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Coconut Value Chain Analysis: A Systematic Review

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DOI: 10.3390/agriculture13071379

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 agriculture
Systematic Review
Coconut Value Chain Analysis: A Systematic Review
Fakhrul Anwar Zainol 1 , Nalini Arumugam 2 , Wan Norhayate Wan Daud 1 , Nurul Aisyah Mohd Suhaimi 2 ,
Balogun Daud Ishola 1 , Aida Zairina Ishak 1 and Asyraf Afthanorhan 1, *
Citation: Zainol, F.A.; Arumugam,
N.; Daud, W.N.W.; Suhaimi, N.A.M.;
Ishola, B.D.; Ishak, A.Z.; Afthanorhan,
A. Coconut Value Chain Analysis: A
Systematic Review. Agriculture 2023,
13, 1379. https://doi.org/10.3390/
agriculture13071379
Academic Editor: Giuseppe
Timpanaro
Received: 20 May 2023
Revised: 10 June 2023
Accepted: 12 June 2023
Published: 12 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13071379
1 Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Gong Badak Campus,
Kuala Nerus 21300, Terengganu, Malaysia
2 Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Besut Campus,
Kuala Terengganu 22200, Terengganu, Malaysia
* Correspondence: asyrafafthanorhan@unisza.edu.my
Abstract: In the past, Malaysia’s coconut sector faced several difficulties and upheavals related to
the economy. However, as a result of the EU’s decision to oppose the cultivation of palm oil due to
worries about forest clearing and environmental damage, the business has recently demonstrated
enormous potential to be further grown and improved. Thus, this systematic review aimed to
synthesize the challenges associated with the level of coconut production and its supply chain.
Six electronic databases were searched for publication from 2013 to 2022 (i.e., a cumulative index
to give an overview of the coconut value chain and the literature on the coconut supply chain
via Scopus, the Web of Science, Google Scholar, Proquest, Science Direct, and Springer Link).
Titles/abstracts and then full texts were screened independently. It was discovered that the factors
contributing to the low production of coconuts and the difficulties in the coconut supply chain
were categorized by some authors as severe or apparent factors, while others categorized these
problems as technological, political, or socioeconomic factors, and yet others categorized them
as inherent or environmental factors. Therefore, policymakers should introduce some policies
such as subsidies, free tax for farmers, farm settlement schemes e.t.c that would encourage more
citizens to be willing to go into coconut production. Policymakers also need to encourage scientists
to carry out research on how these problems especially environmental factors will be tackled and
try to recruit more extensionists.
Keywords: coconut supply chain; coconut value chain; export of coconut; marketing of coconut;
production of coconut
1. Background of the Study
Over the past few decades, there has been a significant increase in both production
and demand for coconuts and products made from them, making this industry one of
the main contributors to the economies of producer countries [1]. According to Allied
Market Research [2], the value of the global market for coconut products was close to
$13 billion in 2019 and may increase to $31 billion in 2024. According to Nor et al. [3], the
coconut business contributes significantly to the economic and social well-being of rural
communities by providing food, employment opportunities, livelihoods, and sustainable
agriculture. Although there is a high demand for coconuts, there is a low supply due
to fewer farmers growing the novel hybrid seed MATAG, making it difficult to meet the
industry’s needs [4]. Saha and Che mat [5] found that the majority of smallholder farmers
preferred to adopt traditional agriculture methods, which resulted in serious problems that
could lower coconut yield. These areas were not properly irrigated or fertilized.
The demand for products made from coconut increases every year. Malaysia imported
217 thousand metric tons of fresh coconut annually on average between 2016 and 2020.
In 2020, Malaysia’s oldest industrial crop contributed MYR 72.8 million, or 0.06%, to the
country’s agricultural export earnings [6]. Malaysia exported coconut-based goods in
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 2 of 31

2020, including fresh coconuts, dried coconut, activated carbon, processed coconut water,
activated carbon, and charcoal. The entire export value of these goods was RM1.36 billion,
with coconut oil products accounting for 60% of that amount, coconut milk for 11.5 percent,
and activated carbon for 10.7% [7]. Table 1 below shows the export value in detail for eight
types of coconut.

Table 1. Export value in detail of coconut-based products (2020).

Coconut Based Products Value (RM Million)

Coconut oil 3395.81
Coconut milk 655.12
Activated carbon 609.63
Coconut charcoal 503.11
Processed coconut water 234.69
Desiccated coconut 173.75
Coconut fibre 77.46
Fresh coconut 49.16
Total 5698.75
Source: UN Comtrade [8].

Singapore, the United States, Indonesia, Japan, and China are the five key trading
partners for coconut products. While Singapore served as the main market for coconut
milk and desiccated coconut in 2020, Malaysia exported more coconut oil to the United
States. The largest importer of activated carbon and coconut charcoal from Malaysia was
Japan. Malaysian processed coconut water, which is mature coconut water processed and
packaged in cans or tetra-pack boxes, found its biggest market in China [9]. Table 2 lists the
top five export rankings for 2020 for Malaysia’s trading partners for coconut goods.

Table 2. Malaysian coconut products channel in 2020.

Top Five Countries Malaysian Market Channel Total of

Products Export (RM)
1 2 3 4 5
Coconut oil USA Italy Netherlands China Turkey 798
Coconut milk Singapore China Hong Kong UAE Indonesia 151.2
United
Desiccated coconut Singapore Pakistan Turkey Bangladesh 40.74
Kingdom
Processed coconut water China USA Singapore Australia Hong Kong 55.02
Other Asian
Activated carbon Japan China Italy USA 142.8
Countries
Coconut charcoal Japan China Turkey South Korea Saudi Arabia 118.44
Source: UN Comtrade [8].

Making data forecasts using the exponential smoothing algorithm (ETS) function
is one method for predicting future market potential. As a result, predictions are based
on historical data and time series data trends. As a result, it is anticipated that until
2030, the total exports of six specifically chosen types of coconut-based products will rise
linearly. According to Table 2, Figure 1 displays the anticipated total exports for six different
Malaysian products made from coconut.
Agriculture
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Figure
Figure 1.
1. Projected Exportsofofcoconut-based
Projected Exports coconut-based products.
products. Source:
Source: Zakaria
Zakaria et[10].
et al. al. [10].
Figure 1. Projected Exports of coconut-based products. Source: Zakaria et al. [10].

The overall
The overall exportvalue
overall export
export valueof
value ofofthe
the
the chosen
chosen
chosen sixsix
six coconut-based
coconut-based
coconut-based products
products
products is anticipated
isisanticipated
anticipated toto to
rise
rise in a
a two-year
two-year cycle
cycle through
through 2030
2030 according
according to the
to estimated
the estimated
rise in a two-year cycle through 2030 according to the estimated forecast. Each product’s forecast.
forecast.Each product’s
Each product’s
specific
specificexport
specific export forecast
export forecastinformation
forecast information
information is is
is included
included
included asshown
as shown
as shown below.
below.below.
Exports
Exports of coconut
coconutoil
Exports of coconut oil are
oilare probably
areprobably
probably going
going
going to slowly
to slowly
to slowly decrease asaaresult
decrease
decrease as result
as ofofcompetition
a result competition
of competition
from
from exports
fromexports of
exports of palmpalm oil.
palmoil. Additionally,
oil.Additionally,
Additionally, based
based
based on
on on the
thethepresent
present
present data trend,
datadata
trend, estimates
trend,
estimates depict
estimates
depict aa
depict a
three-year
three-year cycle
cycle of
of drastically
drastically increasing
increasing and
and decreasing
decreasing exports
exports
three-year cycle of drastically increasing and decreasing exports of coconut oil. Up until of
of coconut
coconut oil.
oil. Up
Up until
until
2030 the
2030thethe estimated
estimated exports
exports of coconut oil oil are
are shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1. 1. By
By2030
2030ititisisanticipated
anticipated
2030 estimated exportsofofcoconut
coconut oil are shown in Figure 1. By 2030 it is anticipated
that the
thatthe export
the export rate
export rate of the remaining goods, including coconut milk, desiccated coconut,
that rate of ofthe
theremaining
remaining goods,
goods, including
including coconut
coconutmilk,milk,
desiccated coconut,
desiccated coconut,
processed
processed coconut
coconut water,
water, activated
activated carbon,
carbon, and
and coconut
coconut charcoal,
charcoal, will
will greatly
greatly grow.
grow. An
An
processed
anticipated coconut
improvement water, activated
graph for carbon,
several and coconut
products is shown charcoal,
in Figure will
2. greatlytogrow.
According the An
anticipated improvement graph for several products is shown in Figure 2. According to the
anticipated
results improvement graph for several products is shown in Figure 2. According
categoriesto the
resultsofofthe
theestimated
estimated export
export value,
value, thethe export
export market
market potential
potentialfor forthese
thesefive fivecategories
results
of of the estimatedtoexport value, the export market potential for
Asathese five categories
ofgoods
goods isisanticipated
anticipated to continue
continue expanding
expanding quicklyquickly through
through 2030.As
2030. aresult,
result, market
market
ofparticipants must continue to aggressively look for ways to expand into new markets whilemarket
goods
participants is anticipated
must continue totocontinue
aggressively expanding
look for quickly
ways to through
expand 2030.
into new As a
marketsresult,
while
participants
boosting
boosting exports mustto
exports tocontinue to aggressively
already-existing
already-existing ones. look for ways to expand into new markets while
ones.
boosting exports to already-existing ones.

Figure 2. Cont.
 Agriculture
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Figure 2. Projected exports of coconut milk, desiccated coconut, processed coconut water, and
Projected
Figure 2.coconut,
activated andexports
coconutofcharcoal.Source:
coconut milk, desiccated
Zakaria etcoconut,
al. [10]. processed coconut water, and
activated coconut, and coconut charcoal. Source: Zakaria et al. [10].
1.1. Market Competition for Coconut-Based Products in Selected Countries
1.1. Market Competition for Coconut-Based Products in Selected Countries
Comparative
Comparative export
export performance
performance (CEP) (CEP) was wasused
usedtotoanalyze
analyzethethe competitiveness
competitiveness
indices of Malaysia and competing nations. According to the six-digit
indices of Malaysia and competing nations. According to the six-digit Harmonized System Harmonized System
code, Comtrade database sources were used to examine export trade
code, Comtrade database sources were used to examine export trade data for six differentdata for six different
types
typesofofcoconut
coconut products
products from 2015 to
from 2015 to2019
2019[8].[8].The
TheCEP
CEPevaluation
evaluation waswas conducted
conducted to to
examine
examineMalaysia’s
Malaysia’s competition
competition with with four
fourother
othernations
nationsininSingapore,
Singapore,China,
China, and
and Japan—
Japan—
the
thethree
three main
main markets for for coconut-based
coconut-basedproducts.
products.AApositive
positiveworth
worthmeans
means that
that thethe
country
countrywith
withthe
thetarget
target market very competitive.
market is very competitive.
TheCEP
The CEPvalues
values for
for Malaysia
Malaysia andand its
itsrivals
rivalswhowhoexport
exportcoconut
coconut products
products to to
Singapore
Singapore
areshown
are shownin in Table
Table 3. Only Malaysia
Malaysiaand andIndonesia
Indonesiaoverall
overalldisplayed
displayed positive
positiveCEP CEPindex
index
ratingsfor
ratings forthe
theSingapore
Singapore coconut
coconut oil
oilindustry
industryinin2019.
2019.Since
Since2015,
2015,Malaysia
Malaysia has consistently
has consistently
maintainedpositive
maintained positive CEP
CEP values,
values, and
and inin 2019
2019itithas
hasthe
thehighest
highestvalue
valueout of of
out thethe
four other
four other
nations. However, compared to 2018, when the CEP value for
nations. However, compared to 2018, when the CEP value for coconut oil was 2.3, coconut oil was 2.3, there
there
wasaamodest
was modestdecline
decline inin 2019.
2019. Competition
Competitionfrom fromcountries
countriessuch
suchasasIndonesia
Indonesia andandMalaysia
Malaysia
resultedin
resulted insimilar
similar situations.
situations.
The emergence of other rival nations, including Sri Lanka and India, who also export
goods to Singapore
Table 3. The that contain
value of Malaysia’s CEPcoconut oil, is what
and competitor has for
countries ledthe
to export
this situation.
of coconutSimilarly,
products in
coconut milk products rank
selected national markets in Singapore. among the highest in the Singapore market, with a CEP
value of 2.3 in comparison to other nations. This situation demonstrates unequivocally
Product Indonesia
that Malaysia Malaysia Philippines
dominates the Singaporean market for the Thailand
export of coconut Vietnam,
milk when
CoconutOil compared to four rival nations. On the other hand, Malaysia’s CEP index for desiccated
2015 2.4coconut has a rather 2.8low value, with the 0.4most recent index−2.7 value being −0.92. All −1.6nations
2016 2.6displayed a negative 3.0 score, raising the possibility
3.0 that nations other than the five indicated
−2.7 0.4
above controlled the desiccated coconut market in Singapore. Singapore is the country to
2017 1.6 2.1 1.2 −3.0 −1.1
which the most desiccated coconut from Malaysia is sent, despite the market there being
2018 2.1uncompetitive. It 2.3 2.4
must therefore be maintained with better −3.3
marketing techniques −1.1so that
2019 1.6the level of competition
1.8 can occasionally −4.4rise. −2.7 −4.9
Coconutmilk As stated in Table 4, China is Malaysia’s primary target market for the sale of processed
2015 −6.6coconut water products.
−1.1 Despite selling
−6.0 the majority of its −3.4processed coconut water to
−3.1
2016 −7.1China, which has−1.7 a CEP index value of−4.2 0.63 compared to four −3.9other nations with negative
−2.2
CEP magnitudes, China is still unable to compete with Vietnam’s supremacy in China. The
2017 −7.7 −1.3 −3.5 −4.3 −3.7
indicator for the preceding CEP in 2018 was 0.65, suggesting that Malaysia had the highest
2018 −6.6level of international
−0.5competitiveness.−3.0 −4.0 −1.6
2019 −3.0 2.3 −1.0 −0.8 1.5
Desiccatedcoconut
2015 −0.13 −0.49 0.83 −5.57 −1.02
2016 0.32 −0.20 −1.85 −5.88 −1.26
2017 1.24 0.23 −3.84 −9.69 −0.70
2018 0.39 −0.52 −1.92 −6.20 −1.35
2019 −0.04 −0.92 −0.85 −5.74 −1.87
Source: Zakaria et al. [10].
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 5 of 31

Table 3. The value of Malaysia’s CEP and competitor countries for the export of coconut products in
selected national markets in Singapore.

Product Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand Vietnam

Coconut Oil
2015 2.4 2.8 0.4 −2.7 −1.6
2016 2.6 3.0 3.0 −2.7 0.4
2017 1.6 2.1 1.2 −3.0 −1.1
2018 2.1 2.3 2.4 −3.3 −1.1
2019 1.6 1.8 −4.4 −2.7 −4.9
Coconut milk
2015 −6.6 −1.1 −6.0 −3.4 −3.1
2016 −7.1 −1.7 −4.2 −3.9 −2.2
2017 −7.7 −1.3 −3.5 −4.3 −3.7
2018 −6.6 −0.5 −3.0 −4.0 −1.6
2019 −3.0 2.3 −1.0 −0.8 1.5
Desiccated coconut
2015 −0.13 −0.49 0.83 −5.57 −1.02
2016 0.32 −0.20 −1.85 −5.88 −1.26
2017 1.24 0.23 −3.84 −9.69 −0.70
2018 0.39 −0.52 −1.92 −6.20 −1.35
2019 −0.04 −0.92 −0.85 −5.74 −1.87
Source: Zakaria et al. [10].

Table 4. The value of Malaysia’s CEP and competitor countries for the export of coconut. Products
in China.

Product Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand Vietnam

Processed coconut water
2015 −7.52 −0.95 NA −1.04 −3.01
2016 −5.62 −1.57 NA −0.30 −1.72
2017 −6.97 −0.39 −4.17 −0.50 −0.40
2018 −5.17 0.65 −4.76 −0.46 −0.62
2019 −12.94 −0.05 −0.85 −0.44 0.63
Source: Zakaria et al. [10].

The score was 0.65, showing that Malaysia has the highest level of international
competitiveness. The index, however, changed to −0.05 in 2019. To ensure that Malaysia
remains competitive for processed coconut water once more, it is necessary to identify
the reasons for the drop in competitiveness in 2019. The primary market for Malaysia’s
non-food-based coconut goods, such as coconut shell charcoal, and activated carbon, is
Japan. As demonstrated in Table 5, all five nations that export activated carbon to Japan
have negative index values, which suggests a lack of competitiveness. Despite the index’s
negative magnitude, its value increased from 2015 to 2018, going from an index value
of −1.59 to −0.87. This index shows a recovery in Malaysia’s competitiveness, and a
positive value is anticipated in 2022 or 2023. Comparing the other five countries, Malaysia’s
activated carbon has the greatest CEP value in Japan. All five nations are very competitive
in the production of coconut charcoal, as indicated by the positive magnitude of the CEP
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 6 of 31

index values in Japan. Malaysia’s CEP index rating is 1.84, placing it third behind Indonesia
and Vietnam with 1.96 and 1.86 respectively.

Table 5. The value of Malaysia’s CEP and competitor countries for the export of coconut. Products
in Japan.

Product Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Thailand Vietnam

Coconut activated
carbon
2015 −2.39 −1.59 −1.74 −2.51 −1.76
2016 −2.13 −1.57 −1.39 −2.36 −1.81
2017 −1.70 −1.11 −1.33 −1.42 −1.80
2018 −1.76 −0.87 −1.39 −1.84 −1.62
2019 NA NA NA NA NA
Coconut shell
charcoal
2015 2.98 2.69 NA 2.14 2.29
2016 2.91 2.85 NA 2.60 2.72
2017 0.99 0.97 −0.16 0.48 0.89
2018 1.04 1.02 0.29 0.57 1.00
2019 1.96 1.84 1.45 1.43 1.86
Source: Zakaria et al. [10].

A study by Zakaria et al. [10] said that Malaysia is one of the top countries that export
goods made from coconuts. In 2020, more than RM107 million (US$25.50 million) worth of
goods made from coconut shells will be sent abroad. According to the report, smallholders
who grow mature or old tall-type coconuts like the Malayan Tall account for the majority
of the coconut industry in Malaysia. According to the study, farmers who want to boost
their income should switch their coconut crops to new types that have excellent yields.
Mohd. Hafizuddin et al. [10] also pointed out that Malaysia’s coconut production is still not
enough to meet the sector’s needs and outlined several problems, difficulties, and solutions
for empowering the sector to become a source of new riches for Malaysia. The first issues
and challenges highlighted by researchers are that the local coconut farmers are not able to
compete with imports as higher demand has led to a higher market price which forces the
farmers to harvest young coconut for fresh consumption. As farmers choose to plant the
more lucrative oil palm instead, a lack of competition and a projected shortage of supply are
further issues that have been brought up. The Malayan Tall (92.2%), hybrid MATAG (4.3%),
MAWA (1.7%), Pandan (1.7%), and the Malayan Dwarf (0.2%) are the top five coconut
cultivars planted in Malaysia. Because the seedlings of other varieties are more expensive,
farmers choose to utilize the Malayan Tal variety, which yields less per hectare. Mohd.
Hafizuddin et al. [10] talked about the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry’s five
comprehensive strategies, such as making seedlings and growing plants. It was decided
that if steps are taken to help the country’s coconut industry grow, it will be possible
to reduce the country’s reliance on imports, advance the downstream industry, increase
smallholders’ incomes, and lower poverty at the same time. Asia currently provides 80% of
the world’s supply of coconuts, which is a significant source of income for many nations.
After Thailand and Vietnam, Malaysia moved up the rankings from 12th in 2018 to 10th in
2019 with a 0.8% share of global production [11].

1.2. Research Gap and Aim

There are interruptions in the future viability of Indonesia’s coconut supply chain,
which calls for an immediate long-term strategy for repair [12]. The intervention model
that was fitted shows that coconut production is declining with increasing magnitude. A
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 7 of 31

permanent quantity-reduced output of 120,524 tons is anticipated to begin in the second

quarter of 2013 as a result of the effect [13]. However, the two most important factors
impacting coconut yield are moisture stress at the beginning of floral primordia and
temperature stress at the beginning of nut setting [14]. Since there is already a shortage
of coconuts in many nations, including Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia [15], there will
be an increase in demand for it. Based on the aforementioned literature, it is shown that
the world coconut production level including Malaysia has reduced drastically which also
affects the supply chain of coconut and calls for immediate intervention. Finding out the
causes of the low level of coconut output is necessary before making efforts to overcome
these challenges. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, there is not a single work that
has reviewed studies on those issues related to the supply chain’s low level of coconut
output. As a result, the supply chain for coconuts as well as the issues related to their low
level of production have been examined in this study. Therefore, the research question of
this study is:
Are there challenges associated with the low level of coconut production and its
supply chain?

1.3. Implications
This study has some implications. It provides a thorough analysis of the challenges
associated with the volume of coconut production and its supply chain. However, it does
not include information on value addition in the supply chains for coconuts. Therefore,
a fantastic area for future research would be investigating value addition in the supply
chains for coconuts.

1.4. Contribution
This study will inform academicians and researchers about the numerous obstacles that
the coconut industry and its supply chain face, and it will subsequently conduct research
on potential solutions. Farmers would also benefit from this study by seeing the various
issues that are producing poor levels of coconut production and becoming more aware of
how to handle some of these issues. Additionally, it will inform decision-makers about
these issues so they are prepared to support the coconut producers. Government action
will improve coconut production, leading to more work opportunities for young people.
The number of coconuts produced would rise, raising the nation’s per capita income.

2. Coconut Industry: At a Glance

It is projected that 22,738,000 households in the member nations of the international
coconut community are growers [16]. It is a significant source of income for numerous
individuals who reside in rural locations all over the world. The coconut business supports
60 million households and employs 30 million farmers, both directly and indirectly through
the distribution, marketing, and processing of coconut and coconut-based goods [16].
Coconut suffers as a result of its fairly low profitability when compared to other industrial
tree crops like oil palm and rubber. In fact, oil palm and rubber have substantially larger
revenues per hectare per year. The comparisons, however, are not really fair because rubber
and oil palm is cultivated in estates in our neighbors’ countries, where the trees receive
proper fertilization and upkeep, whereas almost all of our coconuts receive little to no care
at all [17].
There needs to be a large quantity of replanting, according to the current situation of
the global planted area of coconuts and total nut production. This is due to the fact that
there haven’t been any significant replanting efforts over the past 20 to 30 years according
to Salum et al. [18], and on the farms, more than half of the coconut trees are elderly, over-
60-year-old senile trees. Additionally, there is evidence of a potential yield gap between
actual yields grown globally [19]. According to prior research, the difference between
anticipated potential yield and actual output, which is between 33% and 84% for nuts
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 8 of 31

and copra, is caused by elements including low-quality planting material, poor agronomic
methods, climatic pressures, and biotic variables [20].

2.1. Coconut Supply Chain

In general, a supply chain is made up of all the people and tasks that are directly or
indirectly involved in meeting a customer’s needs. The manufacturer, the supplier, the
transporters, the warehouses, the retailers, and the customers are all part of the supply
chain. Rozhan and Rohany [21] said that the benefits of good supply chain management
are that goods and services move through the chain as quickly as possible, costs go down,
customers get more value, and products are more competitive on the market.
There are only a few advantages for farmers and company owners with this sup-
ply chain channel. The economic value gained is relatively little due to the very low
added value of coconut and copra. Therefore, coconut fruit must be processed not only
till copra but also converted into industrial-scale coconut oil in order to create more eco-
nomic value for inhabitants of the Sula Islands district, especially for coconut farmers
and coconut business owners [22]. The processing sector faces significant issues due to
the increased compaction, and these could affect the future of the industry according to
Bandara & Kumari [23]. This is a result of the connection between population growth and
the significant increase in demand for coconut production and consumption. According to
Moreno et al. [24], the supply chains for coconut in the Philippines are multi-layered and in-
tricate, extending from the location of production to the nation’s domestic and international
markets. They found that the farmers didn’t have the technical and business skills they
needed to run the coconut plantations. They also found that the supply chains didn’t share
much information with the people further down the chain, which led to high marketing
costs. However, paddy growers in the Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh, India, struggle with
inadequate infrastructural facilities, a lack of a viable market, subpar storage facilities, and
a monopoly of buyers, which results in marketing inefficiency [25]. The effectiveness of
marketing, particularly in the agricultural markets, which is crucial in this regard, as well
as production or supply efficiency, have an impact on agriculture’s overall performance. It
is thought that the performance of the entire agricultural sector planning could improve
drastically if the marketing infrastructure, which is crucial to agricultural markets, were
planned appropriately.
To learn more about the sustainability of the Indonesian coconut supply chain, Gu-
nawan et al. [12] examined debates in online news articles. Using content analysis and
binary factor analysis, the study looked into and gathered information on the problem of
sustainability in the Indonesian coconut supply chain. This was done so that the problem
could be found and told. The study’s results shed light on the real state of Indonesia’s
coconut supply chain and could be used as a starting point for more research. They demon-
strated how the sustainability of the coconut supply chain is compromised, and how this
needs to be fixed right away with a long-term strategy. In order to determine the optimal
strategy for maintaining Indonesia’s coconut supply chain for a very long period, the re-
searchers advised that simulation research be used in subsequent studies. Alfaliansyah and
Maswadi [26] looked at how well the coconut supply chain worked in the Kubu Raya Dis-
trict, where supply chain management has become a big problem for the coconut industry.
To determine the efficient and effective coconut supply chain, performance measurement
was required.
Currently, in the Malaysian market, there are many varieties and brands of Virgin
coconut oil (VCO) accessible. Indonesia and the Philippines are the sources of most of these
Virgin coconut oils (VCO) which are sold at affordable prices. Either mechanical or organic
fermentation procedures are used to make them. The identity and quality features of the
virgin coconut oil (VCO) sold in the Malaysian market compared favorably with the APCC
standard range, although two VCO samples were found to be of poor quality due to their
high FFA and PV contents [27].
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 9 of 31

2.2. Coconut Value Chain

The Value Chain (VC) principle is used all over the world to get the most out of
agricultural production by refining and turning raw materials into finished goods and
services with higher rates of return. A value chain network, according to Porter [28],
is the collection of actions required to move a product from the producer to the final
customer. These activities include coming up with the idea, designing it, getting raw
materials and other inputs, marketing it, and distributing it. Whereas Odero et al. [29]
describe value chains as subgroups of activities that take place inside and outside an
organization that lead to the creation of a product or service. The value chain includes all
events such as procurement of input, processing, transformation, and promotion until the
final consumption and disposal [30]. The agricultural value chain is made up of all the
operations and people who are involved in getting agricultural goods from their sources to
the fields of farmers and then to consumers [30].
Reddy et al. [31] stated during an analysis of the value chain of fruits and vegetables
in India that farmers with value chains had higher total market shares and earned higher
prices than other stakeholders. When sufficient training is provided, the study finds that
retailers play a crucial role in the value chain by closing the knowledge gap between
farmers and merchants. The results of the study demonstrate the need to develop
broker capacity to provide the farmers connected to exporters with information on
demand and production. Miller & Jones [30] also discussed how effective value chains
connecting farmers to markets will cut down on the need for middlemen and boost
value-adding activities through improved technology and inputs, processing, exports,
and advanced infrastructure.
Due to the crop’s adaptability and the diverse uses of its products, Kalidas et al. [32]
recognized coconut as the “kalpavriksha”, which is Sanskrit for “tree from heaven”. In the
study, the researchers analyzed the challenges faced by the various players, including the
Indian coconut value chain’s farmers, harvest contractors, exporters, commission agents,
retailers, processors, and wholesalers. According to Pathiraja et al. [33], the economic
model of the coconut value chain has been developed, allowing for the prediction of
welfare effects as well as the impact of shifting climatic conditions on yield. Their research
revealed that the Sri Lankan coconut value chain could be significantly negatively affected
by projected future climate change scenarios. Kumar and Kapoor [4] advised that the state
industry department, the state agriculture department, and the Coconut Development
Board collaborate to create companies based on the coco-nut in their 2010 study on the
value chain analysis of the coconut in Orissa, India. They said that increasing the number of
stakeholders will facilitate the major institutional players’ joint efforts to promote agri-based
enterprises. Similarly, Man and Shah [4] suggested that coconut farmers work together with
the extension agents and that the agricultural extension agencies should inspire the farmers
to actively take part in the production of coconuts and help them solve any problems on
the farm that are stopping them from doing so.
Young and Pelamo [34] focused on the Solomon Islands coconut value chain analysis
and concluded that it is extremely complex due to the numerous products that can be
obtained from the coconut palm and the fact that many value chain actors perform multiple
functions spanning multiple sub-sectors. According to Ab-dulsamad [35], the worldwide
value chain for coconuts contains three main end markets and associated value chains. The
coconut food chain, the coconut “sports drink” chain, and the coconut oleochemicals chain
are those. This structure is complex and versatile. The researcher added that no prior study
had completely examined the global value chain for coconuts.
Nor et al. [3] gathered data on the management system, cost of production, and tech-
nical and labor efficiency of coconut farm operations, as well as the profiles of coconut
farmers. The findings indicated that MYR 9739.18/ha/yr was the total cost of production
for coconuts. The largest expense, accounting for 34.4% of the total, was labor. According to
the study’s findings, labor-intensive traditional methods were used for the majority of the
time when cultivating coconuts. Therefore, the industry’s growth should be centered on im-
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 10 of 31

proving technology, such as the utilization of superior coconut seedling kinds and efficient
planting techniques. It was also mentioned that using new hybrids and mechanization will
enable farmers to utilize less labor while producing more.
In their study, Omar and Fatah [36] said that increasing the output of smallholder
coconut farms in Johor, Malaysia, was very important for the technological efficiency of
crop production. The study finds that increasing fertilizers, fungicides, and planted areas
all have a good impact on coconut yield. The study also discovered that the key predictors
of technical efficiency were transportation, education, and experience. All parties engaged
in directly or indirectly completing a customer’s request are included in a supply chain.
It covers not just the producer and suppliers, but also transporters, warehouses, retailers,
and even the actual customers, according to Chopra and Meindl [37]. The supply chain of
each organisation, such as a manufacturer, entails all activities involved in receiving and
meeting client requests.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Search Strategy
With the assistance of a knowledgeable librarian, the search strategy was created.
During a preliminary search procedure, search phrases were created, and iterated upon
until final terms were established. The terms “coconut value chain” OR “coconut supply
chain” OR “demand for coconut” OR “coconut production” OR “distribution of coconut”
OR “countries comparison of coconut” OR “import of coconut” OR “export of coconut”
OR “marketing of coconut” OR “coconut value added” OR “production of coconut” were
used to find titles and abstracts. The search strategy that was made in Scopus was put
to use in the Web of Science, Google Scholar, Proquest, Science Direct, and Springer Link
databases. Searching for publications from 2013 to 2022, respectable and well-known
electronic databases (Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Proquest, Science Direct, and
Springer Link) were explored for peer-reviewed and original research.

3.2. Study Selection

Duplicates were eliminated after citations were extracted from six databases using
EndNote and the Systematic Re-view Assistant-Deduplication tool. After then, Covidence
was used to screen imported citations [38]. Titles and abstracts were examined for relevance
in comparison to the inclusion criteria, and the entire text of pertinent publications was
then used to repeat the process [39] as presented in the Table 6. Challenges associated with
the level of coconut production and its supply chain served as the context of interest. This
permitted the inclusion of any article regarding the obstacles facing the level of coconut
production and its supply chain (export, import, distribution). Studies that were not
carried out in a scenario where obstacles facing the level of coconut production or problems
associated with the supply chain existed were disregarded. Studies that were published in
a peer-reviewed journal, and employed a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methodologies
design, were observational or interventional studies. Acceptable submission formats
included theses, conference abstracts, study protocols, comments, editorials, opinion pieces,
grey literature, and systematic or narrative literature reviews.

Table 6. The selection criterion is searching.

Criterion Inclusion Exclusion

Language English Non-English
Timeline 2013–2022 <2013
Literature type Journal (book chapter, conference proceeding)
Document Type Article Review, Conference Paper Book Chapter, Book
Subject Area Agribusiness and Agricultural Science Besides Agribusiness and Agricultural Sciences
Source: Developed by authors.
 Subject Area
Agricultural Science Agricultural Sciences
Source: Developed by authors.

3.3. Study Selection

Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 11 of 31

Due to the lack of research on coconut production level issues and its supply chain,
database searches turned up a total of 1150 records. After removing 1095 articles that fall
3.3. Study Selection
below 2013 and non-English then 12 duplicate articles were removed. A comprehensive
Due to the lack of research on coconut production level issues and its supply chain,
text review of 43 studies
database done.turned
wassearches 43 articles were
up a total accessed
of 1150 records. to determine
After their
removing 1095 eligibility.
articles that fall
At the full-text review, 6 articles
below 2013 and were eliminated
non-English then 12because
duplicatethey could
articles not be translated
were removed. from
A comprehensive
text review of 43 studies was done. 43 articles were accessed
languages other than English and because some of them were off-topic. 37 papers in total to determine their eligibility.
At the full-text review, 6 articles were eliminated because they could not be translated
satisfied the requirements for inclusion
from languages in thisandreview
other than English due oftothem
because some minimal studies
were off-topic. on the
37 papers in
coconut production level issuesthe
total satisfied and its supply
requirements forchain (Figure
inclusion 3). due to minimal studies on the
in this review
coconut production level issues and its supply chain (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Flow diagramFigure

of the search
3. Flow method.
diagram of the search method.

3.4. Coding Procedures

Special emphasis was given to papers that were anticipated to serve as the foundation
of a systematic framework during the literature search and early categorization. The publi-
cations were then categorized using an initial coding system according to the study’s goal,
methodology, and key findings. As the analysis process goes along, the code framework is
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 12 of 31

modified. The information gleaned from each article was regularly contrasted in light of
the constant comparative technique to reanalyze and revise the framework [40]. During
the coding process, three coders were employed to ensure the validity, accuracy, and con-
sistency of the findings [41]. The purpose of the coding was to find themes and patterns in
the volume of coconut production level issues and its coconut supply challenges. All of the
coders agreed on the results in the end.

4. Results
To solve the problems associated with the decrease in the production of coconut and
its supply chain, it is paramount to know those factors that are causing a reduction in the
coconut production level and its supply chain. This criterion will help to find a good way
to deal with the problems as the value chain of coconut could not be achieved without
adequate production and supply (export) to the end users. This study reveals that (n = 4)
articles such as Ganeshkumar & Gopala [42], Pathmeswaran et al. [43], Abhinav et al. [44]
and Pole et al. [45] who identified the level of coconut production to be declining in
volume due to a decrease in seasonal rainfall and the extreme summer air temperature.
This indicates that the supply chain will be affected as identified by the (n = 2) article
by Gunawan et al. [12] and Kappil et al. [46] who disclosed that there are disruptions
in the coconut supply chain’s ability to remain sustainable. Likewise, the (n = 1) article
by Narmadha et al. [47] concluded that the decrease in the level of coconut production
is due to both an area effect and a yield effect. Furthermore, Masinading & Capili [13],
Moreno et al. [24], and Rethinam [15] in different (n = 3) articles revealed that Coconut
production is declining with increasing magnitude. In a situation whereby production is
low and the demand keeps on increasing, it leads to limited supply and as s a result of this,
there will be a failure in meeting the coconut demand. However, as identified in an (n = 2)
article by Salvacion [48] and Andal [49] revealed that rainfall, soil, and the interaction of
some elements with slope are additional land constraints for coconut cultivation in the
province. Another issue related to the decline in coconut production and its supply chain
was revealed in an article (n = 1) by Davila [50]. Farmers in rural areas are confined to
agrarian systems that have been shaped for a very long time by colonial institutions and
social structures.
According to Muyengi et al. [51], Alouw and Wulandari [52], Gurbuz & Manaros [53],
Kalidas et al. [32] in thre articles (n = 4), pests, senility, and diseases, inferior varieties,
inadequate agronomic methods, and land transformation were some of the technological,
political, and social variables that led to the low coconut production. The exportation of
coconut is one way that coconut products get to different parts of the world. Varying the
genetic abilities of different cultivars, producing cultivars with long, economically produc-
tive life spans (usually greater than 50 years) and long juvenile phases, and maintaining
levels of germplasm variation are the factors that affect the level of coconut production
and the coconut supply chain, according to an (n = 1) article by Perera [54]. According
to an article (n = 1) by Omara and Fatah [55], a variety of factors, including fungicides,
land, labor, education, experience, and extension visits, have an impact on how profitable
coconut farming is. They found that internal issues with coconut production included
intercropping, labor costs that were high compared to other crops, far distance of the land
from farm to market road, and low and unstable prices for coconut products. Additionally,
Sivakumar and Parvez [56] claimed in a paper that increased chemical use and tainted
water from domestic waste caused a decline in coconut productivity. The wide sections
of midland laterites and the Onattukara sandy plain, characterized by significant acid
reactions and high levels of aluminum in soil solutions, as reported in an article (1) by
Nair et al. [57], severely limit coconut production.
According to Nenci et al. [58], the productivity of coconuts in Guyana and Jamaica
is influenced by the kind of workforce—occasional or permanent—and the presence of
an irrigation system. In addition, as mentioned in an article by Jayasekhar et al. [59],
concentrated efforts are needed to successfully utilise the potential connections between
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 13 of 31

strong research support and technology delivery systems for increasing production and
marketing efficiencies. The difficulties, according to Datang et al.’s article [60], included low
output because of poor farming practises and a lack of potent political support. Additionally,
a study (n = 1) by Bhalerao et al. [61] found that low levels of coconut production are caused
by a number of issues, including small land holdings, a lack of labour and high labour
costs, a high plant density of over 200 plants per hectare combined with poor management
practices, and a serious infestation of diseases and pests. Coconuts have gradually slipped
in popularity as a result of their inexpensive price. Additionally, the coconut palm’s output
has decreased due to its average age, which is in the decline stage [62]. Natural resources
in coconut gardens are being depleted, and there are issues with the soil, inadequate
irrigation systems, a lack of good-quality planting materials, a manpower shortage, and
excessive wages. According to Thamban et al. [63] in an article (n = 1), crop loss due to
the occurrence of numerous pests and diseases, especially huge loss due to the root (wilt)
disease, low level of product diversity, etc. negatively affects coconut farming in the state.
There are still barriers: coconut growers are poorly organized, and state support is heavily
dependent on nationally financed programs and schemes [64]. Similar to this, factors
causing issues with cultivation and maintenance include power outages, frequent pest
and disease attacks, monsoon failure, high fertilizer and boosting chemical costs, a lack of
high-quality fertilizer and boosting chemicals, a decrease in groundwater levels, and a lack
of high-quality seedling availability [65].
High rates of pests and diseases, poor agronomic practises, low-quality planting
materials, and a limited genetic base are some of the difficulties [66]. In two papers
published by Imminent, it is stated that climate change is causing West Bengal to experience
a deficit in rainfall, more cyclones, and invasive pests. Coconut palms are also suffering
extensive damage as a result of whitefly invasion. The plantations are also becoming less
viable due to stem bleeding, bud rots disease, and insects like the rhinoceros beetle, red
palm weevil, and eriophyid mite [67]. The issues are a lack of government assistance,
a lack of human resources, and inadequate facilities and infrastructures to sustain the
active coconut market, as indicated in two Arifin publications [68]. In an article (n = 1),
Lin et al. [69] claimed that low voice and accountability scores cause the trade in coconut
products to drop. Similar to this, Kumar et al.’s article [70] came to the conclusion that the
farmer faced severe marketing difficulties as a result of market price volatility. Arumugam
& Hatta [71] noted that the worldwide coconut sector needs to address a number of pressing
issues right away, including sluggish production, inadequate planting supplies, the effects
of climate change, pests, and diseases. The high cost of labor is the biggest issue facing
coconut growers in the province, according to Manaros & Gurbuz [72]. According to
Jayawardhana & Warnakulasooriya [73], low coconut output levels are caused by farmers’
poor agricultural techniques, a lack of government aid, and the adverse consequences of
urbanization. In conclusion, the main issues faced by the coconut growers throughout
the pandemic period included a lack of high-quality saplings, finances, high costs, and
labor issues [74]. In Table 7, we have crafted a captivating summary of the key themes
explored in our research. This carefully constructed visual representation offers readers a
compelling glimpse into the core aspects of our study. By condensing the main findings
into a single table, we aim to engage readers and pique their curiosity, enticing them to
delve deeper into the intricate details and implications of each theme. We believe that this
unique presentation adds an element of intrigue and captivation to our paper, enhancing
its overall appeal and making it an engaging read for both experts in the field and those
new to the topic.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 14 of 31

Table 7. Popular dimensions used in value- and supply-chain analyses.

Themes Features Count

Drop in seasonal rainfall and the extreme summer
Theme 1 4
air temperature.
Theme 2 Area effect and yield effect. 2
Indonesia’s sustainable coconut supply chain
Theme 3 1
encounters problems.
Theme 4 Coconut production is declining with increasing magnitude. 3
Rainfall, soil, and the interaction of these elements with
Theme 5 2
slope are additional land constraints.
The trade in coconut products declines as a result of voice
Theme 6 1
and accountability scores.
Farmers are imprisoned in an agricultural system that is
impacted by a lengthy history of colonial institutions and
Theme 7 1
social structures due to unequal access to education and
training in rural systems.
poor agronomic practices, pests and diseases, inferior
varieties, Senility, and land conversion were among the
Theme 8 4
technological, political, and socioeconomic factors that
contributed to the low coconut production.
Long juvenile phase, long economically productive life span
(typically exceeding 50 years), variation in genetic potential
among cultivars, and levels of germplasm diversity are a
Theme 9 1
few of the main inherent factors, whereas environmental
factors, such as biotic and abiotic stresses, pose the main
challenges for the sustainability of coconut cultivation.
Different elements such as land, labor, fungicides,
Theme 10 experience, education, and extension visits affected the 1
coconut output.
The long distance between the farm and the market road,
intercropping, the high cost of labor, and the low and
Theme 11 unstable pricing of coconut products were internal issues 4
with coconut production that contributed to the
apparent issues.
Coconut productivity fell as a result of increased pesticide
Theme 12 1
use and poor water quality from domestic waste.
The wide areas of midland laterites and Onattukara sandy
Theme 13 plain with strong acid reaction and aluminium in soil 1
solution significantly inhibit coconut growth.
Analysis reveals that in Guyana and Jamaica, the
productivity of coconuts is influenced by the type of
Theme 14 1
personnel, whether temporary or permanent, and the
presence of an irrigation system.
There aren’t enough coordinated efforts being made to take
advantage of the potential synergies between robust
Theme 15 1
research infrastructure and technology delivery networks
for boosting production and marketing efficiencies.
The challenges that included low yield due to inadequate of
Theme 16 1
farming practices and lack of strong political assistance.
The small size of land holdings, Labour shortage and high
labor charges, Combined with poor management practises,
Theme 17 a high plant density of around 200 plants per hectare, and 1
severe infestation of diseases and pests are all the problems
leading to low levels of coconut production.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 15 of 31

Table 7. Cont.

Themes Features Count

It gradually loses ground because of the low price.
Theme 18 Additionally, because of its declining production and 1
average age, coconut palms are less productive.
Natural resources in coconut gardens are being depleted,
and there are issues with the soil, inadequate irrigation
systems, a lack of good-quality planting materials, a
manpower shortage, and excessive wages. Coconut farming
Theme 19 1
in the state is negatively impacted by crop loss due to the
occurrence of different pests and diseases, particularly
significant loss due to root (wilt) disease, low degree of
product diversification, etc.
Coconut growers are poorly organised and state support is
20 strongly linked to nationally financed projects and 1
programmes, thus restrictions still apply.
Power outages, frequent pest and disease attacks, monsoon
failure, high fertiliser and boosting chemical costs, lack of
quality fertiliser and boosting chemicals availability,
21 1
groundwater level depletion, and lack of quality seedling
availability are all factors that contribute to problems with
cultivation and maintenance.
High rates of pests and diseases, poor agronomic practises,
22 low-quality planting materials, and a limited genetic 1
foundation are some of the difficulties.
In West Bengal, impending climate change is causing
cyclones, rainfall deficits, invading pests, and more.
Coconut palms are also suffering extensive damage as a
23 result of whitefly invasion. The plantations are also 2
becoming unhealthy due to stem bleeding, bud rot disease,
and insects like the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, and
eriophyid mite.
Lack of government backing, a lack of human resources,
24 and a lack of facilities and infrastructure to support the 2
coconut market activities are the issues.
Source: Developed by authors.

4.1. Study Characteristics

Studies were released between 2013 and 2022, one study was conducted in 2023,
five studies were conducted in 2022, four were conducted in 2021, and thirteen studies
in 2020 whereas three were conducted in 2019, four were conducted in 2018, in 2016 six
were conducted but only one was conducted in each 2014 and 2015. Out of thirty-eight
studies, seven were conducted in the Philippines, three in Indonesia, three in Sri Lanka,
eighteen were conducted in India, meanwhile two studies were conducted in Malaysia,
one in each Germany and Guyana and Jamaica, lastly, two studies were conducted in
Kenya. Different research reached different conclusions. Coconut production is one of
the crops which boost most of the producing countries’ economies. However, it was
discovered that the coconut production level has been reduced drastically. Therefore, it
is imperative to know those factors contributing to the reduction in the coconut produc-
tion level. For example, a study conducted by Ganeshkumar and Gopala Krishna [42]
revealed that the irregularities caused by the ongoing drop in seasonal rainfall and the
extreme summer air temperature conditions may have contributed to the inter-annual
discrepancy in coconut yield between 2010 and 2014. The first study by Moreno et al.
found that one of the biggest problems with exporting coconut products is that pro-
duction is going down, which means that the Philippines can’t meet demand on the
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 16 of 31

global market. The second study by Narmadha et al. [47] found both area effect and
yield effect as the key factors in the overall change in coconut output among the chosen
states, according to decomposition analysis. However, the outcomes of the Indonesian
study by Gunawan et al., [12] revealed that there are interruptions in the sustainability
of the country’s supply chain for coconuts, necessitating the development of an instant
long-term plan for its refurbishment. Similarly, Masinading & Capili [13] show that
coconut production is declining with increasing magnitude. A Permanently reduced
output of 120,524 tons is anticipated to begin in the second quarter of 2013 as a result
of the effect. Other factors include the study of Salvacion [48] who stated that soil,
rainfall, and the interaction of these elements with slope are additional land constraints
for coconut cultivation in the province.
Moreno et al. [24] also came to the conclusion that one of the primary problems
with the export of coconut goods is the diminishing production, as a result of which
the demand in the international market was not met. The trade of coconut goods with
both levels of value addition is reduced by higher voice and accountability ratings, per
a study conducted in Germany by Lin et al. [69]. Likewise, Rethinam’s [15] research
in India discovered that given the current shortage of coconuts in various countries
including Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, there will be a rise in demand for them.
Unbalanced admittance to education and training in rural areas keeps farmers in an
agricultural scheme that has been prejudiced for a very long time by colonial institutions
and social structures [50]. However, Coconut output was hampered by poor agronomic
methods, a lack of inputs, and a lack of extension services, among other factors [51].
Similarly, Alouw and Wulandari [52] list pests and diseases, poor agronomic methods,
inferior varieties, senility, and land conversion as some of the technological, political,
and socioeconomic reasons that contributed to the low coconut production. On the other
hand, farmers’ financial security may be impacted by an unfavorable supply chain, a
limited assortment of items, subpar product quality, and a monoculture farming strategy,
while Perera [54] listed a few of the primary innate factors, including a prolonged
juvenile phase, a long economically productive life span (“typically exceeding 50 years”),
variances in genetic potential among different cultivars, degrees of germplasm variety,
and environmental factors, such as biotic and abiotic stressors, as being some of the
major factors related to the sustainability of coconut farming. According to Omara and
Fatah [55], a variety of elements, such as land, labor, fungicides, experience, education,
and extension visits, have an impact on profitability. The main issues that coconut
producers have faced in terms of problems internal to coconut production, according
to Gurbuz and Manaros [53], include the high cost of labor intercropping, the low and
unstable prices of the products to deal with the apparent problems in coconut cultivation,
and the long distances from farms to market roads. Moreover, it was discovered that
there were serious concerns with pests and diseases, challenges with nut collection,
high transportation costs for marketing issues, and government levies for the obviously
problematic situation. According to Nair et al. [57], strong acid reaction, large areas of
midland laterites, the Onattukara sandy plain, and aluminium in soil solution severely
inhibit coconut growth. However, Pathmeswaran et al. [43] revealed that productivity in
the dry zone was negatively impacted by the frequency of high Tmax and high rainfall
days throughout the course of the study period. According to Sivakumar and Parvez
Ahmed [56], the rate of coconut output is flexible since coconut productivity fell as a
result of the poor water quality from residential waste and increased chemical use.
The problems are a lack of government assistance, a lack of labour, and inadequate
facilities and infrastructure to support the operations of the coconut market [69]. According
to Kumar et al. [70], one of the main marketing challenges farmers encountered was market
price fluctuation. Nenci et al. [58] assert, however, that the output of coconuts in Guyana
and Jamaica is influenced by the presence of an irrigation system as well as the type of
workforce—whether temporary or perpetual. The global coconut sector, according to
Arumugam and Hatta [71], must also immediately address a number of serious concerns,
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 17 of 31

such as inadequate planting materials, the effects of climate change, stagnant production,
pests, and diseases. Similar to this, Biswas [67] came to the conclusion that West Bengal
is seeing an increase in invasive pests, cyclones, and deficits in rainfall due to imminent
climate change. The infestation of whiteflies is also seriously harming coconut palms.
insects, bud rot disease, and stem bleeding including the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil,
and eriophyid mite are all contributing to the plantations’ declining health. Coconut
indicates the significance of the price effect and yield effect with reference to the overall
change in coconut output across the selected states [46]. In Table 8, we have thoughtfully
compiled a concise yet comprehensive summary of the research article findings, strictly
based on the predefined search criteria. By meticulously curating and organizing the results
spanning from 2013 to 2022, we aim to provide readers with a clear and succinct overview
of the key insights and trends observed in the literature. This condensed presentation
allows for a quick and focused examination of the research landscape, enabling researchers
and practitioners to grasp the main outcomes and implications of the studies within the
specified time frame efficiently.
Manaros and Gurbuz’s [72] revealed that the high cost of labour is the major issue
facing the province’s coconut farmers. Poor agricultural practices by farmers, a lack of
government support, and the detrimental consequences of urbanization are all factors in
the low level of coconut production, according to Jayawardhana & Warnakulasooriya [73].
It was evident that yield decline caused by pest and disease and excessive price fluctuation
are the two primary problems the numerous stakeholders in coconut production and
marketing face [32].
In order to increase production and marketing efficiency, concerted efforts must
be made to fully exploit the potential connections between solid research support and
technology delivery system [59]. Additionally, a study by Datang et al. [60] discovered
that inadequate farming practises and lack governmental support are among the issues
causing low yield. Other factors that contribute to low levels of coconut production include
tiny land holdings, a shortage of labour and high labour expenses, a high plant density of
over 200 plants per hectare paired with poor management practises, and severe disease
and insect infestations [61]. However, coconut gradually loses ground because of the low
price. Additionally, because of the coconut palm’s declining output due to its typical
ageing [62]. According to Abhinav et al. [44], changes in rainfall patterns in Kerala’s
Kozhikode and Malappuram districts have had a substantial impact on the production of
coconuts. Additionally, the patchy rainfall that Kenya’s coastal region has been receiving
has led to low productivity and the death of many coconut trees [45]. Due to low costs
and the average age of coconut palms, which are declining, the coconut industry slowly
loses market share [63]. The depletion of natural resources in coconut gardens was also
highlighted by Thamban et al. [63] in addition to soil-related issues, subpar irrigation
systems, a lack of high-quality planting materials, a lack of qualified employees, and
exorbitant salary rates.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379
Table 8. The research article finding based on the proposed searching criterion.
S/N Authors
Ganeshkumar B and
1 Gopala Krishna GVT
[42]
Narmadha, N.,
Karunakaran, K. R.,
2 Anjugam, M.,
Palanisamy, N. V., &
Vasanthi, R. [47]
Gunawan, I., Trihastuti,
3 Coconut Supply Chain
D., and Mulyana, I.J [12]
Masinading, G. M., &
4 Coconut Production In
Capili, A. F. [13]
5 Salvacion Arnold R. [48]
“Moreno, M. L.,
6 Kuwornu, J. K., & Szabo,
S” [24]
“Lin, J., Flachsbarth, I., &
7 von Cramon-Taubadel,
S.” [69]
Title
Spatial assessment of
climate variability effects on
coconut crops in Tamil Nadu
State—A case study
An Economic Analysis on
Indian Scenario of Coconut
Production: Trends
and Prospects
“Sustainability Issues of the
in Indonesia”
Intervention Analysis of the
Davao Oriental
Mapping land limitations
for agricultural land use
planning using fuzzy logic
approach: a case study for
Marinduque
Island, Philippines
“Overview and Constraints
of the Coconut Supply
Chain in the Philippines”
“The role of institutional
quality on the performance
in the export of
coconut products”
Aim (s)
The spatial assessment of climate
variability effects on coconut crop felt in
Dindigul and Attur Taluks of Dindigul
District, Tamil Nadu State, through
applying geospatial technologies.
To examine the coconut sector’s growth
performance and instability in the
Indian context.
To investigate and build the information
necessary to identify and describe the
issue of the long-term viability of the
Indonesian coconut supply chain.
conducted with the goal of determining
how Typhoon Pablo affected Davao
Oriental’s coconut production, a province
that produces coconuts in the Philippines.
The study used publicly accessible data
for the province of Marindu-que, the
Philippines, to illustrate the usage of
fuzzy logic technique in mapping land
restrictions for agricultural land
use planning.
“Study provides an overview of the
coconut supply chain in the Philippines”
To investigate institutional quality and its
effects on bilateral coconut commerce
based on three indicators from the World
Bank’s world governance indicators.
18 of 31
Country Setting Key Findings Year
The irregularities caused by the ongoing drop in
seasonal rainfall and the extreme summer air
India temperature conditions may have contributed to 2022
the inter-annual discrepancy in coconut yield
between 2010 and 2014.
The area effect and yield effect are key factors in
India the overall change in coconut output among the 2022
chosen states, according to decomposition analysis.
The outcome demonstrates that there are
disruptions in the sustainability of Indonesia’s
Indonesia coconut supply chain, necessitating the 2021
development of an immediate, long-term strategy
for restoration.
The intervention model that was fitted shows that
coconut production is declining with increasing
Philippines. magnitude. Permanently reduced output of 2021
120,524 tons is anticipated to begin in the second
quarter of 2013 as a result of the effect.
For the cultivation of coconuts and bananas, slope
is a limitation in around 80% and 18% of the
province’s agricultural land, respectively. Rainfall,
Philippines 2021
soil, and the interaction of these elements with
slope are additional land constraints for coconut
cultivation in the province.
One of the main issues with the export of coconut
products is the diminishing production volume,
Philippines 2020
which made it impossible to satisfy global
market demand.
According to our research, whereas higher voice
and accountability scores encourage the trade of
Germany high-value goods, they deter it for coconut 2020
products with both low and high levels of
value addition.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379
Table 8. Cont.
S/N Authors Title
Human ecology and food
discourses in a smallholder
8 Davila Federico [50]
agricultural system in Leyte,
the Philippines
Present status and outlook
Alouw J. C and
9 of coconut development
Wulandari S. [52]
in Indonesia
Genetic Improvement for
Sustainability of Coconut
10 Perera S. A. C. N [54]
Production: The Sri
Lankan Experience
Unravelling the factors
affecting agriculture
Omara Z. and
11 profitability enterprise:
Fatah A. F. [55]
Evidence from coconut
smallholder production
Aim (s)
This study looks at how market food
security and food sovereignty principles
are reflected in the agricultural practices
of smallholder farmers.
An overview of the current state of
coconut development in Indonesia, recent
technological developments for coconut
enhancement, and the prospects for
coconut development until 2045 are
provided in this paper.
To research the influences on the coconut
industry’s sustainability and the
productivity of the coconut palm, both
internal and external.
To research the concerns surrounding the
district of Batu Pahat in Johor’s
socioeconomic state, profitability, and
coconut production
19 of 31
Country Setting Key Findings Year
Farmers are entrapped in an agricultural system
that has been formed by a long history of colonial
institutions and social structures because of
Philippines 2020
continuous support for coconut cultivation and
unequal accessibility to education and expertise in
rural areas.
Among the technological, political, and
socioeconomic factors that contributed to the low
cocoa-nut production were pests and diseases,
inferior varieties, senility, land conversion, and
Indonesia poor agro-nomic practices. On the other hand, an 2020
unfavorable supply chain, a small selection of
goods, poor product quality, and a
monoculture-planting system may have an effect
on farmers’ financial well-being.
The primary inherent factors for the sustainability
of coconut farming are the relatively long juvenile
phase, the long economic productive life span
(typically exceeding 50 years), the varying genetic
Sri Lanka 2020
potential of different cultivars, and the levels of
germplasm diversity, while environmental factors,
such as biotic and abiotic stresses, represent the
main challenges.
The findings show that a variety of factors,
including land, labor, fungicides, experience,
Malaysia 2020
extension visits, and education had an impact on
the coconut output.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379
Table 8. Cont.
S/N Authors
Gurbuz I. B. and
12
Manaros M. [53] Problems Faced By Coconut
Norte Province, Philippines
Nair, K. M., Abdul Haris,
A., Mathew, J.,
13 Srinivasan, V., Dinesh,
R., Hamza, H., . . . &
Singh, S. K. [57]
Pathmeswaran, C.,
Lokupitiya, E.,
14
Waidyarathne, K. P., &
Lokupitiya, R. S. [43]
15 Rethinam, P. [15]
Water pollution’s effects on
Sivakumar, K., & Parvez
16
Ahmed, M. P. [56]
17 Arifin, Z. A. [68]
Title
Impact of Coconut To ascertain the environmental effects of
Production on the
Environment and the
Producers In Lanao Del
Coconut-growing soils of
Kerala: 2. Assessment of
fertility and soil related
constraints to
coconut production
Effects of harsh weather on
Sri Lanka’s three climate
zones’ coconut production
coconut oil, copra meal/copra cake, fresh
International scenario of
coconut sector.
To assess how pollution of water in Tamil
coconut farming in Tamil
Nadu’s Vellore District
The Analysis of Coconut coconut market value chain in Indragiri
Market Value Chain. Hilir, Riau Province, in order to improve
Aim (s)
coconut cultivation, the challenges that
producers confront both internally and
externally, the variables affecting yield,
and the methods that producers use to
increase yield.
Assessment of fertility and soil-related
constraints to coconut production
To determine how harsh weather
conditions affect coconut productivity.
To give a breakdown of how much
coconut, desiccated coconut, coconut
milk, cream, milk powder, coconut shell
charcoal, activated carbon, coir, and coir
products are consumed domestically as
well as internationally.
Nadu’s Vellore District affects
coconut output
To investigate the management of the
agricultural economic growth.
20 of 31
Country Setting Key Findings Year
The study found that intercropping, labor costs
that were high relative to other industries, low and
unstable prices for coconut products, and the
extreme distance of the land from the farm to the
market road were the major issues that the coconut
Philippines 2019
producers faced. In addition, significant issues
with pests and illnesses, challenges with nut
collection, high transportation costs in marketing,
and government taxes for the obvious problem
were noted.
Coconut is severely restricted by the vast regions of
midland laterites and Onattukara sandy plain with
India strong acid reaction and aluminum in soil solution. 2018
Additionally, the acid soils are deficient in boron,
copper, zinc, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
In the dry zone, productivity was positively
impacted by the mean rainfall and negatively
Sri Lanka 2018
impacted by the number of high Tmax and high
rainfall days throughout the study period.
There will be a rise in demand for coconuts
because there is already a shortage in many
India 2018
nations, including Thailand, Malaysia,
and Indonesia.
Since the productivity of coconuts decreased as a
result of the poor quality of water from domestic
India 2016
waste and increased chemical use, the rate of
coconut production is flexible.
Lack of government assistance, a lack of human
resources, and a lack of adequate infrastructure
Indonesia 2022
and facilities to support market activity for cocoa
nuts are the issues.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379
Table 8. Cont.
S/N Authors Title
Kumar, M. S.,
A study of marketing
Chandrakumar, M.,
18 constraints among coconut
Deepa, N., &
farmers in Palakkad district
Selvi, R. P. [70]
Coconut productivity in the
Nenci, S., Pietrobelli, C.,
Caribbean: Relational value
19 De Angelis, M., &
chains in
Manson, H. [58]
traditional farming.
Improving Coconut Using
Arumugam, T., & Hatta, Modern Breeding
20
M. A. M. [71] Technologies: Challenges
and Opportunities.
Decomposing the
Kappil, S. R., Aneja, R., & performance metrics of
21
Rani, P. [46] coconut cultivation in the
South Indian States.
Assessment of Labor Issues
Manaros, M., & Faced by the Coconut
22
Gurbuz, I. B. [72] producer in Lanao del
Norte Province.
Impact of Problems
associated with Supply
Chain Management
Jayawardhana, M. B. S.
Practices of Wholesalers on
M. T., &
23 their Business Performance
Warnakulasooriya,
in the Coconut Industry in
B. N. F [73]
Sri Lanka with special
reference to
Kurunegala District.
Aim (s) Country Setting
To pinpoint the issues that farmers have
with marketing and production and to
India
offer advice on how to get around
obstacles.
To use the fresh data from two original
farm-level surveys in Guyana and Guyana and
Jamaica to enhance our knowledge of Jamaica.
coconut production in the Caribbean.
To improve the limitations of present
breeding techniques and the promise of
biotechnological technologies including
Malaysia
genomic-assisted breeding,
next-generation sequencing (NGS)-based
genotyping, and genome editing tools.
This study looks at the production and
yield of coconuts in the key
coconut-producing states of India from India
2000–2001 to 2017–2018, as well as the
growth trends in the region.
To assess the labor issues encountered by
Philippines
coconut producers
To examine the impact of problems
associated with SCM practices of coconut
wholesalers on their business Sri Lanka
performance with special reference to
Kurunegala district, Sri Lanka.
21 of 31
Key Findings Year
The study also came to the conclusion that the
farmer experienced significant marketing 2022
challenges due to market price volatility.
Analysis reveals that in Guyana and Jamaica, the
productivity of coconuts is influenced by the type
2023
of personnel, whether temporary or permanent,
and the presence of an irrigation system.
Stagnant production, poor planting supplies, the
effects of climate change, pests, and diseases are a
2022
few of the major problems that the global coconut
industry needs to address immediately.
It demonstrates that the yield impact and pricing
effect are significant factors in the overall change in 2021
coconut production among the chosen states.
According to the survey, the main challenge faced
by coconut growers in the province is the high cost 2020
of labour.
Farmers’ poor agricultural practices, a lack of
government assistance, and the negative effects 2020
of urbanization.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379
Table 8. Cont.
S/N Authors
24 Biswas, S. [67]
Kalidas, K., Mahendran,
25
K., & Akila, K. [32]
Mathuthra, O., &
26
Arumugaswamy, P. [74]
Jayasekhar, S., Chandran,
27 K. P., Thamban, C., &
Muralidharan, K. [59]
Datang, H., Lomanog, J.,
28
& Balaria, F. [60]
Bhalerao, P. P., Patel, B.
29 N., Maheswarappa, H. P.,
& Jilu, V. S. [61]
Abhinav, M. C., Lazarus,
30 T. P., Priyanga, V., &
Kshama, A. V. [44]
22 of 31
Title Aim (s) Country Setting Key Findings Year
In West Bengal, impending climate change is
causing cyclones, a lack of rainfall, invasive pests,
Coconut cultivation in West
To investigate the difficulties and and cyclones. The whitefly infestation is also
Bengal: Challenges and
additional India widely destroying coconut palms. The plantations 2020
extension approaches to step
production-enhancing strategies. are also becoming unhealthy due to stem bleeding,
up production.
bud rot disease, and insects like the rhinoceros
beetle, red palm weevil, and eriophyid mite.
Constraints in Coconut It was clear that the main issues facing the various
To determine the importance and priority
Value Chain-A Framework stakeholders in coconut production and marketing
of the limitations using the responses India 2020
for Analysis Using Response were yield reduction caused by pest and disease
priority index.
Priority Index. and large price fluctuations.
The Study of Problems To rank the problems of coconut growers
Lack of quality saplings, finance, high cost, and
Faced by Coconut Growers and identify problems experienced
India labor problem was the major problems faced by 2020
in Coimbatore District during the COVID-19 pandemic in the
the coconut growers during the pandemic period.
During Covid-19 Pandemic. Coimbatore district.
Coconut sector in India
Concerted efforts are lacking to effectively utilize
experiencing a new regime To address the pertinent issues on various
the possible linkages between strong research
of trade and policy facets of coconut economy by employing India 2019
support and technology delivery systems for
environment: appropriate economic tools of analysis.
increasing production and marketing efficiencies
A critical analysis.
The study attempted to describe the
Coconut Farming Industry The challenges that included low yield due to
status of coconut farming industry
in Dingalan, Aurora: Philippines inadequate of farming practices and lack of strong 2019
practices and challenges in
Practices and Challenges. political assistance.
Dingalan, Aurora.
The small size of land holdings, Labour shortage
and high labor charges, a high plant density of
Status, problems and To investigate the status, problem and
around 200 plants per hectare combined with poor
prospects of coconut prospects of coconut cultivation India 2018
management practises, and severe infestation of
cultivation in Gujarat in Gujarat
diseases and pests are all the problems leading to
low levels of coconut production.
Impact of rainfall on the
The Keralan districts of Kozhikode and
coconut productivity in To identify the variation in coconut
Malappuram have experienced a decline in
Kozhikode and production due to rainfall based on data India 2018
cultivation of coconuts as a result of changes in the
Malappuram Districts collected over a certain time period.
pattern of rainfall.
of Kerala.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 23 of 31

Table 8. Cont.

S/N Authors Title Aim (s) Country Setting Key Findings Year
Pole, F N; Karemesi, M;
Sowa, W; Maingu, R; Effect of water conservation The inconsistent rainfall that coastal Kenya
To address how climate change is
31 Ochieng, D; Wanjiku, J; method on the yield Kenya experiences has led to low productivity and the 2018
affecting coconut production
Gathogo, M; of coconuts loss of many coconut palms.
Chagala-Odera, E. [45]
To address the opportunities and
A study of coconut It gradually loses ground because of the low price.
difficulties presented by the global
32 Yamuna, S. M. [62] cultivation and marketing in India Additionally, because of the coconut palm’s 2016
markets under the liberalised
Pollachi Taluk declining output due to its typical ageing.
trade system
Natural resources in coconut gardens are being
depleted, and there are issues with the soil,
insufficient irrigation systems, a lack of
good-quality planting materials, a manpower
Thamban, C., Jayasekhar, Coconut Production in
To examine the trend, challenges and shortage, and exorbitant wages. Crop loss brought
33 S., Chandran, K. P., & Kerala: Trend, Challenges India 2016
Opportunities of coconut on by the occurrence of numerous pests and
Jaganathan, D. [63] and Opportunities.
diseases, particularly a significant loss from the
root (wilt) disease and a lack of product
diversification, etc. negatively impacts the state’s
coconut farming.
This article describes the crisis narrative
based on a literature review of academic
Coconut crisis in Kerala? There are still barriers: coconut growers are poorly
Sportel, T.,& and official reports and challenges its
34 Mainstream narrative and India organised, and state support is heavily dependent 2016
Véron, R. [64] problem analysis by juxtaposing it with
alternative perspectives on federally financed plans and initiatives.
information from ethnographic research
with local farmers and traders.
Fluctuation in the price of the coconut, shortage
rainfall, No subsidy from the government,
Marketing Problems of
To identify the problems of coconut shortage of Skilled labour, more labour cost, lack of
Coconut Cultivators with
35 Andal, C. K. [49] cultivation and marketing and to evolve India knowledge about diseases and pesticides, 2016
Special Reference to
remedial measures to those problems inadequate storage facilities, delays in collecting
Coimbatore District
payments from merchants, and transportation
costs are all problems faced by the farmers.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379
Table 8. Cont.
S/N Authors Title
A Study on Problems and
Prospects of Coconut
36 Premkumar, T. E. [65]
Growers in Pollachi
Taluk, India
Status of coconut farming
Pole, F. N., Nguma, B., &
37 and the associated
Mohammed, N. [66]
challenges in Kenya.
Assessment of factors
Muyengi ZE, Msuya E,
38 affecting coconut production
Lazaro E. [51]
in Tanzania
Aim (s)
To know the demographic profile,
performance, and problems in the areas
of cultivation, maintenance, and
marketing of coconut and also to elicit
the prospects.
To be aware of the state of coconut
cultivation and the difficulties it faces
in Kenya
To assess the production of coconuts and
factors affecting the production
of coconut
24 of 31
Country Setting Key Findings Year
Power outages, frequent pest and disease attacks,
monsoon failure, high fertiliser and boosting
chemical costs, lack of availability of high-quality
India fertiliser and boosting chemicals, decline in ground 2016
water level, and scarcity of high-quality seedlings
are all factors that contribute to problems with
cultivation and maintenance.
Problems include widespread infestations of pests
and diseases, subpar agronomic methods,
Kenya 2014
insufficient planting supplies, and a limited
genetic pool.
Coconut output was hampered by poor agronomic
Tanzania methods, a lack of inputs, and a lack of extension 2015
services, among other factors.
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 25 of 31

Coconut farming in the state is severely impacted by crop loss brought on by the
development of several pests and diseases, particularly significant loss as a result of root
(wilt) disease, lack of product variety, etc. Additionally, there are further restrictions,
since coconut growers are not well organized and because state support is directly as-
sociated with programs that are nationally financed [64]. In addition, the farmers face
challenges like fluctuating coconut prices, insufficient rainfall, a lack of government sub-
sidies, a lack of skilled labour, higher labour costs, ignorance of diseases and pesticides,
inadequate storage facilities, delays in collecting payments from merchants, and trans-
portation costs [49]. Power outages, frequent pest and disease attacks, monsoon failure,
high fertiliser and boosting chemical costs, a lack of high-quality fertiliser and boosting
chemicals, groundwater depletion, and a lack of high-quality seedling availability are
just a few of the factors that Premkumar [65] identified as contributing to cultivation
and maintenance issues. As a result of high rates of pests and diseases, poor agronomic
practices, substandard planting materials, and a small genetic foundation, low coconut
yield is a problem [66]. According to Arifin [68] Lack of government assistance, a lack of
human resources, and a lack of adequate infrastructure and facilities to support market
activity for coconuts are the issues. Conclusively, Lack of quality saplings, finance, high
cost, and labor problem was the major problems faced by the coconut growers during
the pandemic period [74].

4.2. Discussion
Coconut is a blessing to the universe as its boosts most of the producing countries’
economies. Studies have shown, however, that the level of coconut production has
severely decreased, thus it is vital to conduct this research to identify a number of
reasons that may be contributing to the low production of coconuts and their supply
chain. As an example, Ganeshkumar and Gopala Krishna [42] and Pathmeswaran
et al. [43] came to the conclusion that the irregularities brought on by the ongoing
decline in seasonal rainfall and the extremely hot summer weather conditions may have
contributed to the decrease in the level of coconut production. While Salvacion [48]
comes to the conclusion that further land constraints for coconut farming in the province
come from rainfall, soil, and the interplay of the elements with slope. These authors
concurred that rainfall and temperature have a big impact on coconut output and that
the more mild they are, the better for coconut production. In a similar vein, Gurbuz
and Manaros [53] found in their study that intercropping, low and unstable prices
for coconut products, a low and expansive stretch of land connecting the farm to the
market road, and severe problems with coconut production internal problems were
faced by the coconut producers. Yamuna’s [62] also concluded that coconut gradually
loses ground because of the low price. Additionally, because of the coconut palm’s
declining output due to its typical ageing. Furthermore, it was found that significant
barriers included worries about pests and diseases, difficulties with nut harvesting, high
transportation costs for marketing issues, and government taxes for the obvious issue.
In a similar vein, Alouw and Wulandari [52] highlighted a number of technological,
political, and socioeconomic factors that led to the low coconut yield, including old
age, pests, diseases, subpar crops, poor agronomic practices, and land conversion.
Similar findings were found by Omara and Fatah [55], who found that a variety of
indicators, including education, labor, fungicides, land, experience, and extension visits,
had an impact on coconut output. Contrarily, Perera [54] demonstrates that some
of the key inherent features include a protracted juvenile stage, the variable genetic
potential of various cultivars, a lengthy period of economic productivity (sometimes
exceeding 50 years), and degrees of germplasm variability. While the main obstacles
to the sustainability of coconut farming are environmental variables, including biotic
and abiotic pressures. Some of these authors categorized these problems as severe
problems or apparent problems, while others categorized them as technological, political,
or socioeconomic factors, and Perera [54] even categorized the problems that he had
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 26 of 31

identified as inherent or environmental factors. Furthermore, it has been determined by

Masinading & Capili [13], Moreno et al. [24], and Rethinam [15] that coconut production
is dropping with increasing scale, failing to satisfy global market demand. Additionally,
Gunawan et al.’s [12] research demonstrates how the sustainability of the coconut supply
chain is disrupted and needs to be restored very away. These authors made it quite clear
that if coconut production isn’t increased, there will undoubtedly be a reduction in the
supply chain for coconuts and an inability to meet demand.
According to a decomposition study by Narmadha et al. [47], the area impact and
yield effect are major variables in the overall change in coconut output throughout the
selected states. According to a Lin et al. study [69], increased voice and accountability
ratings decrease the trade of coconut products with both levels of value addition. On the
other hand, due to continuous support for the production of coconuts and unequal access
to training and knowledge in rural systems, farmers are caught in an agricultural system
that is impacted by a long history of colonial institutions and social structures [50].
However, Coconut output was hampered by poor agronomic methods, a lack of inputs,
and a lack of extension services, among other factors [51]. The extensive lengths of
midland laterites and the Onattukara sandy plain with significant acid reaction and
aluminium in soil solution significantly restrict coconut [57]. A decrease in coconut
production was also brought on by the poorer water quality caused by household waste
and rising chemical use [56].
The problems are a lack of government assistance, a deficiency in personnel, and
insufficient services and infrastructure to support the operations of the coconut market [68].
Market price fluctuation was identified by Kumar et al. [70] as one of the major marketing
difficulties farmers faced. However, according to Nenci et al. [58], the presence of an
irrigation system and the type of workforce—whether temporary or permanent—have
an impact on the output of coconuts in Guyana and Jamaica. Arumugam and Hatta [71]
state that the global coconut industry must also address a number of urgent issues right
away, including the effects of climate change, pests, stalled production, insufficient planting
supplies, and diseases. Similar to this, Biswas [67] came to the conclusion that West Bengal
is seeing an increase in invasive pests, cyclones, and deficits in rainfall due to imminent
climate change. The infestation of whiteflies is also seriously harming coconut palms,
insects, bud rot disease, and stem bleeding including the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil,
and eriophyid mite are all contributing to the plantations’ declining health. Coconut
indicates the significance of the price effect and yield effect with reference to the overall
change in coco-nut output across the selected states [46].
According to Manaros and Gurbuz’s [72] revealed that the high cost of labour is
the major issue facing the province’s coconut farmers. Poor agricultural practises by
farmers, a lack of government support, and the detrimental consequences of urbanisation
are all factors in the low level of coconut production, according to Jayawardhana &
Warnakulasooriya [73]. It was evident that yield decline caused by pest and disease and
excessive price fluctuation are the two primary problems the numerous stakeholders
in coconut production and marketing face [32]. The absence of good-quality seedlings,
money, high costs, and labour constraints were other problems that coconut growers
faced during the pandemic [74].
In order to increase production and marketing efficiency, concerted efforts must
be made to fully exploit the potential connections between solid research support and
technology delivery system [59]. Additionally, a study by Datang et al. [60] discovered
that inadequate farming practises and lack governmental support are among the issues
causing low yield. Other factors that contribute to low levels of coconut production
include tiny land holdings, a shortage of labour and high labour expenses, a dense plant
population of more than 200 plants per hectare combined with subpar management
techniques, and severe disease and insect infestations [61]. According to Abhinav
et al. [44], changes in rainfall patterns in Kerala’s Kozhikode and Malappuram districts
have had a substantial impact on the production of coconuts. Additionally, the patchy
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 27 of 31

rainfall that Kenya’s coastal region has been receiving has led to low productivity and
the death of many coconut trees [45].
The coconut industry slowly loses market share due to low prices and the average
age of coconut palms, which are in a state of decline [63]. The depletion of natural re-
sources in coconut gardens was also highlighted by Thamban et al. [63] in addition to
soil-related issues, subpar irrigation systems, a lack of high-quality planting materials,
a lack of qualified employees, and exorbitant salary rates. Coconut farming in the state
is severely impacted by crop loss brought on by the development of several pests and
diseases, with root (wilt) disease-causing particularly considerable losses. Furthermore,
as coconut farmers are not well structured and because state funding is closely correlated
with nationally funded projects and schemes, there are still limits [64]. In addition, the
farmers face challenges like fluctuating coconut prices, insufficient rainfall, a lack of gov-
ernment subsidies, a lack of skilled labour, higher labour costs, ignorance of diseases and
pesticides, inadequate storage facilities, delays in collecting payments from merchants,
and transportation costs [49]. Power outages, frequent pest and disease attacks, monsoon
failure, high fertilizer and boosting chemical costs, a lack of high-quality fertilizer and
boosting chemicals, groundwater depletion, and a lack of high-quality seedling availability
are just a few of the factors that Premkumar [65] identified as contributing to cultivation
and maintenance issues. As a result of high rates of pests and diseases, poor agronomic
practices, substandard planting materials, and a small genetic foundation, low coconut
yield is a problem [66].
Overall, the above discussion highlight the numerous difficulties the coconut industry
faces, from lack of government assistance and market-related issues to the effects of climate
change and the requirement for better farming practices and infrastructure. A comprehen-
sive strategy incorporating government involvement, funding for research, the adoption of
technology, and sustainable agriculture practices is needed to address these issues.

5. Conclusions
The current academic literature on the number of reasons that may be contributing to
the low production of coconuts and their supply chain is illustrated in this review. Studies
and research done between 2013 and 2022 were reviewed. While there are numerous
additional studies that are related to socio-economic studies, the majority of studies on
coconut production are frequently in the technical field. Reviewing the body of existing
literature reveals that there has been comparatively little research on the factors contributing
to the low production of coconuts and their supply chain in the coconut business, especially
in the Malaysian context, which has created a research gap and justifies the need for
additional research on this subject. Nevertheless, the majority of academics agreed that
the coconut industry has significant economic potential and can support the way of life of
the population. Additionally, this study made it quite clear that if coconut production isn’t
increased, there will undoubtedly be a reduction in the supply chain for coconuts and an
inability to meet demand. It was discovered that factors contributing to the low production
of coconuts and their supply chain were categorized by some authors as severe and
apparent factors while some of them grouped these problems under technological, political,
and socioeconomic factors and lastly grouped as inherent factors and environmental factors.
Therefore, policymakers should introduce some policies such as subsidies, free tax for
farmers, farm settlement schemes e.t.c that would encourage more citizens to be willing to
go into coconut production. Policymakers also need to encourage scientists to carry out
research on how these problems especially environmental factors will be tackled and try to
recruit more extensionists.

5.1. Implications
This study has several implications. It offers a comprehensive review of the difficulties
related to the level of coconut production and its supply chain. However, it does not include
Agriculture 2023, 13, 1379 28 of 31

information on value addition in the supply chains for coconuts. Therefore, a fantastic area
for future research would be investigating value addition in the supply chains for coconuts.

5.2. Contribution
This study will inform academicians and researchers about the numerous obstacles
that the coconut industry and its supply chain face, and it will subsequently conduct
research on potential solutions. Farmers would also benefit from this study by seeing the
various issues that are producing poor levels of coconut production and becoming more
aware of how to handle some of these issues. Additionally, it will inform decision-makers
about these issues so they are prepared to support the coconut producers. The government’s
action will improve coconut production, which will lead to more work opportunities for
young people. The number of coconuts produced will rise, which will raise the nation’s per
capita income.

Author Contributions: Review, Editing, and supervision, F.A.Z.; Writing and review, N.A.; review
and editing, W.N.W.D.; review and editing, N.A.M.S.; Writing–original draft preparation, B.D.I.;
review, A.Z.I.; review and editing, A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The authors express their sincere gratitude to the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) for
their generous financial support through the Long Term Research Grant Scheme
(LRGS/1/2020/UPM/01/2), which played a crucial role in facilitating this study. Additionally,
the authors would like to extend their utmost appreciation to the Centre for Research and In-
novation Management (CRIEM) UniSZA for their invaluable assistance throughout the research
administration process.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not available.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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