Chapter 2 Cell Biology and Organisation

H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师

Coronavirus

Creation of microscope is leading to discovery of new creators

1. In 17th century, British scientist Robert Hooke had used self-
make microscope to observe many little organisms and
minerals
2. He published a fine drawing about his observations in 1665
3. This is the famous book entitled Micrographia
Robert Hooke
Robert Hooke’s self-make microscope

1665 - Robert Hooke describes “cells”
from a thin slice of cork

Cell theory:
1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and
function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular
division.
Proposed by
Matthias Schleiden Theodor Schwann

Light Microscopes Electron Microscopes
• 1000x (one • 200 000x (two
thousand times) hundred thousand
times)

A camera can be fitted to either type of
microscope to take pictures called micrographs
Light Micrographs Electron Micrographs

• colour images • black and white
images; can be
artificially
colourised

Cells fall into one of two broad categories:
1. Prokaryotic
• Prokaryotes (pro- = “before”; -kary- = “nucleus”)
• Example: unicellular organisms such as
Bacteria and Archaea
2. Eukaryotic
• eukaryotes (eu- = “true”)
• Example: animal cells, plants, fungi, and
protists
Archaea are single-celled microorganisms with structure similar to

bacteria. They are evolutionarily distinct from bacteria and eukaryotes
and form the third domain of life
 A prokaryote is a simple, mostly single-celled
(unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or
any other membrane-bound organelle.
 Prokaryotic DNA is in the cell's central part:
the nucleoid

 Eukaryotic cells have:

1) a membrane-bound nucleus
2) numerous membrane-bound organelles such as the endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, mitochondria, and others;
and
3) several, rod-shaped chromosomes.
 Because a membrane surrounds eukaryotic cell’s nucleus, it has a

“true nucleus.”
 Protoplasm (Greek: protos = first; plasm = form)
Is living materials
Made up of two parts
1. Cytoplasm
2. Nucleus

specilised structures which are each
surrounded by its own membrane and
perform specific functions.

 Plasma membrane
 Cell wall (plant cell only)
 Cytoplasm

 Nucleus
 Mitochondrion
 Chloroplast (plant cell only)
 Vacuoles / vesicles
 Ribosomes
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Centrioles

 thinlayer of covering
 semi-permeable 半透性膜
 made of proteins & lipids (脂质)

 Separate the contents of a cell from its external
environment
 Controls the movement of substances in and out of
the cell.

 thick and rigid layer outside the plasma
membrane
 Fully-permeable 全透性膜
 made up of cellulose (纤维素)
 only found in plant cells

 maintains the shape of plant cells.
 provide mechanical support and turgidity (膨胀度) to
plant cells.
 Prevents the cell from bursting when too much
water enters the cell through osmosis.

 jelly-like medium (媒介)
 contains granules (颗粒),
organelles (细胞器) and food.

 medium where biochemical reactions
take place.
 Provides organelles with the substances

obtained from the external environment.

 spherical (球形) organelles with:
(a) nuclear envelope 核膜
i) inner membrane
ii) outer membrane
(b) nucleoplasm
-dense material within
nucleus
(c) nucleolus 核仁
(d) chromatin核染质
-carries genetic materials
(遗传物质) in the form of
DNA

 controls all the activities of the cells.
 carries genetic materials (DNA).

 rod-shaped 杆形
 double membrane:
 outer membrane smooth.
 inner membrane folded to form
cristae (线粒体嵴)

 sites of cellular respiration. 细胞呼吸的场所
 generating energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) through the
oxidation (氧化) of food.

 disc-shaped 盘形
 double membrane
 contains chlorophyll (叶绿素)

 Absorb sunlight to carry out photosynthesis

 space filled with fluid called cell sap (细胞液)
 surrounded by semi-permeable membrane

called tonoplast (液泡膜)

 stores water, minerals and metabolites
(代谢物).
 maintain the turgidity (膨胀度) of plant cells.

 small particles consisting of RNA (ribonucleic
acid)
 found freely in cytoplasm or on the surface of
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

 synthesis (合成) of protein.

 consists of a network of folded membranes
which form interconnected (互相连接)
tubes (管) and sacs (囊) in the cytoplasm.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):

The outer surface covered with ribosomes.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):

Does not have ribosomes

 transports protein made by the ribosomes throughout the
cell.

 Synthesis lipids (phospholipids磷脂 and
steroid类固醇).
 Carry out detoxification (解毒) of drugs

and metabolic by-product (代谢物).

Liver cells contains
many SER for
detoxification of
drugs and poisons.

 consists of a stack (堆叠) of flattened membrane-bound sacs (
囊).
 扁平囊状结构，它们平行排列类似扁盘堆叠结构

 new membrane is added to one end of the
Golgi apparatus and buds off as vesicles
(小囊泡) at the other end.

 receives protein & lipid from ER and modify
them to form specific secretion (分泌物(液))
such as enzymes (酶) and hormones (荷尔蒙, 激
素).
 pack the secretions formed into secretory
vesicles
 transport them to the plasma membrane to be
secreted (分泌). Hormone 荷尔蒙/激素：
Protein hormones:
eg. Growth hormone 生长激素，
insulin胰岛素
Steroid hormones(lipid):
eg. testosterone 睾丸激素,
H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师 estrogen雌激素
 membrane-bound vesicles
 contains hydrolytic enzymes 水解酶 (digestive
enzymes消化酶)
Enzyme 酶：
proteins that increase or decrease the rates of chemical
reactions.

 digestive compartment.
 the hydrolytic enzymes break down complex

organic molecules (proteins & lipids) and
unwanted structures of the cell (old organelles)

 2 cylindrical (圆柱形) structures arranged at
right angles to one another
 only present in animal cells

 form spindle fibres (纺锤丝) during cell division
in animal cells.

Density of organelles in cells
• Mitochondria
Sperm cells, muscle cells and meristematic cells
• Chloroplasts
Palisade mesophyll cells, spongy mesophyll cells and
guard cells
• RER and GA
Pancreatic cells, salivary glands cells, stomach
epithelium cells
• SER
Liver cells, interstitial cells in testes and adrenal glands
Density of organelles in cells
• Golgi apparatus
Goblet cells in the intestinal epithelium and respiratory tract and
cells in the root cap

 Unicellular organism 单细胞生物：
Organisms which are made up of only one cell.
 Multicellular organism 多细胞生物:

Organisms which are made up of more than
one cell.

Naegleria fowleri
“brain-eating amoeba”
According to the CDC, N. fowleri

normally eats bacteria. But when
the amoeba gets into humans, it uses
the brain as a food source
CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

 Habitat: freshwater lakes & ponds, damp soil

 Amoeboid movement
-extending pseudopodia / ‘false feet’ (伪足）

towards direction it wants to move.
- Flow of cytoplasm into the pseudopodia

 Phagocytosis
- feed on microscopic organisms such as

bacteria, diatom, algae.

 binary fission (asexual reproduction) - takes place in
favourable condition

 Sporulation - takes place in unfavourable condition
 Spores will germinate when the environments become
favourable again.

 Gaseous exchange by simple diffusion through plasma
membrane

 Water continually enters the Amoeba sp. by
osmosis.
 The water collected by contractile vacuole, which
swells up.
 When full, it expels the water from the cell.
 Without this, Amoeba sp. will swell up and burst.

 can have both positive and negative effects on humans.
 have potential to spread harmful diseases in the human
body by imbalance, but they can also serve a benefit to
humans by destroying Cryptococcus neoformans, a type
of disease caused by special fungi (from the
genus Cryptococcus) that can spread in the human body
and affect the immune system.
 Habitat: freshwater ponds rich in
decaying(腐烂) organic matter.

 Slipper-like shape.
 2 nucleus:
Macronucleus :
- control cellular metabolism,
- asexual reproduction
 Micronucleus: sexual reproduction

 Move by means of regular beating of cilia.

 The cilia in the oral groove create a current of water
which sweep the food particles into the cytostome
where they are ingested in a food vacuole.
 This food vacuole then follows a specific route
through the cytoplasm.
 On its travels, enzymes are secreted into the vacuole
and the food is digested.
 The digested substances are then absorbed into the
cytoplasm.

 Waste products such as nitrogenous wastes and
carbon dioxide are expelled through plasma
membrane by simple diffusion
 Control of water balance in the cell
(osmoregulation) is aided by two contractile
vacuoles
1. Excess water in cell enters contractile vacuole
by osmosis
2. Contractile vacuoles enlarges
3. Contractile vacuoles contracts and eliminates
excess water to surroundings
 Solid wastes are expelled through its anal pore

 Binary fission (asexual reproduction)
- in favourable environment

Conjugation (sexual reproduction)
- when environment are not favourable

1. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
- shape : biconcave disc
- no nucleus (increase the surface area
of the cell)
- transport oxygen

2. White blood cells (Leukocytes)
-can change shape easily to move
through the walls of blood vessels
-migrate to the sites of injuries to
fight infections

3. Nerve cells
-transmit impulses
-long, thin fibres called axons (carry
nerve impulses)

4. Sperm cells
-contain high density of mitochondria
-nucleus contains one set of
chromosomes
- fertilize egg cell

5. Muscle cells
-skeletal muscles: long and with multiple
nuclei
-contract to produce movement

6. Epithelial cells
-contain simple glands (found in
intestines)
- secrete mucus (粘液)
– goblet cells

1) Epithelial tissues 上皮组织
2) Nerve tissue 神经组织
3) Muscle tissue 肌肉组织
4) Connective tissue结缔组织

 Arranged in continuous layer
 Cover the body surfaces (eg. skin) or line the
cavities (腔) within the body (eg. digestive
tract)
 Functions:
Protection - against infections, mechanical
injuries, chemicals & dehydration
脱水
Secretion - form secretory glands分泌腺.
Absorption - absorb food & water by
diffusion
 Consists of nerve cell / neurones 神经细胞.
 Consists of cell body, dendrites and axons
 3 types:
a) afferent neurons – sensory receptor
b) interneurons
c) efferent neurons
 Send & receive impulses冲动
 Control & coordinate activities of the body.
 Found in brain & spinal cord

 Smooth muscles 平滑肌
- Involuntary actions. 不随意肌，不受大脑意识
控制
- Along the walls of digestive tract, blood
vessels, bladder, reproductive tract.
 Skeletal muscles 骨骼肌
- Voluntary movement随意肌，受大脑意识控制
- Attached to bones of the skeleton.
 Cardiac muscles 心肌
- Involuntary actions. 不随意肌
- Form contractile wall of heart. H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师
 Consist of elastic & non-elastic fibres.
 Join together body structures, protect, hold &
support the cells in the body.
 Can store & transport materials [nutrients,
oxygen, carbon dioxide]; blood clotting
 Eg. tendons腱, ligaments韧带, cartilage软骨,
bones, blood, lymph淋巴, adipose tissue (fat
cells)脂肪组织

1. Sieve tube element
Long cylindrical
tubes arranged from
end to end
Transports organic
materials from
leaves to storage
organs such as fruits

2. Xylem vessel
Long, continuous
hollow tube
Functions in
transporting water
and mineral salts
from the roots to the
other parts of the
plant

3. Palisade mesophyll cells
 Consists of long cylindrical cells, arranged
vertically and close to each other
 have high density of chloroplasts to absorb
maximum sunlight

4. Spongy mesophyll cells
 irregular shape, loosely arranged and
between them are air spaces for easy
diffusion of water and carbon dioxide
 Have second high density of chloroplast

5. Guard cell
 Modified lower epidermal cells with the
thicker cell wall on the inner side
 Cells surrounding each stoma, kidney-
shaped when turgid
 Controls the opening and closing of the
stoma.
 Stoma is the opening that allows the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

 Open:
the guard cells are turgid and the stomatal opening
is large.
This turgidity is caused by the accumulation of
K+ (potassium ions) in the guard cells.
As K+ levels increase, the water potential of the
guard cells drops, and water enters the guard cells.
 Close:
the guard cells have lost water, which causes the
cells to become flaccid and the stomatal opening to
close.
The plant has lost an excessive amount of water.
In addition, it generally occurs daily as light levels
drop and the use of CO2 in photosynthesis
decreases.
6. Root hair cell
Has a long projection which adds surface
area for the absorption of water and mineral
salts

(a) Meristem tissues 分生组织
(i) Apical meristem tissue
(ii) Lateral meristem tissue
(b) Permanent tissues

(i) Dermal tissue 表皮组织
(ii) Ground tissue 基本组织
(iii) Vascular tissue 维管组织

 consist of undifferentiated cells which are

able to divide
a) Apical meristem (顶端分生组织)
- found at the tip of roots and shoots
b) Lateral meristem/cambia (侧分生组织)
- responsible for secondary growth
- provide support and strength
- e.g.: vascular cambium; cork cambium
Cambium : A cellular plant tissue from which phloem, xylem, or cork grows by
division, resulting (in woody plants) in secondary thickening
 Function: produces new cells by cell division

• mature tissues that have undergone/

undergoing differentiation)
(i) Dermal tissue 表皮组织

 Covers the entire surface of the plants.
 Functions:
◦ Protects the plant from mechanical injury
◦ reduce water loss.
◦ Prevent invasion (入侵) by disease causing
microorganism.
◦ dermal tissue near root tip are modified
to form root hair – absorb water and
minerals
◦ modified to form guard cells

 Storage of starch, protein, fats, oils and water

in roots, tubers (e.g. potatoes),
seed endosperm (e.g. cereals)
and cotyledon (e.g. peanuts)
 Carry out photosynthesis
2) Collenchyma tissue 厚角组织
Cell walls unevenly thickened at the
corners by cellulose & pectin胶质.
Strong & flexible( can stretch as organ
elongates).
Supports herbaceous (non-woody)
plants, young stem, leaf stalk.

3) Sclerenchyma tissue厚壁组织
 Sclero = hard, dead cell when functioning
 cell wall uniformly thickened by lignin
 Provide support & mechanical strength to
plant
 Eg. seed coat, nut shell

 Continuous throughout the plant
2 types:
a) xylem
b) phloem

xylem
cambium
phloem phloem
cambium pith
xylem
cortex

Xylem phloem

a) Xylem
 Consists of xylem vessels and tracheids
 Both are dead cells without organelles
 Xylem vessels:
- long tube joined end to end
- thicken with lignin ( 木质素 ) (prevents food
substances enter the cells)
- cytoplasm disintegrate to form hollow tube
 Function – carries water and minerals
- strengthen stem by thick cell walls
of xylem vessels

 Tracheids
- long, narrow cells whose ends
overlaps
- have small holes call pits on
on their sides, which allow
water to move laterally
 Only woody angiosperms
(flowering plants) have both
vessel elements and tracheids;
other vascular plants have only
tracheids.

 Consists of sieve tubes, companion cells,
sclereids, parenchyma tissue
 Sieve tube cells join end to end,
separated by porous wall called sieve
plate

 Sieve tube members depend on
companion cells to keep them alive
 Function ： transport dissolved nutrients
from leaves to the roots & stems.

Cell  Tissue Organ  System  Organism

 A group of two or more organs that work
together to perform a specific function

1. Integumentary system 皮肤系统
2. Muscular system 肌肉系统
3. Skeletal system 骨骼系统
4. Nervous system 神经系统
5. Blood circulatory system
循环系统
6. Lymphatic system 淋巴系统

7. Endocrine system 内分泌系统
8. Respiratory system 呼吸系统
9. Digestive system 消化系统
10. Urinary system 泌尿系统
11. Male reproductive system/
Female reproductive system
生殖系统

 The system that protects the body
from various kinds of damage,
such as loss of water .
 The system comprises the skin
and its appendages (including
hair, scales, feathers, and nails)
 Functions:
- separates the body from the
external environment
- protects the body against
mechanical injuries, microbial
infection and dehydration 脱水 H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师
 Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and

cardiac muscles
 Contraction of muscles enables body
movements
 Bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments

 Function:
- support the body, provides sites for
attachment of muscles and protection for
internal organs
 Brain, spinal cord,
nerves
 Function:
- detect stimuli,
transmits
impulses and
integrates ( 整合 )
the activities

 Heart, blood vessels, blood
 Functions:
- delivers nutrients,
respiratory gases and
hormones to body cells
- transport waste
products to excretory
organs

 Lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, bone marrow,
thymus
 Defends the body against
infections (lymphocytes)
 Returns excess tissue fluid,
e.g. plasma, to the blood

 Coordinates body
activities together
with the nervous
system

 Nose, trachea, lungs
 Functions:
- provides a surface
area for gaseous
exchange between
blood and external environment
- allows oxygen intake and carbon dioxide
elimination

 Mouth, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach,
liver, pancreas, small and
large intestines, rectum,
anus
 Ingests and digests
food, absorb nutrients for
the use of body
 Eliminates undigested
materials
 Kidneys, ureter (输尿管),
urinary bladder (膀胱),
urethra (尿道), skin,
lungs
 Functions:
- removal of metabolic
waste products
- regulates the osmotic
balance (渗透压平衡) of
the blood
 Male : testes (singular: testis), seminal
vesicles (精囊), penis
 Female : ovaries, Fallopian tubes (输卵管),
uterus (子宫), cervix (宫颈), vagina
 Functions :
Male: produces sperms and male hormones
Female: produces ova (singular: ovum),
nurtures 养育 developing fetuses and
produces female hormones
 Organs in plants
1. Root
2. Stem
3. Leave
4. Flower
5. Seed
6. Fruit
 Systems in plants:
1. Root system (all the roots)
2. Shoot system (stems, leaves, buds,
flowers, fruits)

Chapter 2 Cell Biology and Organisation

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Chapter 2 Cell Biology and Organisation

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H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师

H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师

H’NG TAI MEI 方岱嵋师

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Robert Hooke’s self-make microscope

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Light Micrographs Electron Micrographs

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Archaea are single-celled microorganisms with structure similar to

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 Eukaryotic cells have:

 Because a membrane surrounds eukaryotic cell’s nucleus, it has a

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 Provides organelles with the substances

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 contains chlorophyll (叶绿素)

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 surrounded by semi-permeable membrane

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 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):

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 Carry out detoxification (解毒) of drugs

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 the hydrolytic enzymes break down complex

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 Multicellular organism 多细胞生物:

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According to the CDC, N. fowleri

CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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-extending pseudopodia / ‘false feet’ (伪足）

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- feed on microscopic organisms such as

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