Materials Science and Technology

ISSN: 0267-0836 (Print) 1743-2847 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ymst20

Precipitation and deformation behaviour of cast

alloy 718 during creep and thermal exposure

Jo C.-Y., Joo D.-W. & Kim I.-B.

To cite this article: Jo C.-Y., Joo D.-W. & Kim I.-B. (2001) Precipitation and deformation
behaviour of cast alloy 718 during creep and thermal exposure, Materials Science and
Technology, 17:10, 1191-1196, DOI: 10.1179/026708301101509250

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1179/026708301101509250

Published online: 19 Jul 2013.

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Precipitation and deformation behaviour of cast
alloy 718 during creep and thermal exposure
C.-Y. Jo, D.-W. Joo, and I.-B. Kim

The precipitation, deformation, and fracture behaviour of cast alloy 718 during creep rupture tests was investigated,
in comparison with thermal exposure tests. Inhomogeneous deformation bands appeared during monotonic or cyclic
deformation of alloy 718. The bands were identified as mechanical twins, which are known to be responsible for
crystallographic failure during creep rupture at and below 649uC. However, crystallographic failure was observed at
temperatures up to 760uC in the present study. No crystallographic failure was observed at and above 816uC.
Precipitation of d phase was observed on deformation bands following creep rupture tests at and above 704uC. The
difference in failure mode below 760uC and above 816uC is assumed to be caused by the precipitation of d phase on
the bands. A few discrete d particles on the bands during 704uC creep rupture tests were not sufficient to prevent
decohesion along the twin/matrix interface, and therefore crystallographic failure still occurred. In contrast with
little or no precipitation below 704uC, needlelike or platelike d phase precipitated at and above 816uC. It is
postulated that the precipitation of d phase restricted successive deformation. Since d phase precipitates on {111}
planes where major deformation occurs, this phase usually grows according to the following orientation relationship:
(010)d||(111)c, [100]d||[116 0]c. Restriction of deformation by the precipitation of d phase caused the change in failure
behaviour at and above 816uC. MST/4587
Dr Jo (cyj@kmail.kimm.re.kr) and Dr Joo are in the Materials Processing Department, Korea Institute of Machinery and
Materials, 66 Sangnam-dong, Changwon, Kyungnam 641 – 010, South Korea and Dr Kim is in the Department of Metallurgical
Engineering, Pusan National University, Pusan, 609 – 735, South Korea. Manuscript received 19 January 2000; accepted 19
December 2000.
# 2001 IoM Communications Ltd.

chemical composition of the cast alloy was (wt-%) Ni –

Introduction
Owing to excellent high temperature mechanical properties,
corrosion resistance, and weldability, alloy 718 is widely
used in gas turbine components. The alloy is mainly
strengthened by c0 phase; therefore, the deformation
behaviour of the alloy under tensile or fatigue stresses is
quite different from that of c9 strengthened superalloys.1 – 3
Fournier and Pineau1 and Worthem et al.4 reported that
inhomogeneous deformation bands appeared during mono-
tonic or cyclic deformation of alloy 718. The bands were
identified as twins. It was also reported that the develop-
ment of these bands, which formed at temperatures up to
649uC, was a precursor to failure under service conditions.
The deformation band is known to be responsible for
crystallographic failure during creep rupture at and below
649uC. The formation of mechanical twins during service
affects not only the failure of the alloy but also the
precipitation behaviour of c0 and d phases. It is known that
c0 phase transforms to d phase under service condi-
tions,1,4 – 6 and the transformation accelerates with increas-
ing stress and temperature.
A great number of studies have been carried out on the
deformation behaviour and microstructural evolution of
wrought alloy 718 at temperatures below 700uC. However,
only a few have reported its behaviour at temperatures
above 700uC.
In the present study, the mechanical behaviour and
microstructural evolution of cast alloy 718 during creep and
thermal exposure have been studied at and above 704uC.
0.08C – 0.35Mn – 0.35Si – 0.015P – 0.015S – 19Cr – 3.0Mo –
5.02Nb – 0.08Ta – 0.90Ti – 0.60Al – 18Fe.
The cast bars were subjected to the following heat
treatment under vacuum:
(i) homogenising at 1093uC for 90 min
(ii) solution treatment at 968uC for 60 min
(iii) first aging at 718uC for 480 min, then cooling to
621uC in the furnace
(iv) second aging at 621uC for 480 min, then cooling to
room temperature in air.
Heat treated bars were machined to produce creep speci-
mens with gauge section diameter of 6 mm and gauge length
of 25 mm. Constant load creep tests were conducted at
704uC (1300uF), 760uC (1400uF), 816uC (1500uF), and
871uC (1600uF) in the stress range 80 – 520 MPa. Thermal
exposure tests were carried out at the same temperatures as
those used for the creep tests, for 10, 50, 300, and 500 h in
air.
The mechanical and precipitation behaviours of the
alloy during creep and thermal exposure were studied by
microstructural observation. Specimens for observation
were prepared using standard metallographic techniques,
and etched by swabbing with Kalling’s reagent consisting of
2 g CuCl2, 40 ml HCl, and 80 ml ethanol. Transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) was also carried out for the
analysis of precipitates. Specimens for TEM were prepared
by mechanical grinding followed by twin jet polishing using
a solution consisting of 10%HClO4, 45%CH3CH2OH, and
45%C4H10O.

Results and discussion

Experimental procedure
Specimens 150 mm in length and 15 mm in diameter were
fabricated by vacuum investment casting of the master alloy
718, which was supplied by Cannon-Muskegon Corp. The
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND STRESS ON
HIGH TEMPERATURE DEFORMATION
The creep rupture results for cast alloy 718 are given in
Table 1. It is known that the alloy loses strength when c0

ISSN 0267 – 0836 Materials Science and Technology October 2001 Vol. 17 1191
1192 Jo et al. Precipitation and deformation behaviour of cast alloy 718

a 704uC, 448 MPa; b 760uC, 300 MPa; c 816uC, 150 MPa; d 871uC, 80 MPa
1 Micrographs of longitudinal sections of crept specimens: s indicates direction of applied stress

(D022 Ni3Nb) transforms to d (D0a Ni3Nb) during creep or

service. Table 1 also indicates differences in elongation of
the alloy under various creep conditions, analysed by means
of microstructural observation.
Figure 1 shows a difference in creep failure mechanism
for temperatures at and below 760uC and temperatures at
and above 816uC. At the lower temperatures, creep failure
did not occur at the grain boundaries, but a ledgelike failure
mode was observed at the fracture surface (Fig. 1a and b).
This suggests that deformation bands were responsible for
crystallographic failure during creep rupture at and below
760uC. At the higher temperatures, grain boundary failure
was evident, as well as creep voiding at the grain boundaries
(Fig. 1c and d).
This difference in creep failure mechanism for the two
temperature ranges (at and below 760uC and at and above
816uC) is evident in higher magnification micrographs of the
fracture surfaces, as shown in Fig. 2. Figure 2a illustrates a
number of primary deformation bands inclined at a certain
angle to the applied stress. A few secondary deformation
bands are also apparent at a certain angle to the primary
deformation bands. The bands are known as mechanical
twins.7,8 Sundararaman and co-workers7,8 and Fournier
and Pineau1 reported that the formation of such mechanical
twins in alloy 718 is related to the stacking fault energy of

Table 1 Stress rupture properties of cast alloy 718

Temperature, Stress, Rupture Elongation,
uC MPa time, h %

704 448 302.9 6.5

520 20.3 6.1
760 300 99.1 10.6
400 17.8 10.3
816 150 139.2 28.2
250 11.1 22.3
871 80 476.3 9.4
a 704uC, 448 MPa; b 816uC, 150 MPa
150 2.3 49.1
2 Micrographs of given crept specimens

Materials Science and Technology October 2001 Vol. 17

 Jo et al. Precipitation and deformation behaviour of cast alloy 718 1193
a,b 704uC, 488 MPa; c,d 816uC, 150 MPa
3 Optical and SEM images of creep rupture failed cast alloy 718
the material. Creep cracks have initiated along the bands,
where the secondary deformation bands cross the primary
deformation bands (indicated by arrows). Failure has
occurred in this case by decohesion of the twin/matrix
interface, not only along the primary bands (or twins) but
also along the secondary bands (or twins). This explains the
ledgelike crystallographic failure mode observed on the
fracture surface.
The deformation bands are not clear in Fig. 2b. However,
a wavy, grain boundary failure mode can be observed with
crack initiation at the grain boundaries. This indicates that
creep failure at and above 816uC was independent of the
deformation band.
Figure 3 shows more clearly the creep temperature
dependence of the deformation behaviour of the alloy. At
704uC the deformation bands in the grains are aligned with
their crystallographic orientations (Fig. 3a). Microcracks
exist where the bands cross each other or a band meets a
grain boundary. Observation by SEM revealed discrete
precipitation of d phase along the bands during creep at
704uC and 448 MPa (Fig. 3b).
In comparison with the specimen crept at 704uC and
448 MPa, the deformation bands are wavy and relatively
fine in the specimen crept at 816uC and 150 MPa (Fig. 3c).
Observation by SEM (Fig. 3d) revealed precipitation of d
phase on the bands, especially near the interdendritic
regions where solute (niobium) segregation might exist.
The degree of d phase precipitation on the deformation
bands during creep at 816uC was more pronounced than
that at 704uC, with precipitation observed in the interden-
dritic regions. Nevertheless, as mentioned above, discrete
precipitation of d phase was found in the specimen crept at
704uC, indicating that the deformation bands formed before
this precipitation of d occurred. Because the discrete
precipitation of d phase on the deformation bands was
not sufficient to restrict decohesion along the matrix
interface, creep failure occurred along the twin bands
crystallographically.
The d phase precipitates on deformation bands according
to a crystallographic relationship with the c matrix. This
relationship is {111}c||(010)d, n110mc||[100]d. Because the slip
direction [110]c on the slip planes {111}c is the same as the
preferred growth orientation of [100]d, d phase precipitates
preferentially on the bands.9
The shape of the deformation bands became wavy and
relatively fine with increasing creep temperature and stress
(Fig. 4a). The morphology of the associated d phase
followed that of the deformation bands in the specimen
crept at 816uC, indicating that the precipitation behaviour of
the d phase on the deformation bands must be related to the
time of band formation. This can be explained as follows.
As mentioned above, precipitation of d phase (on the
bands, not of all the d phase in the specimen) occurs after
the formation of the deformation bands (primary bands or
slip planes).1 Precipitation of d phase restricts subsequent
deformation along the bands (or slip planes); therefore,
secondary deformation bands, which are at a certain angle
to the primary bands, must come into operation. Precipita-
tion of d phase on the secondary bands proceeds in the same
way as on the primary bands. If precipitation of d phase
on the secondary bands is sufficient, it can also restrict
subsequent deformation. Then, to allow further deforma-
tion, tertiary deformation (slip or twin) bands are needed.
The d precipitates on the primary and secondary bands are
cut by the tertiary bands (slip or twin), as indicated in
Fig. 4b. The wavy morphology of the bands (and d phase) is
believed to result from the cutting process of the d phase by
dislocations, owing to subsequent deformation after pre-
cipitation on {111}. The sequence of deformation band
development can be explained in terms of the thickness of
the d phase on each band. Because the d phase on the
primary bands precipitates earlier than that on the
secondary bands, the d phase on the primary bands is
thicker than that on the secondary bands, as indicated in
Fig. 4c. The sequence of the deformation procedure can be
suggested by a schematic model as shown in Fig. 5.
Materials Science and Technology October 2001 Vol. 17
1194 Jo et al. Precipitation and deformation behaviour of cast alloy 718
a low magnification; b high magnification; c scheme of defor-
mation bands; A primary deformation bands; B secondary
deformation bands; C tertiary deformation bands
4 Micrographs (SEM) of specimen crept at 816uC and
250 MPa
EFFECTS OF THERMAL EXPOSURE AND
CREEP STRESS ON d PRECIPITATION ON
DEFORMATION BANDS
Figure 6 shows micrographs of specimens thermally
exposed for 300 h at temperatures corresponding to those
of the creep tests. In the specimen exposed at 704uC, very
fine precipitates, which are assumed to be c0 phase, existed
across the specimen as well as d phase near the grain
boundaries. The fine c0 precipitates grew with increasing
exposure temperature. Transformation from c0 to d, which
is a common phenomenon in alloy 718, was found within
the grains in the specimen exposed at 816uC; precipitation
free zones existed in the vicinity of d needles (platelets).10
Growth in length of the d needles was evident in specimens
thermally exposed at and above 816uC. However, fine c0 was
not evident in the specimen exposed at 871uC, which is
higher than the c0 solvus, but lower than that of d.
Precipitation in the dendrite core region was less than in
the interdendritic region or near the grain boundary. This
trend became obvious as the temperature of exposure
increased. The difference in precipitation behaviour
Materials Science and Technology October 2001 Vol. 17
5 Schematic modelling of creep deformation and precipi-
tation during creep at and above 816uC: difference in
thickness of lines indicates growth of d phase at high
temperature; GB grain boundary
between dendrite core and interdendritic regions is believed
to be related to the casting segregation of niobium, which is
known to be the c0 and d forming element. Because the
precipitation of d is relatively easy at a high temperature
and in a solute (niobium) rich area such as an interdendritic
region, the difference in precipitation behaviour between
the two regions with increasing exposure temperature is
evident.
Owing to the absence of stress during thermal exposure,
the length of the d platelets was relatively short, compared
with that in specimens crept at the same temperatures.
In the case of the thermal exposure tests, d platelets
precipitated according to their own crystallographic rela-
tionship with the matrix; hence, the orientation of the
platelets was random and their lengths were shorter than
those in crept specimens, especially at higher temperatures.
Figure 7 shows the effect of temperature and stress on the
precipitation behaviour of the alloy. It can be seen that the
precipitation free zone increases in size with stress and
increasing temperature. Because d precipitation, which
consumes niobium, occurs during creep deformation
before precipitation in the matrix, the dendrite core area
might suffer from a deficiency of niobium. Usually, the
dendrite core area is less rich in niobium than the
interdendritic region, as discussed above. These might be
the reasons for the difference in precipitation behaviour
observed between the two regions.
Figure 8 shows TEM images of the specimen crept at
704uC and 448 MPa. The transformation from c0 to d
generally occurs at a high temperature in alloy 718, and is
accelerated by stress. As indicated in Fig. 8, a stacking fault
was generated within c0 precipitates, substantiating that
transformation is accelerated by stress.
Figure 9 shows the difference in morphology of d
precipitates between crept and as heat treated specimens.
In the as heat treated specimen (Fig. 9a), d phase nucleated
near the grain boundary, then grew into the grains. The
morphology of the phase is platelike and relatively thin.
However, relatively short and thick d precipitates have
developed in the crept specimens (Fig. 9b and c). This
means that creep stress has accelerated the nucleation of d
precipitation. Even though the creep life was short at the
higher stress, the specimen crept at 150 MPa exhibits more
d precipitates than the specimen crept at 80 MPa, as well as
relatively short d precipitates. Because d precipitation is
assisted by stress, the higher stress results in more
nucleation sites for d precipitation, such as stacking
faults.
 Jo et al. Precipitation and deformation behaviour of cast alloy 718 1195

a 704uC, 300 h; b 760uC, 300 h; c 816uC, 300 h; d 871uC, 300 h

6 Micrographs of thermally exposed cast alloy 718

As mentioned above, the d phase precipitate has its own slip system of the matrix c. Therefore, a higher stress results
crystallographic relationship with the matrix c, and the in more nucleation sites for d, then causes them to grow
preferred precipitation orientation of d corresponds to the along their crystallographic orientations which are identical

a thermally exposed, 760uC, 150 h; b creep rupture failed, 760uC, 300 MPa, 99 h; c thermally exposed, 816uC, 150 h; d creep rupture
failed, 816uC, 150 MPa, 139 h
7 Micrographs (SEM) of given thermally exposed and crept specimens

Materials Science and Technology October 2001 Vol. 17

1196 Jo et al. Precipitation and deformation behaviour of cast alloy 718
a bright field image; b selected area diffraction (SAD) pattern; c key to SAD pattern in b
8 Images (TEM) of specimen crept at 704uC and 448 MPa
a standard heat treated; b crept at 871uC and 150 MPa; c crept at 871uC and 80 MPa
9 Images (TEM) of cast alloy 718
to the slip system indices, as illustrated in Fig. 9b. Because a
small number of d precipitates occurred on the primary slip
planes (or deformation bands) in the specimen crept at the
lower stress (80 MPa), the precipitated d could grow in both
thickness and length. Figure 9c shows this precipitated d,
aligned on only the primary slip plane (or deformation
band) and relatively thick and long.
Conclusions
1. The d phase precipitated along the deformation bands
according to its crystallographic relationship with the
matrix.
2. Discrete precipitation of d phase on the deformation
band was not sufficient to restrict decohesion along the
interface between the matrix and the d phase. Therefore,
crystallographic creep failure occurred at and below 760uC.
3. Continuous precipitation of d phase on the deforma-
tion bands was sufficient to restrict crystallographic creep
failure at and above 816uC.
4. The wavy morphology of the d phase is believed to
have resulted from the cutting process of the d phase by
dislocations, owing to subsequent deformation after pre-
cipitation on {111}.
Materials Science and Technology October 2001 Vol. 17
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