Differences

Language dialects vary

How Japan evolves as a state

- Nation building
- Evolution of Japanese political institutions

Institutions can be formal or informal

Path dependence
- Economic outcome
- Order of events affected if magiiba yung route at magiiba din yung outcome
- Path dependence - processes where past events or decisions constrain later events or
decisions.

Nature and formation of States

Nature and Formation of States
● The concept of state is very European in Nature; Emerged in Europe during the 12th &
18th century
● A fundamental element of human organization in global politics
● City-states (Greece and Italy)
● Universal State (Empires)
● Birth of the modern state (1648)
○ Peace Treaty of Westphalia
■ Respect the sovereignty of states, and sovereign entities, other
governments must not interfere with another state to respect their
sovereignty.
■ Only applicable to Europe !! (Did not respect the sovereignty of other
nations in Asia and Africa (Colonization)
● States vary in population, resource, and size
● No other human organization that exists is higher than the state
● 195 Countries
● State - independent legal system of administration; a symbol of collective action and
community
○ Defined territory
○ Population (permanent)
○ Government (effective)
○ Sovereignty (political independence and capacity to enter relations w/ other
states)
State - legal concept
Nation/Nation state - ethnic concept

How does these states form? → Theories of International Relation

Theories of IR & State Formation

● Realism
○ Sees other states as competitors, power-hungry, based on national interest and
exploitation
○ Human nature is inherently evil/selfish
○ To establish order
● Classical Realism
○ Escape the chaotic “state of nature”
○ Establishment of order, survival
○ Defense against external threat
○ Thomas Hobbes; Niccolo Machiavelli
● Liberalism
○ Mostly seeks for cooperation than conflict (positive view on globalization
believing that it will have a social and political benefit such as through free trade
and movement of goods, services, and labor).
○ States are formed to guarantee sovereignty/independence
○ Social contract (secure rights; promote general welfare)
○ Guarantor of freedom
○ Right to revolt
○ John Locke; Jean Jacques Rousseau
○ E.g. bureaucracy provides service to the people

● Constructivism
○ Mostly emphasizes on the ideas and identity and that international relations are
set historically and socially. (it assumes that the states are rational actors guided
by their objective interests)
○ Social construction of state ‘identity’
○ Narratives & discourses
○ Meanings are created through social interaction (socially constructed)
○ History & Culture
Process of State Formation

*Enactment of Laws
- Establishment of effective political administration

*law enforcement → suppression of threat

The Institutional Approach
Understanding state formation from a historical institutionalist perspective

Regulations we must follow in different states and these regulations affect the way we behave
Other countries or nations are more prosperous because countries have different types of
regulations
- Which can affect the economy
- Institutions matter because it influences people behave and businessmen conduct their
business activities and also the way politicians act the way do in politics
Institutions matter in the study of state formation

The Old Institutionalism

- Highlights the role of institutions
- Humanly devised constraints that affect human behavior
- Scholars concern the nature of governing institutions that could structure the behavior of
individuals both the governing and the governed
- Old institutionalism is based on other human science methods such as law, history,
sociology etc. for which it follows the "evolutionary approach" concerning about different
types of formal institutions.
 - Studying institutions and the nature of governing institutions
- The study of politics is essentially the study of institutions

Thomas Hobbes : Leviathan

- The necessity of strong institutions to save humankind from its own worst instincts
John Locke
- Contactarian conception of public institutions (1689)
- Importance of consent (from the people)
Montesquieu
- Principle of separation of powers
- Executive
- Judicial
- Legislative
- Prevent abuse of authority
- Powers must be separate to prevent abuse of authority
Politics as the study of formal rules
- Institutions as written laws, constitutional provisions
- Study of the state

Formal Institutions of Government

- Woodrow Wilson (politics- is the study of formal rules)(Laws and Constitutions)

- Institutions as written laws, constitutional provisions, policies, rights & regulations

- Study of the state

Characteristics of Old Institutionalism:

Structuralism
- Structured behavior of individuals allowed
- Structure mattered because IT DETERMINES BEHAVIOR
- Study of constitutions & formal rules
- Legislative
- Judicial
- Executive
- Focuses on major institutional Features of political systems
- Institutions as structure
- Constitutional and Formal
- Overlooking Important parts
Holism
- Concerned with constitution & formal structures
- Comperativists
- “Whole state”
- Comparing whole systems rather than individual institutions
- Institutions cannot exist independently from the whole
- Compose of whole systems, rather than to examine individual institutions (e.g.
legislative or bureaucracies)
- Comparison of political system & constitutional/formal rules

Historicism
- Understand the developmental pattern that produced that system
- How rules and regulations evolve overtime
- Pronounced historical foundation
- Meaning of politics influenced by history (how history influenced behavior)
- Political systems were embedded & cultural present in historical development

Normative Analysis
- Political science emerged from normative roots
- Concerned with good governance - making the government perform better
- Iinstitutionalists concerned with norms & values
- Interpretations of what is bad or good/right or wrong
 - What is right or wrong → which government is good or bad

Statualization
- Labor is a commodity
- Humanity of workers is disregarded

Behavioral Revolution
- Disregards traditional rules
- Behavior development
Behavioral Revolution of the 1950s/1960s

Social v.s.
Psychological Theory & Anti-normative bias Interpretation of what
Factors v.s. methodology is good or bad is
Economic motivation avoided

Individual and its Methodological Inputism Focus on the inputs

behavior as main individualism from society
focus of inquiry
- Make social sciences more scientific

Effects of Behavioralism on the old institutionalism

- Description is not enough; replicability
- Eliminated normative elements
- Analytical focus is individuals & their behavior
- Focus on the inputs from society into political system

Criticism
- Collective action should be at the center of the analysis
*instead of individual action
- Mancur Olson (1965): ‘Logic’ of collective action
- What explains collective action?
- Ex. Meiji restoration, people power, social revolution or movement

Characteristics of Behavioral & Rational Choice Approaches:

Contextualism
- Tendency to subordinate political phenomena to contextual phenomena
- Context behind the phenomena/policy

Reductionism
- Tendency to reduce collective behavior to individual behavior
- Affects behavioralism & rational choice
Utilitarianism
- Tendency to value decisions for what they produce for the individual
- What is the outcome

Functionalism
- Tendency to assume functionality in history
- (wasn’t able to copy this part T_T)

Instrumentalism
- Dominations of outcomes over process, identity & socio-political values
- Political life is analyzed as simply doing things through the public sector, srather than a
complex interaction

*Rational Choice Theory

- No normative biases
- Economic Benefit
- Individuals are rational
- No values involve
- Maximize you utility or usefulness of your action
- Economics - the theory to explain behaviors of consumers
- Psychologists

New Institutionalism
➔ Synthesis of behavioralism, rational choice, and part of the old Institutionalism
◆ Either formal or informal (not written)
◆ Stable enable and/or constrain behavior
◆ There is a sense of shared values and meanings among members of the
institutions

Variants of New Institutions

Normative Institutionalism
- Logic of appropriateness
- What is appropriate and not appropriate

Rational Choice Institutionalism

- Focus on incentives
- Create incentive system

3 Major Variants of Institutionalism

● Sociological (normative) Institutionalism
○ Norms, values
● Rational Choice Institutionalism
○ Role of incentives
 ● Historical Institutionalism
○ Role of history

Historical Institutionalism
- Addresses big substantive as __ (questions)
- What explains the origins of modern states?
- Emphasized the importance of time (history)
- Look at process over time
- Path dependent
- Initial decisions have determinate influence over the policy far into the
future
- Decisions will subsequently influence the future decisions
- Dynamic of self-reinforcing or positive feedback “increasing reforms” process
(economists)
- Importance of timing/sequence of events
- Critical junctures - turning points or choice points when a particular option is adopted
among two or more alternatives

3 Key Features
● Analyzed macro-contexts & hypothesizes about combined effects of institutions &
processes
○ Focus ion casual processes
■ Slow-moving
■ Change in increment
○ Interactions of multiple institutions
Institutional approach to the study of State Formation
● Evolution of political institutions
● Role of history, norms in the evolutions of these institutions
● Their effects on political activities, behavior, and participation

Week 2-3
The Japanese State
- Land of the Rising Sun
- First Asian industrialized country
- Developmental State - achieve economic
- 8 Regions & 47 Prefectures
- Archipelago
- Northeast Asia
- Surrounded by bodies of water
- Kimigayo (national anthem)

The Japanese Ancestors

Two groups of people from mainland Asia:
- Via Korean Peninsula to Kyushu Islands (many were mongols)
 - Via Southern China

Religion & Chinese Cultural Influences

- Not religious; non-practicing (Shinto more of a lifestyle)
- Pottery flourished during Jomon (10,500 BC) & Yayoi (300 BC to 300 AD) periods
- Writing system based in chinese characters introduces in 50 AD
- Use of Bronze & Iron(3rd century)
- Buddhism & Confucianism came via Korea between 6th and 9th century

The First Emperor and Early-State Building

There was no central government before the first emperor
- Two chronicles: Nihon Shoki & Kojiki
- Jimmu-Tenno (660-585 BC) First Japanese Emperor
- Descendant of sun goddess, Amaterasu
- Reign started in Kyushu and moved eastward
- Established in a Central State in Yamato
- Authority was recognized in most of Japan
- Administrative system patterned after China
*Takachiho
- The gods and goddesses lived in the cave here

Rise of Bakufu: Kamakura Period (1192-1333)

- Start of the Bakufu/Shogunate government by warrior chieftain (Shogun)
- Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power after defeating the Taira Clan
- First 3 leaders from Minamoto Clan; next 2 leaders from Fujiwara clan; rest were
Imperial princes
- Seat of government was Kamakura
- The Emperor became titular head od state in his capital in Kyoto
- Toppled by Emperor Go-Daigo (1288-1339) & his supporters which included Ashikaga
Takauji and the Nitta Clan in 1333
- Go-Daigo sought to restore political power to the throne but failed
- Daibutsu (giant buddha)
Shogun - deputy military or general
Two rival imperial courts (northern court vs southern court)
- Source of conflict
Shogun - protector of the emperor

Oda Nobunaga
- not a Shogun cuz he died cuz some one killed him (his adviser Mitsuhide)
- Japan had to be unified
Hideyoshi Toyotomi could not get the title shogun
- He was an ordinary foot soldier at first
- He came from the peasant/commoner (No Noble blood)
- Samurai became a class or status on its own during his time
- Low rank Samurai and high class samurai
- He had no succesor but he had a young adopted son (his nephew)
- Hideyori (real son became succesor)
- Kampaku- imperial Regent
- He defeated Mitsuhide and he got the support of Nobunaga’s Supporters
- hideyoshi appointed 5 regeants to help his son become shogun
 - hideyoshi has his domain in Osaka (mitsunari was loyal to the son)
Tokugawa Ieyasu
- Battle of Sekigahara (1600 June 25)
- He planned to overthrow hideyori
- Wars were internal and feudal
- Tokugawa Shogunate
- Had to consolidate power to prevent other clans from overthrowing
Loyalty was very important
- Ieyasu had a dutch ally and he gave them canons

Battle of Osaka
- hideyori was supposed to be successor and he be legal age
- Ieyasu stormed Osaka Castle and assassinated hideyori
- he moved the capital to Edo
- Tokugawa became shogun

Tokugawa System (1603-1867)

- 2 ½ centuries of stable and peaceful rule
- Seat of government was Edo (Modern Tokyo)
- Value of Loyalty
- Daimyo pledged allegiance to Tokugawa
- Forbade them from concluding an alliance with each other
- Trade with neighboring countries
- Ryuku Islands (Okinawa): Korea
- Allowed the Dutch to have trading post in Nagasaki
- Sakoku Policy (1639-1868) or the seclusion policy
- Creation of social hierarchy
- Samurai, farmers, artisans, merchants outcasts (Burakumin; hinin)
- Daimyo still had lands pero he had to limit their power
Shimpan(related) - Members of the Tokugawa branch family
Fudai (house/loyal) - loyalty (loyalty during or before the battle of sekigahara)
- Retainers of Tokugawa house
Tozama (Suspicious/Outer) - Untrustworthy (former enemies)
- Pledged loyalty after the battle of sekigahara
- Choshu and Satsuma

Strategies to Maintain Tokugawa Control

1. Rearrangement of domains
a. Han (fief) system

2. Alternate Attendance System

a. One-year residence in Edo & one year in their respective domain
b. If you are leaving Edo, will keep the family hostage in Edo
c. To increase loyalty and keep surveillance of the daimyo to prevent rebellion

3. Strict Management of Foreign Policy

a. Policy of isolation/sakoku (1639-1867)
b. Banned Christianity, persecuted Christians in Japan
c. Sakoku was a challenge to Chinese-centered regional order

4. Use of Ideology
a. Promotion of an ideology based on a mixture of Buddhism, Shintoism, and
neo-Confucianism elements

5. System of Registration
a. For commoners, to monitor their movement
How it changed the shogunate
● Politically __
● Socially - subsistence farming + surplus production
● Culturally - Genroku era (live in the moment)

Fukuzawa Yukichi
- believed that national independence was the framework to society in the West.
However, to achieve this independence, as well as personal independence, Fukuzawa
advocated Western learning. He believed that public virtue would increase as people
become more educated.
 ● Samurai acted as the ‘civil servants’ or bureaucrats
○ Japan was peaceful so the Samurai had to do something else
○ Politically - early forms of civil government
○ Ex: Civil Servants are needed for Tax collection etc.
● Merchants
○ They went to where samurai went to sell and accommodate their needs
○ Market System Emerged
■ subsistence farming - producing for their own consumption
● Surplus production → they sell it
○ Merchant Class became Wealthier
○ Rice Brokering Business
● Samurais shifted loyalty to domains instead of the daimyo/person
○ Loyalty became less personal
● Samurais started studyin
○ Studied Confucian classics
○ Started becoming writers
● Gono - wealthy peasants
○ Some tenants became wealthier (the gono)
Culturally
● Genroku era - originated from Confucianism → Earthly Things
○ Oligarchs originally didnt like this idea
○ Japanese Interpretation ; Living for the moment
○ Theater emerged → kabuki

Crisis in the Tokugawa System

1. Economic Problems
a. Recurring deficit, falling revenue, corruption, extravagance, lack of an effective
system of tax collection
b. The government did not benefit
Other Notes
● Government frequently was unable to generate the added revenue necessary to defray its
soaring expenses
● Largely dependent on land tax and rice production which accounted for the shrinking portion of
the total economy
● Revenues fell short because of bad luck and bad management. Expenditures rose also because
of corruption, extravagance, and the increased complexity of the government
● Failure to develop adequate methods for taxing the growing sectors of the economy (They did not
tax the agricultural sector, despite the agricultural sector growing wealth)
● Commerce, the rapidly expanding part of the economy, taxed in a uniform and consistent manner.
But there was a lack of bookkeeping methods and any bureaucratic determination deterred the
government from more systematic means

2. Social Problems
a. Growing inequality, relative poverty and financial difficulty of samurai class
b. Farmers were much better off such as gōnō; there was growing tenancy and
peasant protests
Other Notes
● Frequently unable to meet its most important financial commitment; the paying of warrior stipends
● The well-being of the upper strata of the peasant and merchant class was often superior to that of
an ordinary samurai demoralizing samurais and puts a great strain on their loyalty
● Although some in the Samurai Class whose income remained stable, their discontent sprang from
unfulfilled wants, rising expectations, and feeling deprived of the fruits of a growing economy. In
other words, there was psychological poverty involved where they felt deprived because they
were unable to buy commodities that members of other classes can afford
● Class relations were becoming diffuse and difficult to accommodate within the rigid class structure
established at the outset of the Tokugawa Period. The rise of growing wealth within the
commoner class was evidence to the Samurai of institutional disintegration and of moral decay.
Respect for rank and the traditional virtues of frugality, industry, and modesty seemed jeopardized
● Increase of peasant protests
● Conflict was within the peasant class as poor peasants turned their anger not against the samurai
or the feudal political structures but against the wealthy peasants and village leaders who were
also landlords, entrepreneurs, and money lenders who they held responsible for their distress
● The peasant disturbances of the 1830s culminated into a series of incidents that followed an
abortive uprising in Osaka in 1837 lead by Oshio Heihachiro
● Oshio Heihachiro, a minor bakufu official who accused superiors of callous disregard for the
suffering of common people and plotted an uprising that he hoped would spark other attacks
against the established order. The rebellion was easily quelled by the bakufu forces. With the
news of the uprising, this encouraged others in surrounding provinces

3. Ideological Problems
a. Appointed based on social rank than merit; hereditary
b. Changing nature of loyalty (from conditional/personal to
unconditional/impersonal)
c. loyalty of the Vassal was no longer conditional upon the lord’s effective
leadership
Other Notes
● One problem that concerns the appointment of officials in the bakufu and han
bureaucracies, which according to widely held principles should have been based on
merit. In reality, after the early Tokugawa Period appointments were made mainly on the
basis of social rank. With occasional exceptions, the most important offices went to the
high-ranking samurai and frustration over the situation among young, lower-ranking
warriors became one of the greatest forces for change by the beginning of the 19th
century.

● Loyalty was conditional = Based on the bilateral relationship between lord and
vassal
● Loyalty was also personal = Power was private, there was no higher authority
that can enforce the relationship
● Loyalty became unconditional = Based on a unilateral relationship; it lost its
mutual dependency. With warfare ended, the lord no longer needed to worry
about the loyalty of his vassals
● Loyalty became impersonal = Relationship between lord and vassal became
distant and formal, drained of much of its emotional content by the new
circumstances. No longer the leader in war, the lord had less contact with his
retainers
● Because their position was hereditary under the Tokugawa and no longer dependent on
their personal abilities, the lord often lacked qualities of leadership
● This transformation in the nature of loyalty helped to prepare the way for modern
nationalism. Because loyalty was no longer closely tied to an individual but was rather
directed toward the governmental unit with which warriors identified (i.e., their han),
when Commodore Matthew C. Perry arrived and created the foreign crisis that
threatened the nation, consciousness of belonging to Japan was heightened.
● Loyalty was rather quickly shifted from han to the nation

Visions of Order
1. Emergence if Nativitism (Kokugaku) or National Learning
a. Started as literary movement in the 18th century devoted to the study of Japan’s
ancient classics prior to China’s enormous cultural influence
b. To sort out what in Japanese was uniquely Japanese

● Mootori Norinaga (1730-1801)

○ Study of Kojiki
○ Kojiki was a source of information on pure Japanese virtues before infected by
Chinese ideas
○ Confucianism corrupted the pure and spontaneous of worshiping Shinto deities
○ Nativism provided the basis for a Japanese religion focused on the Emperor

2. Mito School
a. Study of Japanese history
 b. Imperial Institution - the embodiment of Japanese society & nationhood
c. Fulfillment of moral obligations to the emperor
d. Emphasized the Divinity of the Emperor, “one with heaven”

- The Nativist and Mito Schools were challenges to the Bakufu Ideology
- Emergency of the new political thought at the end of the 18th century - the survival of the
Tokugawa shogunate must depend on its effectiveness solving the problems it faced

Attempts at reform: 2 Strands of Reformist Thinking

1. Fundamentalist Approach
a. Restore the “purer” conditions of the early-Tokugawa Period
b. Supress or restrain the growing power of the merchant class
c. Return of samurai to the countryside
d. Basis of failed reforms of the early 1840s introduced by Mizuno Tadakuni

2. Realist School
a. Proponents accepted the growing commercialization of the economy
b. Urged authorities to adjust ito it
c. Warrior class could not continue to stand aloof
d. Trade can be productive, the government can profit from the commercial
segment of the economy
*Commodore Perry
→ Demanded to trade with Japan (1853)
→Forcing the Japanese government to end Sakoku
→Returns at 1854 Spring
The Japanese Responded to this
● There is no consensus
○ Tokugawa leaders were divided
● The leaders consulted the daimyo
○ Consultation lead to no consensus as well
= Kanagawa Treaty of Friendship

The Meiji Restoration: Significance & Implications

Tokugawa’s Policy of Seclusion (Sakoku)

● Never intended to isolate Japan
1. Foreign relations with Asia thrived
5,500 Chinese ships visited Nagasaki
Korean Ships via Tsushima
Ryukyu
Dutch ships (Only allowed to trade in Dejima)
● Foreign knowledge came through Dutch Studies
 ● Western books only allowed by 1720
● Translations of western treatises on astronomy, chemistry, geography, mathematics,
physics, metallurgy, ballistics, military tactics
Other Notes
● Sakoku was seen more symbol than fact
● Had western knowledge through Dutch Studies

Western Imperialism
● Russians in Northern Japan in 1790s
● British in China and acquisition of Hong Kong after the Opium War(1839-1842)
● US Expedition to Japan headed by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1852
● July 8, 1853, Commodore Perry arrived off the coast of Edo with demands for treaty
relations

The Debate on Modernization and Foreign Trade

1. Joi = Opposed to the western powers/EXPEL THE BARBARIANS
● Aizawa Seishisai and Confucianists
● Cult of Christianity = Ideological and Cultural Threat
● Response = Kokutai

2. Kaikoku = Open Country

● Based on Dutch Learning
● Sakuma Shozan (1811-1864) = “Japanese Spirit, Western Technique”)
● To look beyond Confucian scholarship
● Preserve traditional ethical values, adopt Western technology

Bakufu’s Response to Perry’s Demands

1. Bakufu’s consensus style of decision-making
● Daimyo were consulted
● Sign of indecisiveness
2. Kanagawa Treaty of Friendship signed on March 31 1854
● Two ports were opened
● US consular agent to reside in Shimoda
● Kanagawa Treaty was signed under threat of force
3. Similar treaties with Britain, Russia, Holland were concluded (Harris Treaty)
4. Asking for more concessions, Harris treaty was signed on On July 29, 1858
● Additional trading ports
● Lower Japanese tariffs
● System of Extraterritoriality

Events Leading to the Fall of Bakufu

1. Declining authority of the Shogunate
a. After Ii Naosuke’s assassination
 b. Union of the Imperial Court and Bkufu (with concessions
c. Deference to the Imperial Court on national politics
2. Defiance of Chōshu & Satsuma domains
a. Choshu and Satsuma's anti-Tokugawa customs
Other Notes
● Choshu and Satsuma had an unusually large amount of Samurai
● Choshu and Satsuma formed a mutual interest in preventing a reassertion of Tokugawa supremacy

Boshin war
- restorists won against tokugawa
Seitaisho - Constitution
Yamagata Aritomo: wanted Japan to become Powerful (Military power)
introduced conscription
he wanted constitutional democratic govt ^^

drafted the constitution ^^

Satsuma REBELLION

Conscription - recruiting people and enlisting people to the military

Yamagata Aritomo - commanded recruited and enlisted officers who fought the samurai that
was headed by Saigo Takamori

Saigo Takamori was defeated

Boshin War
Samurai who were loyal to the Tokugawa rebelled against the Meiji Government
Tokugawa Shogunate was criticized to give in to Commodore perry’s requests
Meiji - embraced Western
In the inside they want to expel the Western and become stronger
● respect the emperor and he had executive power to the houses
Inaappoint lang dati ng emperor ang prime minister before 1918

(Yamagata) Meiji Gov’t does not want the Lower house to elect the Prime Minister

British - free trade policy ayaw ni okubo dito

Industrial Policies

- Active leadership
- Industries are still developing
Zaibatsu- business conglomerate
- Company engaged in different processes
- Group of businesses
Mitsui Company
- Zaibatsu
Mitsubishi
- Ship making before
- Railroads
Creating business empires

Financial arms - Banks

- Businesses revolve around these banks as financial and lending institutions.
Zaibatsu
- Provided subsidies from the government
- Usually money
- Government allocated money to these businesses
 - Subsidies can be scientific research
Government used tarif to protect from competition.

Okubo Toshimichi

Role of the government

- Unification of the country
- Reform of the class structure
- Abolish the samurai class
- Daimyo became governors
- Samurai stipends turned into interest-bearing bonds
- Everyone was equal before the Law
- Sword bearing was removed
- Land tax reform
- Paved way for economic growth
- agriculture main source of national revenue
- Government expenditures were impossible to plan
Role of Private of Captial
They did not rely on foreign capital and relied on internal revenue.
Taisho Democracy Period (1912-1926)

All males were allowed to participate in the elections

Japan had a govt structure like the British parliament
1918 - the prime minister was only chosen by the majority party
A ruling party must have at least 21 seats out of 100 to select the prime minister
If there is no majority party to win, it must do a coalition with another party
Multi-member district system - voters elect more than one representative per district

Primeminister comes from hanbastu = choshu and satsuma before

First party minister was elected in 1918
Lower house was the only one elected
Upperhouse were appointed
These oligarchs are associated with the meiji oligarchy in the taisho era
Constitutional Ambiguity made the military authority is higher than civillian authority

Business conglommerates became close with the government

Many japanese people became unemployed
Women are not allowed to vote or be voted in positions until the US Occupations