Module III

Methods of Research

Scope of the Module

This module contains the following lessons:

Lesson 1. The Historical Method of Research
Lesson 2. The Descriptive Method of Research
Lesson 3. The Experimental Method of Research
Lesson 4. Case and Feasibility Studies
Lesson 5. The Ethnography Method of Research

Overview of the Module

The module will discuss the four major methods of research, namely, the
historical method, the descriptive, the experimental method, and the ethnography
method.

The terms of time, the historical method is past oriented, the descriptive
method – present oriented, the experimental method - future oriented, and the
ethnography method – a blend of past, present and future oriented.

In terms of hypothesis, some authorities say that the historical method is

hypothesis free, the descriptive method sometimes hypothesis free, the
experimental method is never hypothesis free, and the ethnography method is
hypothesis free.

Historical research involves three major procedures: data collection with

documents and remains as the chief source of primary data; subjecting such data
to external and internal criticism, and writing the historical report.

In the descriptive method, the focus is on empirical data. The experimental

deals with control and experimental variables.

In the ethnography method, Genzuk (2003), enumerated the three

methodological principles that are used to provide the rationale for its specific
features. The three principles can be summarized under the headings of
naturalism, understanding and discovery:

Of the four methods of research, the most frequently used is the

descriptive method. The feasibility study is a special design.

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Objectives of the module

After studying this module on the methods of research, you will be able to:
1. describe the four methods of research;
2. differentiate the four methods;
3. determine the uses of each method;
4. identify the different characteristics of each method; and
5. exemplify problems using the different methods.

Suggested Readings

Books

Outhwaite, William and Turner, Stephen P. The SAGE Handbook of Social

Science Methodology. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2007.

Sanchez, Custodiosa A., Ph. D. Methods and Techniques of Research. Manila,

Philippines: Rex Bookstore, 1998

Other Sources

Genzuk, M. Ph. D. A Synthesis of Ethnographic Research. Occasional Papers

Series. Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research (Eds.). Center for
Multilingual, Multicultural Research, Rossier School of Education, Los
Angeles: University of Southern California, http://www.rcf.usc.edu, 2003

Gundlach, Kathryn, et al. Historical Method 3.ppt., http://www.ils.unc.edu/-palmr,

2012

Resnik, David B., J. D., Ph. D., et al. Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd Ed.
New York: Oxford University Press, http://www.niehs.nih.gov., 2009

Ross, Steven M., et al. Experimental Research Methods, U.S.A: The University
of Memphis and Wayne State University, http://www.aect.org/edtech/ed1,
2012

Whitehead, Tony L. Ethnographically Informed Community and Cultural

Assessment, College Park, Maryland: University of Maryland,
http://www.cusag.umd.edu, 2005

http://www.cyberlearning-world.com, 2012

http://www.experiment-resources.com, 2008

http://www.geraldkeegan.co.uk, 2012

http://www.google.com, 2010

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http://www.holah.karoo.net, 2012

http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au, 2009

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Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 1. THE HISTORICAL METHOD OF RESEARCH

Lesson Objectives:

After studying lesson on the historical method of research, you will be able
to:
1. define history and historical method;
2. determine and classify the sources of historical data; and
3. identify the methods used in evaluating historical data

Introduction

When one speaks of history, one is immediately reminded of events in the

past. Most people would associate the word history with past events and the
corresponding dates.

According to Sanchez (1998), the word History originally meant the

search for knowledge and the truth---a searching to find out.

History is what we choose to remember about the past. Our common

experience binds us together. (http://www.cyberlearning-world.com)

History in the present context embraces however other areas, not just past
events, but rather includes various fields of culture, institutions, law, ideas,
religion, art, literature, travel, engineering, technology, industry, medicine,
science, philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology, education
and others. It would seem therefore that all areas of knowledge have something
to do with history.

Historical data therefore must be viewed from their historical perspective,

not just as mere events or data. It should be viewed as a development of society
and culture rather than isolated facts merely to be memorized, rather than
analyzed.

For instance, there has been much discussion among the country’s
historians on whether our national hero, Jose P. Rizal recanted before he was
shot in Luneta. There were supporters who believed that he did, but there were
more religious authorities among the Catholic Church who assert that he did not.
This has been a subject of discussion among the religious denominations in the
country.

Another historical issue was the recall of General MacArthur from Korea
by President Harry Truman, when the former wanted to attack North Korea. Was

4
Truman justified in pulling out MacArthur? Would the world have been better, if
McArthur were free to do as he planned with the Korean War?

As much, therefore, although historical research is not as popular as

descriptive research, it has the following values.

1. It gives us an insight into some problems that could not be gained

by some other technique.
2. It gives us a perspective that can do much to help us understand
our present problems.
3. It gives us an insight into human behavior that can be very valuable
in arriving at practical solutions for educational problems.
4. It helps us broaden our experiences and make us more
understanding and appreciative of our human nature and
uniqueness.

Characteristics of Historical Researches

Present historical investigations primarily aim for the search of truth, or on

what actually happened. It would mean therefore that the researcher must be
objective and must stick to the truth, appraising objectively the necessary
documents and the other sources of data distortion of facts has no place in
historical investigations.

Contemporary historical investigations reflect the view that there is no

single cause which can adequately explain a particular event, but rather a series
of events and personal factors are also involved. In other words, the person who
is the center of the research should be studied in the context of the time, the
situation and the culture that he was in. Thus such events as the resignation of
Nixon due to the Watergate Scandal, The EDSA Revolution, and the present Gulf
Crisis and the role played by President Bush should be studied within the context
of time and culture.

Modern historical investigations are aided by the use of auxiliary sciences

which expedite the work of making external criticisms of the sources (Adanza,
1990). Present development of science and technology helps very much in the
interpretation of the various sources of historical investigations. Science and
technology can help determine the validity and credibility of evidences presented.
It can determine the age of the paper and pinpoint the era in which it was
produced.

The Historical Method of Research

Historical research is the accumulation of facts in relation to a particular time

sequence to determine whether or what certain events in history actually
happened. (Sanchez, 1998)

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 Historical method of research is the recognition of a historical problem or
need for historical knowledge, gathering of pertinent information, forming of
hypotheses, collection and organization of primary and secondary evidence,
selection, organization and analysis of evidence, drawing of conclusions, and
narrating conclusions. (Gundlach, et. al., 2012)

Important Elements of Historical Method of Research

According to Gundlach, et. al. (2012), the following are the important
elements of historical method of research:

• examines/relates causes and results of events

• recognizes social, economic, political, intellectual and cultural
environment in which event occurred
• acts as an exposition of past incidents and developments and their
impact on later times
• strives toward a “truthful” narrative

Significance of Historical Method of Research

“Historical method of research can…facilitate our understanding of when,

how, and why past events occurred and the significance of these events to
libraries as collectors, organizers, and disseminators of the products of
humanity’s intellects and emotions.” (Gundlach, et. al., 2012)

Formulating the Problem

People like to write on past events, because they are motivated to find out
the truth, to find out what really happened, and to know the different explanations
of the event. For instance, although the Kennedy assassination has been closed,
there are still many articles that have come out giving some events which have
added color to the event. Some analysts have blamed the CIA even for the
President’s assassination for not keeping his word on the attempted Cuban
invasion. The dissatisfaction could probably have been due to the fact that the
motivations of the murder have not been brought out explicitly.

One of the most interesting events that would be worthwhile researching

are on the events that led to the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima during
the Second World War. Coughlin wrote an analysis of the Japanese rejection of
the Potsdam Declaration which called for the Japanese surrender to the Allied
Forces on July 26,1946. It was theorized that a mistake of word translation
caused the bombing of Hiroshima by the Allied Forces. The Japanese Premier
Suzuki used the word “mokusatsu: to convey to his cabinet the stand that they
decided to make no comment on the call for surrender. It was revealed that the
Japanese word has two meanings, namely 1) to withhold without comment and
2) to ignore. When this was radioed to the translator at the Domei News Agency,
the translator obviously did not know what was in the mind of the prime Minister

6
and hastily translated in English the second meaning of the word: to ignore. The
result was the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima.

Subject of Historical Investigations

The subject of historical investigations maybe individuals, like that study of

Jose P. Rizal and his religious posture prior to his death; or institutions, curricula,
textbooks, facilities, projects, or programs, procedures, structures and processes,
events, concepts, ideas and phenomena in a given setting and culture. One,
however, should limit the scope of such investigation to probably an era or
epoch. It is also worthwhile to compare events in different periods of time, or in
different cultures and civilizations.

Sources of Historical data

Historical sources are usually classified as either documents or relics.

Documents include a wide range of written and printed materials recorded for the
purpose of transmitting information. Relics include physical objects related to the
period r the institution being studied.

Primary sources are generally defined as those documents in which the

individual observing the event being described was present. Secondary sources
are those in which the person describing the event was not present but has
obtained his description from someone else who may or may not have directly
observed the event. Occasionally, the number of times that the writing is
removed from the observer is indicated but generally, all levels of removal are
lumped together as secondary sources. The greater the number of persons
involved in the relay of information, the lesser the credibility and validity of the
results.

Evaluation of Historical data

Inasmuch as the pertinent documents provide to the sole source of

information for historical research, the evaluation of these documents is of critical
importance in helping the researcher to place each bit of information in its proper
perspective and draw sound conclusions from the total picture obtained. The
evaluation of historical evidence is usually referred to as historical criticism,
which is generally divided into two major categories – external criticism and
internal criticism.

1. External criticism is primarily aimed at determining whether the

evidence being evaluated is authentic. It focuses on the document
itself rather than the statements contained in it. It is concerned with
finding out if the source material is genuine; that is. Whether it is really
what is purpose or seems to be and whether it is genuine and
possesses textual integrity. Questions to be asked are: Who produced
the document? When and where was it produced? Among the clues to
the authenticity of document are:
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 a. Analyses of the physical materials used, such as paper.
b. References to place-names which are helpful in establishing dates.

In this regard, a researcher relies in scientific methods and on auxiliary

sciences to assist him in making a valid appraisal of the authenticity. Examples:
epigraphy (study of inscriptions and the art of deciphering them); paleography
(study of writing);archaeology (science of remains);philology (used in determining
data and authenticity); chemistry and paper-maker’s art.

Some procedures or techniques to check the genuineness of the source

material are authenticating signatures, chemically analyzing the paint, or carbon-
dating the artifacts.

2. Internal criticism refers to evaluating the accuracy and worth of the

data contained in the document. It is more difficult than external
criticism as it involves evaluating the writer, his biases and possible
motives for distortion. Internal criticism checks on the meaning and
trustworthiness of the data within the document (textual criticism), such
as the meaning of the author’s statement and their credibility; the
author’s competence, good faith, position and his biases; the
conditions under which he produced the document, the validity of the
intellectual premises which he used in the process of producing the
materials, and the correctness of the interpretation to be given the
data.

The Writing of History

Historical compositions or the writing of history is a synthetic and

constructive process which poses problems namely: 1) the problem of
documentation; 2) the logical problem as it involves the question of relative
importance of the various items and topics; and 3) the philosophical and artistic
problem because every historian injects his own interpretation of what he
presents.

Earlier practice in historical writing advocated a strictly chronological type

of organization and did not consider the responsibilities of the topical or thematic
grouping of materials. An appropriate combination of the chronological and
topical organization of historical data seems best, involving considerations of
such influences as political institutions, natural resources, social conditions,
national culture, race, religion, and other forces. The successful writer must know
the historical value and significance of each topic. In other words, he must
possess historical perspective.

(SEE NO. 3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

8
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 1
SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter representing your answer.

1. History is concerned with describing the past events or facts in a spirit

of inquiry to determine the
a. Truth
b. Culture
c. Society
d. Laws

2. One of the characteristics of historical investigations is that it views that

no single cause can adequately explain a particular period or
development. This particular characteristic is described as:
a. Logical
b. Pluralistic
c. Singular
d. Truthful

3. The information given by a person who has actually observed or

participated in the event is known as
a. Primary data
b. Secondary data
c. Tertiary data
d. Document

4. Data that are given by persons who have not actually observed or
participated in the event but have heard of it are called:
a. Primary data
b. Secondary data
c. Tertiary data
d. Relics

5. When one looks into the validity of the material of a document one is
looking into the
a. External
b. Internal
c. Primary
d. Secondary

6. When one looks into the language of the document or what is inside
the document, he is determining the
a. Internal

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 b. External
c. Primary
d. Secondary
validity of the material.

7. The chief and most important evidences for historical investigations are
the
a. Documents
b. Information given by persons
c. Paintings
d. Musical records

8. The genuineness of a document is determined by

a. Internal criticism
b. External criticism
c. Historical evidence
d. Primary source

9. Early historical writing was mainly

a. Topical
b. Chronological
c. Philosophical
d. Thematic

10. Which of the following titles would show the use of the historical
method?
a. An Empirical Analysis of Establishing Food Processing Plant in
Iligan
b. The Relationship Between Buying Behavior of Consumers and
Income Indices
c. The Development of the Philippines Legislative Branch
d. The Use of the Marketing Mix Factors in the sales of Educational
Plans.

(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

10
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 2. THE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD OF RESEARCH

Lesson Objectives:

After studying this lesson on the descriptive method of research, you will
be able to:
1. define the descriptive method of research; and
2. determine the types of descriptive research.

Introduction

The lesson discusses the descriptive method, its different types and ways
of obtaining descriptive data.

Definitions

The descriptive method of research is the design that describes

systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population, area or interest
factually and accurately. It gathers information about present existing conditions
and describes the nature of the situations as it exists at the time of the study. In
short, a descriptive study determines and reports the way things are.
According to Sanchez (1998), descriptive research includes all studies
that purport to present facts concerning the nature and status of anything --- a
group of persons, a number of objects, a set of conditions, a class of events, a
system of thought or any other kind of phenomena which one may wish to study.
It describes and interprets what is. It is concerned with conditions of
relationships that exist, practices that prevail, beliefs and processes that are
going on, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing.
Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and
then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data, uses description as a
tool to organize data into patterns that emerge during analysis, and often uses
visual aids such as graphs and charts to aid the reader. (www.google.com)

Advantages of Descriptive Research

The following are the advantages of descriptive research as cited by

http://www.google.com

• Educational research and experiences may contain many variables

that cannot be realistically controlled.
• Educational research may require observations of life experiences.
• Data collection may be spread over a large number of people over a
large geographic area.

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Impact and Future of Descriptive Research

The following are the impact and future of descriptive research.

(http://www.google.com)

• Although descriptive studies are important, most educational studies

involve questions about cause.
o What causes underachievement?
o Will multimedia cause students to be more motivated or lead to
high achievement levels?
• Not always easy to isolate variable that will explain those causes, so
descriptive research can play an important role in providing information
from another perspective.
• By gathering descriptions of “what is” and comparing them to “what we
would like” educators can see the area that needs to be addressed.
• Descriptive research methods have gained acceptance.
• Number of descriptive studies published in research journals has
increased.
• Descriptive research leads to prescriptions that instructional designers
and educators can heed as they consider future direction.

Types of Descriptive Research

Descriptive studies are classified into the following types:

1. case studies
2. surveys
3. developmental studies
4. follow-up studies
5. documentary or content analyses
6. trend studies
7. correlational studies

1. Case studies – in depth investigation of an individual, group, institutions

or other social unit over a considerable period of time. Its focus is to determine
the dynamics of why a subject thinks, behaves or develops in a particular
manner.

In anthropological studies, the case study design may be used to study a

small group of people – “primitive,” urban or rural population in situ in order to
produce a complete description of their culture in its totality. Example: “The
Culture of Mammanua” by Marcelino Maceda. Case studies in business are
different from case studies in education; these will be discussed later.

Case study designs that use experimental approaches are useful if you
want to use an intervention with one patient and measures selected dependent

12
variable before, during and after the intervention. Example: “A disabled
Adolescent Boy’s Coping Reaction Pattern During Stress” by Phoebe Dauz.

2. Surveys. The descriptive method first of all is very tenable for status trend
studies, for studies that seek the description of the prevailing conditions, persons,
situations, etc. This method involves the determination of information about
variables rather than about the persons.

Survey studies are used to measure the existing phenomenon without

inquiring into why it exists. In such studies, one does not consider relationships
or comparisons between variables, for the main problem is the interpretation of
data rather than on hypothesis testing.

There are two scopes of surveys: Census and sample. Census is a survey
that covers the entire population of interest while sample survey, is one which
deals only with a portion of the population.

There are four categories of descriptive research according to scope and

subject matter: 1) census of tangibles, 2) census of intangibles, 3) a sample
survey of tangibles, and 4) a sample survey of intangibles (Ary, 1979).

a. A Census of Tangibles. The study covers a small population where the

variables are concrete. Consequently for this type of study, the
responses are simple but concrete. An example is a study on the
equipment used in a physical education class, or enrollment of a
certain school. It is then very limited in scope of applications and adds
only very little knowledge to any area of endeavor.
b. A Census of Intangibles. This deals with the constructs based on
indirect measures (Sevilla, 1996) which are not directly observable
such as job satisfaction of workers, motivation in the work
environment, sources of stress and methods of coping with stress.
c. A Sample Survey of Tangibles. This is a survey of a sample or a
portion of a large population. The purpose of the study is to determine
information of various selected variables of a large group of persons
from a sample.

An example of this study is the determination of Teacher’s Morale

in a certain region, the organizational profile of a large company like
San Miguel Brewery, or the implementation of human resource
development in the Philippine National Bank.

d. A Sample Survey of Intangibles. This is a survey that deals with the

measurement of psychological or sociological constructs as well as
comparing a large population where the variables are not easily
recognizable. The kind of survey is viewed by many as difficult
because it will be using many skills in undertaking it.

13
 Examples of this survey are some studies on stress among
personnel in a certain division in the Bureau of Customs, the job
satisfaction of nurses in private hospitals, the performance os
salesmen in a certain drug company.

3. Developmental Studies – investigations of progression along a number of

dimensions – intellectual, emotional, physical or social development. To illustrate,
if you want to get reliable information about the similarities and differences of
children at various ages, you may make a developmental study. Such a design
will require a considerable period of time in studying the psychological,
intellectual and emotional growth of children.

In pursuing these studies, you use either the longitudinal method or the
cross-sectional method. In the longitudinal method, you study the same sample
of participants over an extended period of time. An example of this method is the
study of the Child and Youth Center (CYCR) of 170 Filipino infants in their first
year aimed to obtain sequential developmental patterns on these aspects,
physical, mental, motor, adaptive, language, emotional, social and aesthetic-
creative.

In the cross-sectional method, you study participants of various age levels

at the same point in time. For example, instead of studying the mathematical
concepts of grade one pupils and the following them up for six years, you study
the children belonging to the six grade levels at the same point in time.

4. Follow-up Studies. Follow – up studies are used when the purpose of the
investigator is to determine the subsequent development of participants after a
specified treatment or condition. For example, a researcher may be interested to
find out how NSDB graduates fared after graduation, or to find out how the
Fullbright scholars in the country are doing, or the status of CAP College
graduates after finishing their degree.

5. Documentary or Content Analysis – the research method for the objective,

systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication,
such as written materials and other forms of communication-music, pictures,
textbooks, composition, novels, newspaper, magazine advertisements and
political speeches.

Content analysis is concerned with certain characteristics which can be

identified and counted. Examples of studies employing content analysis:

5.1 Simple classifications or tabulations of specific information as in error

studies, textbooks analysis to determine the relative emphasis or
frequency of various communication phenomena, e.g. readability of books.
5.2 Studies to gain insights into complex and psychological variables as in
the analysis of course objectives in relation to the needs of the students.

In planning a content analysis study, observe the following steps (Borg).

14
 a. Establish specific objectives to be achieved or hypotheses to be
tested.
b. Use appropriate sampling technique fro selecting the content to be
studies.
c. Develop a classification system for analyzing the content. Berelson
lists five major units of analysis: words, themes, characters, items,
and space and time measures.

6. Trend Analysis. This seeks the behavior of variables in the future, and
its primary purpose is to project the results in the future, assuming that
factors remain constant. This type of study is exemplified in the study
of the status and prospects of CAP for instance, the projects of
agricultural products, etc.

7. Correlational Studies. These studies are aimed or designed to help

one determined the extent of how variables go with the other, That is if
the presence of any variable increases or decreases the x value or not
at all. Some correlation studies are: determining the relationship
between educational achievement index and personal variables of age,
mental ability and socio-economic status; or the relationship between
customer buying patterns and behavior with income, or the relationship
between the production of soya beans and copra, etc.

In descriptive studies, it is important that the researcher be particular

about sampling techniques, especially if one’s purpose is to infer the
characteristics of the population and furthermore, statistical techniques
and methods should be employed to assure the researcher of a level of
confidence that the results are trustworthy. Doing otherwise would make
the study unscientific and unreliable.

(SEE NO.3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

15
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 2
SELF – PROGRESS CHECK TEST

A. Identification: Identify the word/words that best describes/describe

the statement below. (x2, total = 20 points)

_______________1. It is the design that describes systematically the facts and

characteristics of a given population, area or interest factually and accurately. It
gathers information about present existing conditions.
_______________2. A study over a considerable period of time.
_______________3. Refers to a method used in determining information about
variables rather than persons.
_______________4. Refers to a method used which covers a small population
which is representatives of a large population.
_______________5. It deals with constructs based on indirect measures.
_______________6. A method used when researcher requires data from large
groups.
_______________7. It deals with the measurement of constructs of
psychological or sociological constructs.
_______________8. A method used for studies intended to investigate
subsequent development of participants after a specified treatment or condition.
_______________9. A method used in gathering information by examining
records or documents.
_______________10. It deals with the relationship of variables.

B. Which five of the titles would require the use of the descriptive
method. Encircle them. (10 points)

1. The History of the Philippine Constabulary

2. Sources of Stress and Coping Strategies of Middle Managers of the
Philippine National Bank
3. The Marketing Mix Factors in the Promotion of Electric Appliances.
4. Job Satisfaction and Motivation of the Civilian Personnel in the
Philippine Army
5. The Effects of Zoning the Real Estate Prices
6. An Assessment of the VAT as a Taxation Scheme.

(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

16
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 3. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF RESEARCH

Lesson Objectives:

After studying this lesson on the experimental method of research, you will
be able to:

1. recognize the characteristics of the experiment method;

2. discuss the threats to the internal and external validity of
experimental designs;
3. distinguish between control and experimental variables; and
4. identify each of the experimental designs.

The Experimental Method of Research

Of the different methods of research, the experimental method is the least

used by researchers, because of the difficulty in setting up the experimental
design, that is to determine which should be the control variables are difficult to
distinguish and select.

The experimental method formally surfaced in educational psychology

around the turn of the century, with the classic studies by Thorndike and
Woodworth on transfer. The experimenter’s interest in the effect of
environmental change, referred to as “treatments,” demanded designs using
standardized procedures to hold all conditions constant except the independent
(experimental) variable. This standardization ensured high internal validity
(experimental control) in comparing the experimental group to the control group
on the dependent or “outcome” variable. That is, when internal validity was high,
differences between groups could be confidently attributed to the treatment, thus
ruling out rival hypotheses attributing effects to extraneous factors. Traditionally,
experimenters have given less emphasis to external validity, which concerns the
generalizability of findings to other settings, particularly realistic ones. One theme
of this chapter is that current orientations in instructional theory and research
practices necessitate achieving a better balance between internal and external
validity levels. During the past century, the experimental method has remained
immune to paradigm shifts in the psychology of learning, including behaviorism to
cognitivism, objectivism to cognitivism, and instructivism to constructivism. (Ross,
et al, http://www.aect.org/edtech/ed1, 2012)

The experimental method is usually taken to be the most scientific of all

methods, the “method of choice”. The main problem with all the non-
experimental methods is lack of control over the situation. The experimental
method is a means of trying to overcome this problem. The experiment is
sometimes described as the cornerstone of psychology: This is partly due to the
17
central role experiments play in many of the physical sciences and also to
psychology's historical view of itself as a science. A considerable amount of
psychological research uses the experimental method.
An experiment is a study of cause and effect. It differs from non-
experimental methods because it involves the deliberate manipulation of one
variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.
(http://www.holah.karoo.net, 2012)
The experimental method of research is a controlled procedure that sees
the manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to observe and measure any
effect on a dependent variable (DV). The essential features of the experimental
method are then the control, observation and measurement of variables.
Illustrating the hallmarks of a science, the use of the experimental method in
psychological research makes us more confident about the validity of any cause-
effect relationship established between an independent and dependent variable.
The experimental method also makes us more confident about the generalization
of its results to a wider population. The experimental method's emphasis on strict
procedures helps others replicate the experiment to confirm, or otherwise, the
original research findings. This is how scientific knowledge grows. The
experimental method sets out to test a null hypothesis, which if rejected allows
the researcher to accept the experimental, or research, hypothesis. Hypotheses
will, more often than not, be tested at a level of significance.
(http://www.geraldkeegan.co.uk)

As cited in http://www.experiment-resources.com, 2008, Experimental

method of research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and
psychology, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc. It is a collection
of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand
causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to
determine their effect on a dependent variable.
Experimental method of research is a systematic and scientific
approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables,
and controls and measures any change in other variables.
The Experimental Method of Research is often used where:

1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)

2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to
the same effect)
3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.

The word experimental research has a range of definitions. In the strict

sense, experimental research is what we call a true experiment. This is an
experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable,
and control/randomizes the rest of the variables. It has a control group,
the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups, and the
researcher only tests one effect at a time. It is also important to know what
variable(s) you want to test and measure.
A very wide definition of experimental research, or a quasi experiment, is
research where the scientist actively influences something to observe the
18
consequences. Most experiments tend to fall in between the strict and the wide
definition.
A rule of thumb is that physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry and
geology tend to define experiments more narrowly than social sciences, such as
sociology and psychology, which conduct experiments closer to the wider
definition.

Aims of Experimental Research

Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenon. Typically,

an experiment is constructed to be able to explain some kind of causation.
Experimental research is important to society - it helps us to improve our
everyday lives.
The following are the three characteristics of the experimental method.

1. An independent variable is manipulated

2. All other variables except the dependent variable are held constant.
3. The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the
dependent variable is observed and measured.

The experimental method like all other methods follows the following
steps:
1. identification, selection of subjects, selection of a design
2. execution of procedures
3. formulation of hypotheses
4. analysis and interpretation of data
5. action on the null hypotheses

An experimental design always involves two sets of variables, the control

and the experimental variables.

Example 1. The researcher would like to know if the new textbook is

effective in teaching of management. In this case the experimental
variable is the new textbook. To determine the results, the
investigator uses two groups. A, the experimental group, is taught
with the book, while B, the control group, is taught the traditional
book.

While we have already identified the experimental variable, we have not

yet identified the control variables.

The investigator should also control the characteristics of the students

selected fro the two groups.

They should be controlled in at least the following variables:

1. mental ability, since mental ability is a very strong intervening
variable

19
 2. knowledge of the results in the subjects; hence, the need to
give them a pre-test which should show that they have the
same background and that they have been pushed towards an
initial condition of similarity
3. other variables may be controlled, such as socio-economic
status, course in management that they have taken. In other
words, the students should have as much as possible equal or
similar characteristics.

Threats to Experimental Validity

There are however, problems in experimental designs, Among these are:

1. Threats of internal validity (the basic minimum without which any
experiment is uninterpretable.)
a. History – some specific events coming between the first and the
second measurements of the dependent variable may cause
changes in the dependent variable. Like in the example, other
teachers may come in not knowing about the experiment and may
adversely affect the results of the experiment.
b. Maturation. An experiment may be influenced by biological or
psychological processes, like the students growing older, hungrier,
more tired, or more bored.
c. Testing. This refers to the improvement of the subject’s
performance in the post-test, as a function of the pretest, which can
affect the results of the experiment.
d. Instrumentation refers to changes in calibration of a measuring
instrument or changes in the observers or scorer used.
e. Statistical Regression. This happens when the subjects of the
experiment are the high and lowest scorers in the pretest. There is
the tendency of those who got higher scorers in the pretest. This is
the tendency of those who got higher scores to regress towards the
mean even without the benefit of treatment.
f. Biases resulting in differential selection of respondents for the
comparison groups.
g. Experimental Mortality. When a student drops out of their
experiment, the results of the experiment are altered.
h. Selection – maturation interaction occurs when one group of the
groups selected profits more from as treatment or it has an initial
advantage because of maturation.

2. Threats to External Validity (deals with the question of representatives or

generalizability)

External validity refers to the condition wherein results are generalizable

or applicable to groups and environments outside of the experimental setting.

Among these factors that constitute external threats are the following:

20
 a. pretest interaction- a pre-test might increase or decrease the
respondent’s responsiveness to the experimental variable.
b. Selection treatment interaction-refers to the interaction effects of
selection biases and the experimental variables.
c. Specificity of variables
d. Reactive effects of experimental arrangements – preclude
generalization about the effect of the experimental variable upon
persons exposed to it in non experimental settings.
e. Multiple treatment interference – occurs whenever multiple
treatments are applied to the same respondents because the
effects of prior treatments are not usually erasable.

Ways of Controlling Extraneous Variables

To minimize the effects of extraneous variables, or variables outside of the

experiment, the following suggestions are made:

1. randomization
2. matching
a. person-to-person matching
b. matching groups
c. ranking method
d. homogeneous groups
e. using subjects as their own controls
f. analysis of covariance, where the pretest scores are to be made
initially alike.

Pre-Experimental Designs

Among the most popular of the experimental designs are the following:
1. Design 1 – The One-Shot case Study
X O
Where X = the treatment
O = the posttest
2. Design 2 – The One-Group Pretest – Posttest Design
O1 X O2
Where: O1 = the pretest
X = the experimental variable
O2 = the posttest
Example:
When one wants to find the relative effects of a workshop or seminar, give
a pretest, then have the seminar and then the seminar give them a posttest. The
difference between the pretest and the posttest are tested for significance. If the
test shows a significant difference between the pretests and the post tests, then
the seminar has been effective; if otherwise, it has not been effective.

21
Quasi-Experimental Design

Random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control groups is

a very important feature of experimental design. Where random assignment is
not possible, an experiment having internal and external validity can still be
performed using the quasi-experimental design as follows:

1. Design 3 – Nonequivalent Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

This is the most widely used quasi-experimental design. It involves non-

random assignment of subjects/groups to experimental or control group.

Experimental group O1 X O2
Control group O3 X O4

2. Design 4 - Time Series Design

This is used when a control or comparison group cannot be included in an
experiment. A single group of subjects is measured at periodic intervals, (O1 to
O8 ); the experimental treatment (X) is administered in between one of these
intervals. The effect of the treatment is indicated by the discrepancy in
measurements before and after its appearance.

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8
3. Design 5 – Counterbalanced Designs

This design is generally used when several experimental treatments are to be

tested. The different experimental treatments are administered to the same
subjects. The order of exposure to the experimental situation differs for each
group, although the sequence is usually the same.

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4

Group A XO1 XO2 XO3 XO4

Group B XO2 XO3 XO4 XO1

Group C XO3 XO4 XO1 XO2

Group D XO4 XO1 XO2 XO3

True-Experimental Designs

The true – experimental designs are control group designs with random
assignment. Among these designs are the following:

1. Design 6 – Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

22
 This design involves (1) random assignment of subjects to experimental
and control groups, (2) administration of pretest to both groups, (3) administration
of treatment to experimental group only, and (4) administration of a posttest to
both groups. It is used when the experimental situation allows for a lab set-up
wherein researcher has much control of the situation.

Experimental group R O1 X O2
Control group R O3 O4

2. Design 7 – Posttest-Only Control Group Design

This design is similar to the pretest-posttest control group design minus

the pretests. It is recommended when a suitable pretest is not available or when
a pretest may affect the experimental treatment.

Experimental group R X O1
Control group R O2

3. Design 8 – Solomon Four-Group Design

This design is a combination of the pretest-posttest control group design

and the posttest only control group design. It is a powerful experimental design
but requires a large sample and much researcher effort. The effort is justified if
there is a high probability that pretesting will have an effect on the experimental
treatment and if the researcher wishes to measure this effect.

Experimental group A R O1 X O2
Control group B R O3 O4
Experimental group A1 R X O5
Control group B1 R O6

(SEE NO. 3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

23
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 3

SELF - PROGRESS CHECK TEST

General instructions:

• Read and understand each statement carefully.

• Write your answer on the space provided.

Essay. Direction: In not more than 10 sentences, answer the following

questions briefly. (10 points each)

1. Discuss the aims of the experimental method of research.

2. Explain the ways of controlling extraneous variables.

(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

24
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 4. CASE AND FEASIBILITY STUDIES

Lesson Objectives:

After studying this lesson on case and feasibility studies, you will be able
to:
1. recognize the characteristics of case studies;
2. identify the parts of a case study analysis; and
3. determine feasibility studies.

Case Studies
Case studies are important to students taking up business courses, as
there will be use of these in their work.

What is a Case Study?

Sanchez (1998) affirmed the following definitions of a case study:

1. It involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a
particular individual, group, or situation over a period of time.
2. It is a comprehensive study of a social unit---be that unit a person,
a group, a social institution, a district or a community.
3. It is a descriptive record of an individual’s experiences and/or
behaviors that may be used in a variety of ways to make inferences
about developmental process, the impact of life events, a person’s
level of functioning, and the origin of disorders. The case study
provides information from which to draw conclusions about the
impact of significant events in a person’s life. In addition, the case
study is used to evaluate an individual’s overall level of functioning.

According to Outhwaite, et al (2007), the following are the definitions or

descriptions of a case study.

1. The statistical method can be applied to many cases, the

comparative method to relatively few and the case study
method to one case.
2. As distinct from experiment or survey, “It involves the
investigation of a relatively small number of naturally occurring
cases.”
3. We should reserve the term “case study” for those research
projects which attempt to explain wholistically the dynamics of a
certain historical period of a particular social unit.
4. A case study is here defined as an in-depth, multi-faceted
investigation, using qualitative research methods, of a single

25
 social phenomenon. The study is conducted in great detail and
often relies on the use of several data sources.

The first definition above depends on the number of cases used; the
second also uses number but allows more cases, and adds the character of the
cases chosen. The third and fourth pay less attention to number: the third
emphasizes how cases are treated in relation to the research purpose, while the
fourth focuses on the type, depth and complexity of the data collected on the
case. Given that, for some writers the method is only about the choice of cases
to study, while for others that is just part of a larger package which includes the
mode of data collection, the type of data collected and the way in which the data
are analyzed, the meaning of whatever general statements are made about the
method is considerably affected. In the sense of case study as a package, it can
become true by definition that the method is inherently associated with a
qualitative approach. Sometimes, however, the connection made seems to be a
more purely practical one: a commitment to reach, deep data is taken to mean
that it is not possible to study many cases. That may indeed be so in practice,
where money, time and opportunities are often limited, but is not so in principle.

Each problem or each case study represents a real life business situation.
There may be more than one major problem in a case. The steps of a case
analysis report are as follows.

a. Define the problem in the case.

At least the major and the minor problems should be sorted out. In each case,
the problem should be explicitly placed in the order of importance. Defining the
problem should be explicitly placed in the order of importance. Defining the
problem of a case is often the most difficult job facing the business student. It
should be done carefully, for the entire analysis depends on the problem
definition. The problem should be stated in a declarative sentence.

b. Set objectives for problem situation.

Once the problems are determined, then the student decides what to do.
Explicit objectives to be achieved or attained must be given. Without such
objectives, it would be impossible to tell a “good” decision from a “bad” decision.
The decision will be tested against the objectives, since the objectives are the
criterion measures.

It is important that the student decide upon standards of evaluation when he

is setting his case objectives. Standards should be specific enough to lend
themselves to easy implementation.

The student should present as well as major and minor objectives, if any.

26
 c. Considerations

There should be discussions, preferably in sequential form as they are related

to the alternatives, methods of quantifications and assumptions, if any.

d. Outline alternative courses of action

Once the problems have been outlined, and specific objectives have been
isolated, the alternative solutions are given and examined. Each alternatives will
have its strengths and weaknesses and these should be made explicitly. None of
these will be “perfect” but by keeping the objectives and standards in mind, one
or two approaches can be chosen. There is no “right” or “wrong” problem
solution; the merits of a case analysis depend on the depth of analysis, as well
as on the decision reached. A student who reaches a sound decision for
unsound reasons is a poorer business manager in the long run, than one who
reaches a questionable decision for very sound reasons.

In any case, the student will have to make assumptions about facts that are
not explicitly outlined in the case. The fewer the assumptions that have to be
made in a case analysis, the better the analysis is. If you must make
assumptions, they should be made explicit. In no case should a course of action
revolve solely around an assumption.

e. Come to a Conclusion.

The student decides on a course of action after analysis and supports and
justifies the action. The conclusion should be an answer to the objectives or
problem of the study. Actually this is the period of crystallization of the most
preferred alternative or option.

Project Feasibility Studies

Muro (1991) defines a project feasibility study or a project or feasibility

study as “an investigation which ascertains the viability of an undertaking”, either
a new or proposed venture or an existing enterprise. Its subjective is to guide
project promoters, business managers, and financial executives towards bringing
about the successful operation of the project.

The preparation of the feasibility study involves the 1) collection of the

data relevant to all aspects of the undertaking;2) analysis of the collected data;
and 3) formulation of recommendations based on the analysis.

A feasibility study has the following seven basic and terminal parts:

1. Management aspects – include the management complement,

proponents, personnel or work force, organization and project
implementation timetable.
27
 2. Marketing aspects – cover supply and demand, pricing, marketing
program, and projected sales quantity
3. Technical aspects – pertain to the manufacturing process, plant
rated capacity, machinery design, plant location and layout,
structures, specifications and operating requirements.
4. Taxation aspects – cover fax liabilities of the project and its
proponents as well as other legal aspects affecting the
project/industry
5. Financial aspects – include cash requirements and financing
leverage of the firm as well as investment policies of financial
institutions
6. Financial projections – cover profitability and cash estimates
7. Social desirability – pertains to specific project contributions to the
Philippine economy/society and social rate return.
The above aspects of feasibility study require knowledge of management,
accounting and engineering; thus, its preparation entails a lot of effort and study.

Muro points out that care should be exercised in deciding on the specific
items to be considered and on the degree of importance to be given each item.

(SEE NO. 3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

28
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 4

SELF - PROGRESS CHECK TEST

General Instructions:

• Read and understand each statement carefully.

• Write your answer on the space provided.

Essay. Direction: In not more than 10 sentences, answer the following

questions briefly. (10 points each)

1. Explain the definitions of a case study according to Sanchez and

Outhwaite, et al.

2. Discuss the seven basic and terminal parts of a feasibility study.

(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

29
Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 5. THE ETHNOGRAPHY METHOD OF RESEARCH

Lesson Objectives:

After studying this lesson on the descriptive method of research, you will
be able to:

1. define the ethnography method of research; and

2. identify the attributes of ethnography method of research.

Introduction

The lesson discusses the ethnography as a method of research, its

attributes and ways of obtaining ethnographic data.
Ethnography has achieved considerable currency across the social
sciences, so much so, in fact, that it has effectively become a catch-all term to
describe any form of long-term qualitative research based on a triangulation of
methods.

From its origins in anthropology, ethnography has now expanded out to

be part of the overall methodological toolkit; ethnographic work is done by human
geographers, sociologists, some political scientists, and the entire range of
interdisciplinary ”studies” in the social sciences – business studies, cultural
studies, gender studies, media studies, migration studies, etc. (Outhwaite, et al,
2007)

Definitions

Genzuk (2003), confirmed the following definitions of Ethnography:

1. When used as a method, ethnography typically refers to

fieldwork (alternatively, participant-observation)
conducted by a single investigator who “lives with and
lives like” those who are studied, usually for a year or
more."
2. Ethnography literally means “a portrait of a people.” An
ethnography is a written description of a particular
culture - the customs, beliefs, and behavior - based on
information collected through fieldwork."
3. Ethnography is the art and science of describing a
group or culture. The description may be of a small
tribal group in an exotic land or a classroom in middle-
class suburbia."

30
 4. Ethnography is a social science research method. It
relies heavily on up-close, personal experience and
possible participation, not just observation, by
researchers trained in the art of ethnography. These
ethnographers often work in multidisciplinary teams.
The ethnographic focal point may include intensive
language and culture learning, intensive study of a
single field or domain, and a blend of historical,
observational, and interview methods. Typical
ethnographic research employs three kinds of data
collection: interviews, observation, and documents. This
in turn produces three kinds of data: quotations,
descriptions, and excerpts of documents, resulting in
one product: narrative description. This narrative often
includes charts, diagrams and additional artifacts that
help to tell "the story".
5. Ethnographic methods can give shape to new
constructs or paradigms, and new variables, for further
empirical testing in the field or through traditional,
quantitative social science methods. Ethnography has
its roots planted in the fields of anthropology and
sociology. Present-day practitioners conduct
ethnographies in organizations and communities of all
kinds. Ethnographers study schooling, public health,
rural and urban development, consumers and
consumer goods, any human arena. While particularly
suited to exploratory research, ethnography draws on a
wide range of both qualitative and quantitative
methodologies, moving from "learning" to "testing",
while research problems, perspectives, and theories
emerge and shift.
6. Ethnographic method of research is a means of tapping
local points of view, households and community "funds
of knowledge”, a means of identifying significant
categories of human experience up close and personal.
Ethnography enhances and widens top down views and
enriches the inquiry process, taps both bottom-up
insights and perspectives of powerful policy-makers "at
the top," and generates new analytic insights by
engaging in interactive, team exploration of often subtle
arenas of human difference and similarity. Through
such findings ethnographers may inform others of their
findings with an attempt to derive, for example, policy
decisions or instructional innovations from such an
analysis.

The following are the definitions of Ethnography as cited by Whitehead

(2005):
31
 1. Ethnography is a holistic approach to the study of cultural systems;
2. Ethnography is the study of the socio‑cultural contexts, processes, and
meanings within cultural systems;
3. Ethnography is an iterative process of learning episodes;
4. Ethnography is an open‑ended emergent learning process, and not a
rigid investigator controlled experiment;
5. Ethnography is a highly flexible and creative process;
6. Ethnography is an interpretive, reflexive, and constructivist process;
and
7. Ethnography requires the daily and continuous recording of field notes.

According to Outhwaite, et al, (2007), Ethnography means, literally,

“writing culture”. It is therefore rooted in the notion of description of a particular
society, culture, group or social context.

This description is based on three central features: induction; context; and

unfamiliarity. The inductive process within ethnographic work sees general
statements about human society and culture---what one might call “theory”---
emerging out of the description of particular events. Ethnography is for this
reason---explicitly or implicitly---wedded to the notion of the case study, which
describes in detail a particular event or series of events, to derive from its
broader inferences about social process or the human condition.

Methodological Principles

Genzuk (2003), enumerated the three methodological principles that are

used to provide the rationale for the specific features of the ethnographic method.
They are also the basis for much of the criticism of quantitative research for
failing to capture the true nature of human social behavior; because it relies on
the study of artificial settings and/or on what people say rather than what they do;
because it seeks to reduce meanings to what is observable; and because it
reifies social phenomena by treating them as more clearly defined and static than
they are, and as mechanical products of social and psychological factors. The
three principles can be summarized under the headings of naturalism,
understanding and discovery:
1. Naturalism. This is the view that the aim of social research is to capture the
character of naturally occurring human behavior, and that this can only be
achieved by first-hand contact with it, not by inferences from what people do in
artificial settings like experiments or from what they say in interviews about what
they do elsewhere. This is the reason that ethnographers carry out their research
in "natural" settings, settings that exist independently of the research process,
rather than in those set up specifically for the purposes of research. Another
important implication of naturalism is that in studying natural settings the
researcher should seek to minimize her or his effects on the behavior of the
people being studied. The aim of this is to increase the chances that what is

32
discovered in the setting will be generalizable to other similar settings that have
not been researched. Finally, the notion of naturalism implies that social events
and processes must be explained in terms of their relationship to the context in
which they occur.
2. Understanding. Central here is the argument that human actions differ from
the behavior of physical objects, and even from that of other animals: they do not
consist simply of fixed responses or even of learned responses to stimuli, but
involve interpretation of stimuli and the construction of responses. Sometimes
this argument reflects a complete rejection of the concept of causality as
inapplicable to the social world, and an insistence on the freely constructed
character of human actions and institutions. Others argue that causal relations
are to be found in the social world, but that they differ from the "mechanical"
causality typical of physical phenomena. From this point of view, if we are to be
able to explain human actions effectively we must gain an understanding of the
cultural perspectives on which they are based. That this is necessary is obvious
when we are studying a society that is alien to us, since we shall find much of
what we see and hear puzzling. However, ethnographers argue that it is just as
important when we are studying more familiar settings. Indeed, when a setting is
familiar the danger of misunderstanding is especially great. It is argued that we
cannot assume that we already know others' perspectives, even in our own
society, because particular groups and individuals develop distinctive worldviews.
This is especially true in large complex societies. Ethnic, occupational, and small
informal groups (even individual families or school classes) develop distinctive
ways of orienting to the world that may need to be understood if their behavior is
to be explained. Ethnographers argue, then, that it is necessary to learn the
culture of the group one is studying before one can produce valid explanations
for the behavior of its members. This is the reason for the centrality of participant
observation and unstructured interviewing to ethnographic method.
3. Discovery. Another feature of ethnographic thinking is a conception of the
research process as inductive or discovery-based; rather than as being limited to
the testing of explicit hypotheses. It is argued that if one approaches a
phenomenon with a set of hypotheses one may fail to discover the true nature of
that phenomenon, being blinded by the assumptions built into the hypotheses.
Rather, they have a general interest in some types of social phenomena and/or
in some theoretical issue or practical problem. The focus of the research is
narrowed and sharpened, and perhaps even changed substantially, as it
proceeds. Similarly, and in parallel, theoretical ideas that frame descriptions and
explanations of what is observed are developed over the course of the research.
Such ideas are regarded as a valuable outcome of, not a precondition for,
research.

Attributes of Ethnography Method of Research

According to Whitehead (2005), two of the attributes of Ethnography

Method of Research are as follows:

(1) ethnography includes both qualitative and quantitative methods; and

33
 (2) ethnography includes both classical and non‑classical ethnographic
approaches.

The argument for the first is supported by the fact that while methods that
are considered to be qualitative have long been the dominant methods paradigm
in ethnography, many ethnographers trained in anthropology have also long used
quantitative methods as well, as the anthropological ethnographer learns to be
opened to any and all methods that can help him or her best understand the
cultural system in which he or she is studying. Arguments for these two
attributes were made to address first the perspective among anthropologists, that
the primary difference in ethnographic approaches is qualitative versus
quantitative. Secondly, however, because of the debate in anthropology, in which
some methods are discussed as being truly ethnographic and others as not.
Whitehead (2005), stated further that he had found discussions of
classical, non‑classical, and core ethnographic methods as helpful in
differentiating the types of methods suitable to various ethnographic situations,
while not excluding any from the range of methods that an ethnography should
feel free to use so that they can adequately study the range of social setting to
which ethnography is appropriate. Classical ethnographic methods are those
that have been traditionally used by anthropologists, such as secondary data
analysis, fieldwork, observing activities of interest, recording field notes and
observations, participating in activities during observations (participant
observation), and carrying out various forms of informal and semi‑structured
ethnographic interviewing. This is being referred to as basic classical
ethnographic methods, to distinguish them from other classical ethnographic
methods long employed by anthropologists, including the physical mapping of the
study setting, conducting household censuses and genealogies, assessing
network ties, and using photography and other audio/visual methods.
The difference between the larger category of classical methods, and the
subcategory of basic classical methods is associated with the social setting to be
studied. The full range of classical ethnographic methods have been frequently
associated with the study of communities or populations, while the basic classical
methods are those that are administered not only to human residential
communities and populations, but also applied to other social settings, such as
organizations, institutions, meetings, and just about any setting in which humans
are interacting. This application of basic classical ethnographic method to any
human social setting has been a steady growing trend in ethnography over the
past 40 years, increasing with a steady growing trend of anthropologists and
ethnographers working in nonacademic or applied settings. This is a
characteristic (recently increasing trend) that basic classical ethnographic
methods share with non‑classical ethnographic methods. Another trend in
non‑classical ethnographic methods is their adoption by researchers outside of
the disciplines of ethnography and anthropology.
Included among such as non‑classical ethnographic methods are:
(1) focus and other group interviews;

34
 (2) computer assisted technologies, some used to enhance classical
ethnographic techniques, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) used to
enhance the ethnographers ability to map their host communities;
(3) highly structured interview techniques, some of which have
psychometric scales and other cognitive elicitation and measurement methods.

There is one form of structured interviewing that has also grown in

popularity among anthropological ethnographers over the last 20 years, and is
now associated with that discipline, although it is now being adopted by those
outside of the discipline to whom the method has been introduced. This
technique is the assessment of cultural domains or units of cultural meaning.
Why included here as a non‑classical ethnographic method, domain analysis is a
contemporary approach of a classical interest in ethnography, and that is
exploring cultural meaning through the analysis of language, or ethno semantics.

Ethnography Method of Research as Secondary Data Analysis

Whitehead (2005), discussed that secondary data is simply a reference to

existing data, as compared to new data that are being collected, or have been
recently collected. Ethnography, similar to any other type of research usually
begins with the researcher availing him or herself of the range of information that
already exists on the topic or people being studied. In more positivist or
quantitative approaches, it is such knowledge that helps to develop hypothesis to
be tested in the new research process. In the more open‑ended and discovery
oriented approaches to ethnography and qualitative methods, secondary data
analysis are important in exploring research assumptions (which some
researchers refer to as early hypothesis), or to generate research questions to be
further explored. For all research approaches, secondary data analyses help in
identifying gaps in what is known about particular research topics, and
suggesting the specific methods that might be used to secure the most valid data
related to the questions or topics of interest.
In his working paper titled, “Introduction to Community and Cultural
Research Systems”, he further mentioned the secondary data sources on the
population or setting being studied:

• Scholarly and popular (including media) publications and products.

• Archival and statistical data found in various administrative sources at
the national, state and local levels (e.g., national censuses,
government agencies, state and local planning offices, police stations,
city and town hall ledgers, budgets, sales records).
• Other archival documents, such as maps, atlases, abstracts of titles,
and title deeds;
• Records and data collected by business, educational, health, social
services, labor and professional associations, church records, and
other entities that collect data for their particular missions;

35
 • Data collected in various types of directories, including telephone, local
business directories, special ethnic publications;
• Personal and Individual data, such as diaries, family histories,
biographies and autobiographies, tombstones, etc.

It is highly recommended that ethnographers should explore all that they

can about their topic or study population before moving on to the collection of
primary data. With regards to existing statistical data, and other secondary
sources, many agencies, organizations, and associations may have relevant data
available online. Thus, it is also highly recommended that ethnographers first
explore online sources, prior to engaging in more traditional and labor intensive
methods of contacting agencies and organizations for their hard copy data
documents.

Fieldwork is an Essential Attribute of Ethnography

In ethnography, primary data collection is carried out primarily through

fieldwork. In fact for many anthropologists fieldwork is almost synonymous with
ethnography. Fieldwork is essential to ethnography. So what is fieldwork, and
why do anthropologists consider it so essential to what we call ethnography?
Fieldwork is a form of inquiry that requires a researcher to be immersed
personally in the ongoing social activities of some individual or group carrying out
the research. For classical ethnographers, who primarily studied local
communities, it meant the total immersion of the researcher in the field setting 24
hours per day, 7 days per week, and different seasons of the year, for an
extended period of time (e.g., one year). In this way the ethnographer not only
becomes familiar with the spatial dimensions of the research setting, and its
socio‑cultural dynamics, but also how those dynamics may change at certain
times of the day, week or year. Of course, ethnographers puts it, “the very name
for “doing ethnography” is fieldwork. Work in settings other than simply local
communities today, where such 24‑‑7 immersion is not possible, and
unnecessary (e.g., a work setting). But the importance of spending considerable
time where members those being studied carry out routines and activities
relevant to the topic of study is still relevant to the ethnography perspectives,
regardless of the study setting.

Summary Guidelines for Fieldwork

According to Genzuk (2003), it is difficult, if not impossible, to provide a

precise set of rules and procedures for conducting fieldwork. What you do
depends on the situation, the purpose of the study, the nature of the setting, and
the skills, interests, needs, and point of view of the observer. Following are some
generic guidelines for conducting fieldwork:
1. Be descriptive in taking field notes.
2. Gather a variety of information from different perspectives.

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 3. Cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different kinds of data.
Example: observations, interviews, program documentation, recordings,
and photographs.
4. Use quotations; represent program participants in their own terms.
Capture participants' views of their own experiences in their own words.
5. Select key informants wisely and use them carefully. Draw on the
wisdom of their informed perspectives, but keep in mind that their
perspectives are limited.
6. Be aware of and sensitive to the different stages of fieldwork.
(a) Build trust and rapport at the entry stage. Remember that the
researcher-observer is also being observed and evaluated.
(b) Stay alert and disciplined during the more routine middle-phase of
fieldwork.
(c) Focus on pulling together a useful synthesis as fieldwork draws to a
close.
(d) Be disciplined and conscientious in taking detailed field notes at all
stages of fieldwork.
(e) Be as involved as possible in experiencing the observed setting as fully
as possible while maintaining an analytical perspective grounded in the
purpose of the fieldwork: to conduct research.
(f) Clearly separate description from interpretation and judgment.
(g) Provide formative feedback as part of the verification process of
fieldwork. Time that feedback carefully. Observe its impact.
(h) Include in your field notes and observations reports of your own
experiences, thoughts, and feelings. These are also field data.
Fieldwork is a highly personal experience. The meshing of fieldwork
procedures with individual capabilities and situational variation is what
makes fieldwork a highly personal experience. The validity and
meaningfulness of the results obtained depend directly on the observer's
skill, discipline, and perspective. This is both the strength and weakness of
observational methods.

Ethnics in Ethnographic Method of Research

Since ethnographic method of research takes place among real human

beings, there are a number of special ethical concerns to be aware of before
beginning. In a nutshell, researchers must make their research goals clear to
the members of the community where they undertake their research and gain
the informed consent of their consultants to the research beforehand. It is also
important to learn whether the group would prefer to be named in the written
report of the research or given a pseudonym and to offer the results of the
research if informants would like to read it. Most of all, researchers must be
sure that the research does not harm or exploit those among whom the
research is done. (Genzuk: 2003)

(SEE NO.3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

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Research 1A
Module III
Lesson 5

SELF - PROGRESS CHECK TEST

General Instructions:

• Read and understand each statement carefully.

• Write your answer on the space provided.

Essay. Direction: In not more than 10 sentences, answer the following

questions briefly. (10 points each)

1. Explain the Attributes of Ethnography Method of Research.

2. Discuss the Ethics in Ethnographic Method of Research.

(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)

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Research 1A
Module III

ANSWER KEYS TO THE SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TESTS

Lesson 1
Multiple Choice: (10 points)
1. a 6. a
2. b 7. a
3. a 8. b
4. b 9. b
5. a 10. c

Lesson 2
A. Identification: (x2, total = 20 points)
1. descriptive method
2. case study
3. surveys
4. census of tangibles
5. census of intangibles
6. sample survey of tangibles
7. sample survey of intangibles
8. follow-up
9. documentary analysis
10. correlational study

C. Analysis: (10 points)

1. historical 4. descriptive
2. descriptive 5. descriptive
3. descriptive 6. descriptive

Lesson 3
Essay: (20 points)

1. Discuss the aims of the experimental method of research. The

discussions should reflect the following ideas:
The aims of the experimental method of research are as follows:
Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenon. Typically, an
experiment is constructed to be able to explain some kind of causation.
Experimental research is important to society, thus, it helps us to improve our
everyday lives.
2. Explain the ways of controlling extraneous variables. The
discussions should reflect the following ideas:

To minimize the effects of extraneous variables, or variables outside of the

experiment, the following ways/suggestions are made:

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 2.1 randomization
2.2 matching
2.2.1 person-to-person matching
2.2.2 matching groups
2.2.3 ranking method
2.2.4 homogeneous groups
2.2.5 using subjects as their own controls
2.2.6 analysis of covariance, where the pretest scores are to be
made initially alike.

Lesson 4 (20 points)

Essay. (10 points each)

1. Explain the definitions of a case study according to Sanchez and

Outhwaite, et al. The discussions should reflect the following ideas:

Sanchez (1998) affirmed the following definitions of a case study:

• It involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a
particular individual, group, or situation over a period of time.
• It is a comprehensive study of a social unit---be that unit a person,
a group, a social institution, a district or a community.
• It is a descriptive record of an individual’s experiences and/or
behaviors that may be used in a variety of ways to make inferences
about developmental process, the impact of life events, a person’s
level of functioning, and the origin of disorders. The case study
provides information from which to draw conclusions about the
impact of significant events in a person’s life. In addition, the case
study is used to evaluate an individual’s overall level of functioning.

According to Outhwaite, et al (2007), the following are the definitions or

descriptions of a case study.

• The statistical method can be applied to many cases, the comparative

method to relatively few and the case study method to one case.
• As distinct from experiment or survey, “It involves the investigation of a
relatively small number of naturally occurring cases.”
• We should reserve the term “case study” for those research projects
which attempt to explain wholistically the dynamics of a certain
historical period of a particular social unit.
• A case study is here defined as an in-depth, multi-faceted
investigation, using qualitative research methods, of a single social
phenomenon. The study is conducted in great detail and often relies
on the use of several data sources.

The first definition above depends on the number of cases used; the
second also uses number but allows more cases, and adds the character of the

40
cases chosen. The third and fourth pay less attention to number: the third
emphasizes how cases are treated in relation to the research purpose, while the
fourth focuses on the type, depth and complexity of the data collected on the
case. Given that, for some writers the method is only about the choice of cases
to study, while for others that is just part of a larger package which includes the
mode of data collection, the type of data collected and the way in which the data
are analyzed, the meaning of whatever general statements are made about the
method is considerably affected. In the sense of case study as a package, it can
become true by definition that the method is inherently associated with a
qualitative approach. Sometimes, however, the connection made seems to be a
more purely practical one: a commitment to reach, deep data is taken to mean
that it is not possible to study many cases. That may indeed be so in practice,
where money, time and opportunities are often limited, but is not so in principle.

2. Discuss the seven basic and terminal parts of a feasibility study. The
discussions should reflect the following ideas:

The following are the seven basic and terminal parts of a feasibility study.
• Management aspects – include the management complement,
proponents, personnel or work force, organization and project
implementation timetable.
• Marketing aspects – cover supply and demand, pricing, marketing
program, and projected sales quantity
• Technical aspects – pertain to the manufacturing process, plant rated
capacity, machinery design, plant location and layout, structures,
specifications and operating requirements.
• Taxation aspects – cover fax liabilities of the project and its proponents as
well as other legal aspects affecting the project/industry
• Financial aspects – include cash requirements and financing leverage of
the firm as well as investment policies of financial institutions
• Financial projections – cover profitability and cash estimates
• Social desirability – pertains to specific project contributions to the
Philippine economy/society and social rate return.

Lesson 5 (20 points)

Essay. (10 points each x 2, total = 20 points)

1. Explain the Attributes of Ethnography Method of Research. The

discussions should reflect the following ideas:

According to Whitehead (2005), two of the attributes of Ethnography

Method of Research are as follows: 1.) ethnography includes both qualitative
and quantitative methods; and 2.) ethnography includes both classical and
non‑classical ethnographic approaches.

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 The argument for the first is supported by the fact that while methods that
are considered to be qualitative have long been the dominant methods paradigm
in ethnography, many ethnographers trained in anthropology have also long used
quantitative methods as well, as the anthropological ethnographer learns to be
opened to any and all methods that can help him or her best understand the
cultural system in which he or she is studying. Arguments for these two
attributes were made to address first the perspective among anthropologists, that
the primary difference in ethnographic approaches is qualitative versus
quantitative. Secondly, however, because of the debate in anthropology, in which
some methods are discussed as being truly ethnographic and others as not.
Classical ethnographic methods are those that have been traditionally
used by anthropologists, such as secondary data analysis, fieldwork, observing
activities of interest, recording field notes and observations, participating in
activities during observations (participant observation), and carrying out various
forms of informal and semi‑structured ethnographic interviewing. This is being
referred to as basic classical ethnographic methods, to distinguish them from
other classical ethnographic methods long employed by anthropologists,
including the physical mapping of the study setting, conducting household
censuses and genealogies, assessing network ties, and using photography and
other audio/visual methods.
The difference between the larger category of classical methods, and the
subcategory of basic classical methods is associated with the social setting to be
studied. The full range of classical ethnographic methods have been frequently
associated with the study of communities or populations, while the basic classical
methods are those that are administered not only to human residential
communities and populations, but also applied to other social settings, such as
organizations, institutions, meetings, and just about any setting in which humans
are interacting. This application of basic classical ethnographic method to any
human social setting has been a steady growing trend in ethnography over the
past 40 years, increasing with a steady growing trend of anthropologists and
ethnographers working in nonacademic or applied settings. This is a
characteristic (recently increasing trend) that basic classical ethnographic
methods share with non‑classical ethnographic methods. Another trend in
non‑classical ethnographic methods is their adoption by researchers outside of
the disciplines of ethnography and anthropology. Included among such as
non‑classical ethnographic methods are: (1) focus and other group interviews;
(2) computer assisted technologies, some used to enhance classical
ethnographic techniques, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) used to
enhance the ethnographers ability to map their host communities; (3) highly
structured interview techniques, some of which have psychometric scales and
other cognitive elicitation and measurement methods.

2. Discuss the Ethics in Ethnographic Method of Research. The

discussions should reflect the following ideas:

Ethnographic method of research takes place among real human beings,

there are a number of special ethical concerns to be aware of before beginning.

42
In a nutshell, researchers must make their research goals clear to the members
of the community where they undertake their research and gain the informed
consent of their consultants to the research beforehand. It is also important to
learn whether the group would prefer to be named in the written report of the
research or given a pseudonym and to offer the results of the research if
informants would like to read it. Most of all, researchers must be sure that the
research does not harm or exploit those among whom the research is done.
(Genzuk: 2003)

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44