CITY AND GUILDS 9210

UNIT 103
HYDRAULICS AND HYDROLOGY Level 6
TUTORIAL 7 - NON-UNIFORM FLOW IN CHANNELS

This unit has two outcomes. Outcome 2 is on hydrological cycles and is not covered in this set of
tutorials. Outcome 1 is a large outcome and some parts are not covered fully. You will find other material
of use to your studies under Fluid Mechanics Unit 129

Outcome 1 Identify and process solutions for problems in fluid mechanics, pipe flow,
rotodynamic machines and open channel flow

The learner can:

1. Determine fluid continuity and solve
problems using Bernoulli’s equation.
2. Apply energy and momentum principles
in an engineering context.
3. Assess free and forced vortex flow.
4. Assess steady flow in pipes in respect of:
a pipe friction
b velocity distributions.
c laminar and turbulent flows in smooth
and rough pipes
d Poiseuille’s law
e Darcy’s law
5. Examine the relationship between friction
factor, Reynolds number and relative
roughness.
6. Examine local losses in pipe systems due
to friction.
7. Analyse pipe networks using Hardy Cross
method and Garnish method.
8. Determine the reasons for unsteady pipe
flow in respect of:
a frictionless incompressible behaviour
b frictionless compressible behaviour
c surge tanks
9. Describe the one-dimensional theory of:
a pumps
b turbines
10. Classify pumps and turbines.
11. Assess pumps and turbines with respect
to:
a characteristics
b specific speed
c cavitations
12. Select a pump for a range of pipe
systems.
13. Assess steady flow in an open channel
using Chezy and Manning equations.
14. Design non-erodible channels.
15. Recognise the effect of sediment
transportation in open channels.
16. Analyse gradual varied non-uniform
flow in channels
17. Apply energy and momentum principles
to rapidly varied flow in open channels in
respect of:
a hydraulic structures
b short channel transitions
c thin weirs
d flow gauging structures
e hydraulic jump
18. Derive formulae using dimensional
analysis.
19. Investigate the criteria, parameters and
scales for physical models of:
a hydraulic structures.
b rivers etc.
20. Ascertain the relative merits of physical
and mathematical models.

In this tutorial you will

 Derive equations associated with a rise in the level of the bed.

 Define a hydraulic jump and derive the equations for it.
 Define a narrow weir and derive equations for it.
 Define a broad weir and derive equations for it.
 Derive equations for the flow rate through a Venturi Flume.
 Solve questions from past papers.

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

1
UNSTEADY FLOW

If the depth of the water is not constant, we have unsteady flow.

This might occur when the frictional losses do not match the
change in potential energy. In this case the hydraulic gradient 'i'
is not the same as the slope 'S'. The height of the bed relative to
the datum level is z.

The total head is defined as hs plus the additional potential head z Figure 1

hT = hS + z = h + z + u2/2g

Start with hS = hT - z
Differentiate with respect to x (the distance along the channel from a given datum point).

dz/dx is the gradient of the bed and this is clearly negative so dz/dx = - S

The change in the total head can only be due to frictional losses and this will be a reduction so we can define this as
the hydraulic gradient

We had

Differentiate this with respect to h

If A is a function of depth, then this is difficult. For a rectangular channel A = B h

Differentiate with respect to h

For maximum or minimum specific head dhS/dh = 0 and this can only occur if Fr = 1

Flow is at the critical depth when Fr = 1

The velocity that produces the critical depth is uc = √(g h)

Note that it has been assumed that h is constant at all widths so the Froude number is only 1 when the channel is
rectangular in section.

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

2
HYDRAULIC JUMP

It has already been shown that for a given flow rate in an open channel, there are two possible depths. One
is when the flow is slow and deep called TRANQUIL FLOW and the other when it is shallow and fast
called RAPID FLOW or SHOOTING FLOW.

It is possible for rapid flow to change to tranquil flow quite suddenly and spontaneously and when it does
we get a phenomenon called a hydraulic jump. It is not possible for the reverse to happen.

For a hydraulic jump to occur, Fr > 1

i.e. the flow must be supercritical.

The jump might occur because the slope of the

bed is insufficient for friction to balance the loss
of potential energy. Since the losses are smaller
for the tranquil flow, the balance can be restored.

A jump can be made to occur if there is an

obstacle on the bed higher than the critical depth. Figure 2

When the change occurs there is a reduction in momentum and an increase in the hydrostatic force. The
solution is based on equating them.

uo = mean velocity. The mean depth is h/2

Pressure force on a cross section is Fp = ρgAh/2 Momentum force at a section =Fm = ρAu2

The cross sectional area is A = B h where B is the width.

ρgA 1h1 ρgA 2 h 2 ρgBh 12 ρgB 2 h 22
Change in pressure force =   
2 2 2 2
Change in pressure force =
ρgB 2
2

h1  h 22  
ρgB
2
h1  h 2 h1  h 2 

Change in momentum force = ρBh1u12 - ρBh2u22 = ρB(h1u12- h2u22)

For continuity of flow u22 = ( u1 h1/ h2)2
 h 2 h12 2 
Change in momentum force = ρB
 h1u1
2
 2
u1

  ρBu1
2 h1
h 2  h1 
 h 2  h 2
The change in pressure and momentum forces may be equated.
ρgB
h1  h 2 h1  h 2   ρBu12 h1 h 2  h1 
2 h2
g
h1  h 2   u12 h1
2 h2
h g
u12  h1  h 2  2  ................(1)
 h1  2
In terms of the flow rate
h g
Q2  B2 h12 h1  h 2  2   B2 h1h 2 h1  h 2 
g
 h1  2 2

The flow per unit width is usually given as q 2  gh 1h 2

h1  h 2  ....................(2)
2

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

3
From (1)
2h1u12
g
 h1h 2  h 2
2
 h 2  h1h 2  h1
2

2u12
g
0

h2 may be solved with the quadratic equation giving:

 8u 2   8u 2 
2h 2  h1  h1 1  1  and since h2 cannot be negative 2h 2  h1  h1 1  1 
 gh 1   gh 1 
u2
Substitute the Froude Number Fr2  1
gh 1
2h 2  h1  h1 1  8Fr2  
h
h 2  1 1  8Fr2  1
2
  
Next consider the energy balance before and after the jump.

Energy Head before the jump = h1 + u12/2g Energy Head after the jump = h2 + u22/2g

Head loss = hL = h1 + u12/2g - h2 - u22/2g hL = h1 - h2 + (u12 - u22)/2g

h
Continuity of flow Q = u1 B h1 = u2 B h2 u 2  u1 1
h2
 h1 
2   h 2 
2 
Hence u12  u 22  u12 - u12    u1 1   1  
 h2    2 
 h

h g
We already found equation (1) was u12  h1  h 2  2 
 h1  2
Substitute
 h 2  g   h1  
2

u1  u 2  h1  h 2   1    
2 2

 h1  2   h 2  
 h 2  h 22  h12 
u1  u 2  h1  h 2  
2 2 g
2 
2  h1   h 2 

u 2
1  g h
 u 22 
 h 2  h 22  h12
2h1h 2
1  
Substitute into the formula for hL

hL = h1 - h2 + (u12 - u22)/2g

h L  h1  h 2  
gh1  h 2  h 22  h12  
h  h 2  h 22  h12
 h1  h 2   1
 
2 x 2gh 1h 2 4h1h 2

hL 

4h1h 2 h1  h 2   h1  h 2  h 22  h12  
4h1h 2
4h12 h 2  4h1h 22  h 32  h13  h1h 22  h12 h 2
hL 
4h1h 2
3h12 h 2  3h1h 22  h 32  h13
hL 
4h1h 2

hL 
h 2 - h1 3
4h1h 2

Useful website http://www.lmnoeng.com/Channels/HydraulicJump.htm

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn
4
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

50 m3/s of water flows in a rectangular channel 8 m wide with a depth of 0.5 m. Show that a hydraulic
jump is likely to occur.

Calculate the depth after the jump and the energy loss per second.

SOLUTION

A1 = 8 x 0.5 = 4 m2 u1 = Q/A1 = 50/4 = 12.5 m/s

Froude Number Fr1 = u/√gh = = 12.5/√(9.81 x 0.5) = 5.644 This is supercritical so a jump is possible.
h

h 2  1 1  8Fr2  1 
2
0.5
2
  
1  8 x 5.6442  1  3.748 m
A2 = 8 x 3.748 = 30 m2 u2 = Q/A2 = 50/30 = 1.667 m/s
h - h 3 3.748 - 0.53  4.573 m
hL  2 1 
4h1h 2 4 x 0.5 x 3.748
Energy loss = mghL = 50 000 x 9.81 x 4.573 = 2.243 MJ/s
m = 50 000 kg/s

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. Show by applying Newton's Laws that when a hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel the depth
after the jump is
h
 
h 2  1 1  8Fr2  1
2

Go on to show that the head loss is hL 
h 2 - h1 
3

4h1h 2
3
2. 40 m /s of water flows in a rectangular channel 10 m wide with a depth of 1.0 m. Show that a hydraulic
jump is likely to occur. Calculate the depth after the jump and the energy loss per second.
(Answers 1.374 m and 3.735 kJ/s)

3. Water has a depth H = 1.5 m behind a sluice gate and emerges from the gate with a depth of 0.4 m.
Downstream a hydraulic jump occurs. Calculate depth after the jump and the mean velocity before and
after the jump.

Figure 3
(Answers 0.57 m, 5.045 m/s and 3.538 m/s)

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

5
RISE IN LEVEL OF BED

In this section we will examine what happens to the level of water flowing in a channel when there is a
sudden ride in the level of the bed.

Figure 4

First apply Bernoulli between points (1) and (2)

u2 u2
h1  1  h 2  2  z
2g 2g
uh
From the continuity equation substitute u 2  1 1
h2
2
 u1h1 
 
u12
 h2    z
h
h1  2
2g 2g
u12 u12 h12
Rearrange h1   h2  z  0
2g 2gh 22
 u2  u 2h 2
 h1  1  h 2  z h 22  1 1  0
 
 2g  2g
Substitute h2 = x + h1 – z

h1 
u12 
 x  h1 - z   z x  h1 - z  
2  
u12 x  h1 - z 
2
0
 2g  2g
 u12
  x

 x  h1 - z 2


u12 x  h1 - z 
2
0

 2g  2g
 2

u1  2gx x  h1 - z   u12 x  h1 - z   0
2 2

u2
1  2gx x  h - z 
1
2
 u12 x  h1 - z   0
2

There follows a long bout of more algebra to produce a cubic equation for x :
2 u12   u12  u12
x  2x  h1  z    x h1  z  h1  z    z 2h1  z   0
3
   
 4g   g  2g
This equation may be used to solve the change in height of the water. If the values of x and z are small, we
may neglect products and higher powers of small numbers so the equation simplifies to:
 u 2  zu2
x h1  1   1  0
 g  g
 u12  zu12

x 1  
 gh  0
 gh 1 1

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

6
 u1
The Froude number approaching the change is Fr1  hence
gh 1
 
x 1  Fr12  zFr12  0
zFr12
x
F2
r1  h1 
The equation indicates that if flow is supercritical (Fr1>1) then x is positive and the surface rises. If the flow
is sub critical (tranquil Fr1<1) then x is negative and the surface is depressed.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2

Water flows in a rectangular channel with a depth of 0.55 m and a mean velocity of 4.5 m/s.
Downstream there is a rise in the level of the bed of 0.075 m. Determine the depth and mean velocity
after the rise. Is Bernoulli's equation is satisfied?

SOLUTION

u1 4.5
z = 0.075 m h1 = 0.55 m u1 = 4.5 m/s Fr1    1.937
gh 1 9.81x0.55
0.075 (1.937)2
The flow is supercritical (Rapid) x   0.102m

1.937 2  0.55 
Depth = 0.55 + 0.102 = 0.577 m
uh 4.5 x 0.55
u2  1 1   4.289m/s
h2 0.577
u12 4.52
Energy head before rise is h1   0.55   1.582
2g 2g
u 22 4.2892
Energy Head after the rise is h 2   z  0.577   0.102  1.616
2g 2g
There is a small discrepancy.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

1. Water flows in a rectangular channel with a depth of 1.0 m. Downstream there is a rise in the level of
the bed of 0.1 m. Determine the mean velocity before and after the rise if the depth after the rise is:

(a) 1.1 m (4.428 m/s and 4.026 m/s)

(b) 0.8 m (2.215 m/s and 2.768 m/s)

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

7
WEIRS

We shall consider two forms of weirs, a narrow one with a sharp edge and a broad one with a rounded edge.

NARROW WEIRS

The flow over a sharp edge weir is in essence the same as flow through a rectangular notch. Consider the
flow from section (1) to section (2).

Figure 5

We shall only consider the depth upstream relative to the top of the weir. The mean velocity at a given point
is u. The pressure head at (2) is atmospheric Applying Bernoulli between (1) and (2) we have:
u2 u2
h1  1  h 2  2
2g 2g
The velocity upstream is usually small so we can neglect u 1 and if we use gauge pressure then h2 = 0
u2
h1  2 and u 2  2gh 1
2g
Next consider a thin horizontal strip at distance h from the bottom of the weir and height dh. The volume
flow through it is dQ = u2 Bdh
dQ  2gh 1 Bdh
H
Q  2g B  h1/2
1 dh
0
2
Q 2g BH 2/3
3
It is normal to introduce a coefficient of discharge to correct for losses.
2
Q  Cd 2g BH2/3
3

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

8
BROAD CRESTED WEIR

Earlier we examined what happens when the bed of the channel suddenly rises. In the case of the broad
crested weir, the level falls as it passes from the weir and it can be proved that at some point on the weir, the
flow becomes critical. At this point h2 = hc.

Figure 6
2h s
It was shown earlier that h c  where hs is the specific total energy head.
3
It was also shown that the critical flow rate is
3 1/2
1 / 2  8h s 
Qc  B  b g  
 27 
 
For a rectangular section this becomes
1/2
 8gh 3s 
Qc  B   1.705h s 3/2

 27 
This gives the flow rate over the weir. Usually a coefficient of discharge is used to correct for losses.
Qc  1.705 Cd h s3/2
If the approach velocity u1 is negligible then hs = h1 and makes it easy to solve Q.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

A rectangular channel takes the flow from the foot of a steep spillway with a flow of 10 m 3/s per metre
of width. The flow in the channel approaches a broad crested weir with a Froude number of 3. Calculate
the following.

i) The mean velocity in the channel.

ii) The minimum height of the weir which will cause a hydraulic jump to occur in the channel.

SOLUTION

The diagram illustrates the problem

Figure 7

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

9
 CHANNEL – At section (1) Fr2 = 9 = u12/gh1 h1 = q/u1

Combine and 9 = u13/10g hence u1 = 9.593 m/s h1 = 10/9.593 = 1.042 m

JUMP

h2 
h1
2
 1  8F  1 3.932m
r
2
u2 = q/h2 = 10/3.932 = 2.543 m/s

WEIR – At section (3) the flow is assumed critical so Fr =1

u2
Fr2  3  1 and u 32  gh 3
gh3
q q
u3  or h 3  substitute and u 33  gq hence u3 = 4.612 m/s
h3 u3

h3 = q/u3 = 2.168 m

Bernoulli between (2) and (3)

u 22 u2
 h 2  3  h3  z
2g 2g
2.5432 4.6122
 3.932   2.168  z
2g 2g
hence z = 1.009

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. A rectangular channel takes the flow from the foot of a spillway with a flow of 20 m 3/s per unit width.
The flow in the channel approaches a broad crested weir with a Froude number of 2.24.

Calculate the minimum height of the weir to produce a hydraulic jump in the channel.

(Answer 0.968 m)

2. A wide rectangular spillway has a flow of water of 12 m 3/s per unit width. A broad weir in the path
causes a hydraulic jump to occur. The Froude number approaching the jump is 2.5.

Calculate the minimum height of the weir assuming the flow is critical at some point over it. (Answer
0.85 m)

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

10
2. VENTURI FLUME

A venturi flume is a flume that narrows to the throat

and then widens back out again. The reduction in
width causes a change in velocity and hence height. In
a Venturi meter the change is reflected as a change in
static pressure but in a flume it is height.

If energy is conserved the total energy head at inlet

and at the throat are the same so from Bernoulli we
have:
u2 u2
H1  1  H 2  2
2g 2g
B2 H 2
The flow rate is Q = Au = B1 H1 u1 = B2 H2 u2 Hence u1  u 2
B1H1
2
 BH  1 u2
H1   u 2 2 2   H2  2
 B1H1  2g 2g

u 22 
  B2 H 2   2gH1  H 2 
2

H1  H 2   1     u2  2
2g   B1H1  
  B H 
1   2 2 
 B1H1 
2gH1  H 2  2gH1  H 2 
Q  B2 H 2 Allowing for energy losses Q  Cd B2 H 2
 b 2 H 22   b 2 H 22 
1  2 2  1  2 2 
 B H1   B H1 

If the flow rate is a maximum, the depth at the throat will be the critical depth and a hydraulic jump will
form downstream of the throat. In this case
2 u 2 2h u2 2 gh s
H 2  h s and h s  H 2  2  s  2 Hence u 2 
3 2g 3 2g 3
2gh s 2B2 hs 2gh s
Q  B 2 H 2 u 2  B2 H 2 
3 3 3
Introducing the coefficient of discharge Q  1.705Cd h s2/3
This is the same as for Broad Crested weir. Solving Q with this formula is not straight forward because h s
contains the velocity term. The examination often asks for the derivation of this formula.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

A rectangular channel is 1.2 m wide and narrows to 0.6 m wide in a venturi flume. The depth at the
entrance and throat are 0.6 m and 0.55 m respectively. Calculate the flow rate given Cd = 0.88.

SOLUTION
2gH1  H 2  2g0.05
Q  C d B2 H 2  0.88 x 0.6 x 0.55  0.324 m3 /3
 B2 H 2 
2 2
 0.6 x 0.55 
2

1  2 2  1  1.2 x 0.6 

 B1 H1 

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

11
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

Show that for critical flow with a Froude Number of 1 in a rectangular channel, the depth of flow yc is
related to the specific energy head H by the expression H = 3yc/2

Describe with sketches a broad crested weir and a venturi flume.

Show that for both structures the flow rate is related to the critical depth by the relationship
Q  1.705Cd H3/2

Note the symbols are not the same as in the notes and are the ones used typically in the EC exam.

(c) www.freestudy.co.uk Author D.J.Dunn

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