertase activity (Hutkins,  2008). Moreover, the study results by
Glibowski and Bukowska (2011) reported that the stability of inulin
in acidic products (pH ≤ 4) decreased at temperatures above 60°C,
while in products with a pH ≥5, there was no inulin degradation even
at 100°C (Glibowski & Bukowska,  2011). It has also been demon-
strated that the prebiotic activity of inulin is stable for 24 h at low
pH (3–­6) (Glibowski & Wasko,  2008). However, when it was heat
treated (85°C) for 30 min, its prebiotic activity decreased (Huebner
et al., 2008). Since heating at low pH is associated with a decrease in
prebiotic activity, inulin addition to acidic products is limited, espe-
cially when the process temperature exceeds 60°C.
4.3  |  Baking process
Baking bread is a physical, biochemical, and microbiological pro-
cess that involves putting the sticky, spongy, and inedible dough in
the oven and creating a combination with a unique flavor or bread
(Mondal et al., 2008). The most apparent changes in this period
are volume expansion, crust formation, inactivation of yeasts and
enzymes, protein coagulation, partial gelatinization of starch, and
moisture loss (Belz et al.,  2012). Baking time and temperature af-
fect the stability of inulin; at the same baking temperature, short-­
chain inulin is more vulnerable than long-­chain inulin (Glibowski &
Wasko, 2008). The study by Mohammadi et al. (2021) reported that
inulin loss during baking in the formulation containing short-­chain
inulin fermented with mixed sourdough-­based fermentation was
41%; however, when treated with long-­chain inulin and fermented
with Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast, this value was about 25%. This
lower percentage may be attributed to the lower solubility of long-­
chain inulin and the lower enzymatic activity of Saccharomyces cer-
evisiae. Although the chemical structure of inulin changes during the
heating process, its functional activity may remain the same or may
 |
10      MOHAMMADI et al.
even increase after processing. As reported in the study by Bohm
et al. (2006), dry heat (135–­195°C) for 30 min leads to the destruc-
tion of 20%–­100% of fructan chains and the production of new low-­
molecular-­weight products (Di-­D-­fructose dianhydrides). Moreover,
its addition to the fecal culture medium significantly stimulated the
growth of Bifidobacterium and Enterobacteriaceae and reduced
considerably the growth of potential pathogens.
One of the reactions that occur on a large scale during bread
baking is the Millard reaction, which is a nonenzymatic reaction
between amino acids and reducing sugars at temperatures above
110°C. During this mechanism, increasing the surface temperature of
the product causes the evaporation of unbonded water (free water),
decreases the moisture content, reduces the water activity of the
crust, and increases the Millard reaction rate (Huebner et al., 2008).
Furthermore, factors affecting the decrease in pH (including the
type of fermentation and the browning reaction associated with
the loss of the amino group) can influence the Millard reaction rate
(Hutkins, 2008). A possible explanation for the effect of inulin on the
Millard reaction is reducing sugars, which accelerates the Millard re-
action by decreasing the amount of free water. The Millard reaction
may be favored when low-­molecular-­weight fructans are hydrolyzed
during processing, thus increasing the amount of free sugar (espe-
cially fructose). Thereby, the Millard reaction is accelerated by inulin
in formulations. Millard reaction can also reduce the prebiotic activ-
ity of carbohydrates. Several studies have demonstrated that when
inulin is converted into short-­chain oligosaccharides or monosaccha-
rides, its prebiotic function diminishes and brown color is formed
during the reaction (Huebner et al., 2008).
5  |   CO N C LU S I O N
Overall, adding inulin to bread improved its technological properties.
The purpose of this study was to examine the technological charac-
teristics of bread enriched with inulin and to analyze factors such as
the DP of inulin and the inulin type that affect the stability of inulin
to improve its nutritional performance and health benefits. The ef-
fects of inulin replacement in bread formulation were analyzed such
as textural and color, specific volume, water absorption, and staling
pointed. In addition, several vital factors in the enhancement of these
effects were studied, including the type of bread, the DP of inulin,
and the type of fermentation. Inulin-­t ype fructans reduce the staling
rate and maintain the freshness of gluten-­free and gluten-­containing
bread due to their hydrophilic properties. Furthermore, the effect of
formulation components, fermentation, and baking process on the
stability of inulin revealed that short-­chain inulin had less stability
than long-­chain inulin. This could be attributed to the presence of
simple sugars (which are more accessible to yeasts) as well as low
pH. On the other side, due to the high content of reducing sugars in
the structure of inulin, short-­chain inulin increases the Millard reac-
tion rate and forms a more attractive crust color. Overall, it can be
concluded that inulin is almost stable under acidic conditions, but is
highly susceptible to degradation by heating at low pH levels.
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AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
Fasa University of Medical Sciences supported this study, and so is
gratefully acknowledged.
F U N D I N G I N FO R M AT I O N
Fasa University of Medical Sciences supported this study, grant no.
400148.
C O N FL I C T O F I N T E R E S T
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
DATA AVA I L A B I L I T Y S TAT E M E N T
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are
available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
C O N S E N T FO R P U B L I C AT I O N
Not applicable.
E T H I C S A P P R OVA L
This study was approved by the Fasa University of Medical Sciences.
Approval ID: IR.FUMS.1400.115.
ORCID
Neda Mollakhalili-­Meybodi  https://orcid.
org/0000-0001-8473-7517
Amene Nematollahi  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8643-7745
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How to cite this article: Mohammadi, F., Shiri, A., Tahmouzi,
S., Mollakhalili-­Meybodi, N., & Nematollahi, A. (2022).
Application of inulin in bread: A review of technological
properties and factors affecting its stability. Food Science &
Nutrition, 00, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3141