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CVL 633 Highway Materials

Construction Aggregates:
Sources, Properties, Tests

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Road Construction
• Materials:
• naturally occurring, locally derived materials
• wood, sand, gravel, stone (with or without a binding agent)
• have properties able to resist effects of environment
and traffic loads
• temperatures, precipitation, weathering, abrasion
• Engineering:
• sufficient strength to be able to carry traffic safely at
a reasonable speed
• lowest cost, adequate lifespan, minimum
maintenance

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Surface Course

Drainage Layer

Base Course

Subbase

Subgrade

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Aggregate Use in Highway Construction

• Average Annual Aggregate Production (1996-
2018)
• Canada1: 383 Mt
• Ontario2: 164 Mt
• ~80% for construction purposes
• ~60% of construction aggregates used in road
building
• provincial highways, municipal roads, private
ownership
• new construction, rehabilitation/reconstruction,
maintenance
1National Resources Canada Mineral Production Annual Statistics
2Ontario Sand Stone and Gravel Association

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Aggregates
• natural aggregates are produced from soil and rock
• rock is the solid mineral material forming part of the
surface of the earth
• rocks are generally classified on the basis of
• how they are formed
• relative percentages of mineral components
• texture (crystal/grain size; internal structure)
• soil is the relatively loose, uncemented material
overlying bedrock
• soils are classified according to one or more of the
following:
• mode of origin, particle size, properties, organic content

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10 Most Abundant Elements in the Earth's Crust

Element Symbol Abundance Abundance

percent by weight (cumulative)
Oxygen O 46.10% 46.10%
Silicon Si 28.20% 74.30%
Aluminum Al 8.23% 82.53%
Iron Fe 5.63% 88.16%
Calcium Ca 4.15% 92.31%
Sodium Na 2.36% 94.67%
Magnesium Mg 2.33% 97.00%
Potassium K 2.09% 99.09%
Titanium Ti 0.57% 99.66%
Hydrogen H 0.14% 99.80%
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th Edition

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10 Most Abundant Compounds in the Earth's Crust

Compound Formula Abundance Abundance

percent by weight (cumulative)
Silicon dioxide SiO2 42.86% 42.86%
Magnesium oxide MgO 35.07% 77.93%
Ferrous oxide FeO 8.97% 86.90%
Aluminum oxide Al2O3 6.99% 93.89%
Calcium oxide CaO 4.37% 98.26%
Sodium oxide Na2O 0.45% 98.71%
Ferric oxide Fe2O3 0.36% 99.07%
Titanium dioxide TiO2 0.33% 99.40%
Chromic oxide Cr2O3 0.18% 99.58%
Manganese dioxide MnO2 0.14% 99.72%

Source: Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds; David L. Heiserman, 1992

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Minerals
• A mineral is:
• a naturally occurring, inorganic element or
compound with a uniform chemical formula and
physical properties (variable within defined limits)
• Physical Properties: colour, Gs, hardness, cleavage
etc.
• e.g., quartz
• SiO2
• Gs=2.65
• Mohs H=7

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Rock Types
• Igneous Rocks (Primary)
• formed when “magma” (or “lava”) cools, solidifies
• crystalline (slow) glass (rapid)
• major rock-forming elements: O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, K, Na and Ca
• Sedimentary Rocks (Secondary)
• clastics
• formed from rock fragments (weathering, erosion, deposition,
consolidation)
• carbonates
• biochemical precipitates Ca, Mg, (CO3)
• evaporites
• precipitation of dissolved salts, NaCl, KCl, CaSO4ꞏ2H2O
• Metamorphic Rocks (Secondary/Tertiary)
• changes in a rock due to increases in temperature and/or
pressure
• new mineral assemblages
• textural changes – foliation, banding

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Igneous Rocks – mineral formation from magma (silicates)

Mafic (ferro-magnesium) minerals

14000C Plagioclase minerals
Olivine
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Anorthite
(Bowen’s Reaction Series)

CaAl2Si2O8
Pyroxene
(Mg,Fe,Ca,Na)(Al,Fe)Si2O6 Bytownite
Labradorite
Andesine
Amphibole Oligoclase
(Mg,Fe,Al,Ca,K,Na)Si4O11 (Ca,Na)Al2Si3O8

Biotite Albite
K(Mg,Fe)AlSi3O10(OH)2 NaAlSi3O8

Orthoclase KAlSi3O8

Felsic minerals Muscovite K(Al2)AlSi3O10(OH)2

5500C Quartz SiO2

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Igneous Rocks

Mafic minerals – predominantly Fe, Mg, dark coloured, greenish

Basalt – fine grained, composed mainly of calcium plagioclase and pyroxene
minerals, minor olivine (no quartz)
Gabbro – coarse grained equivalent of basalt

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Igneous Rocks

Felsic minerals – light coloured, rich in Si, Al, e.g., granite, granodiorite
- orthoclase feldspar KAlSi3O8 + quartz SiO2 + muscovite mica K(Al2)AlSi3O10(OH)2
+ biotite mica + amphibole

, quartz (35%), mica (15%) and amphibole minerals (5%)

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Sedimentary Rocks
• Clastics
• rock and mineral
fragments (clasts) that
are cemented together
• Classified by grain size/
cement type
• Conglomerates/ breccias
(gravel, cobbles,
boulders)
• Sandstones (sand)
• Siltstones (silt)
• Shale/claystones (clay)
• Silica or carbonate
cement

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Sedimentary Rocks
• Carbonates
• biochemical extraction
of oxygen, carbon from
sea water along with
dissolved metals, e.g.,
Ca, Mg
• Limestone
• calcite CaCO3
• Dolostone
• dolomite (Mg,Ca)CO3

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Sedimentary Rocks
• Evaporites
• Precipitation of
dissolved minerals
from evaporating
water bodies
• e.g.,
• Halite (NaCl)
• Sylvite (KCl)
• Gypsum (CaSO4)

Courtesy Sifto Salt

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Metamorphic Rocks
• Rock formed from increases in temperature or pressure
or both to existing rock that results in physical and
chemical changes, e.g.:
• Regional metamorphism –occurs over large areas, tectonic
forces (mountain building events), high pressure, low to
intermediate temperatures
• results in rocks that are strongly foliated - layering caused by a
preferred orientation of sheet silicates (micas)
• cleavage (slate), shistocity (schist) and mineral banding (gneiss)
• Contact metamorphism - results from high temperatures
associated with igneous intrusions, high temperature, low to
intermediate pressures
• rock produced is often fine-grained with no foliation, called a hornfels.
• new minerals that develop are dependent on
• the pressure and temperature reached
• composition of fluid phase present, and
• bulk chemical composition of the original rock

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Metamorphic Rocks

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Formation of Soils
• Weathering
• breakdown of rocks due to exposure to atmospheric
conditions
• Disintegration
• Decomposition

• Erosion
• Transport and deposition of weathered particles.

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Soil
• Soil is the relatively loose, uncemented material
overlying bedrock
• highly variable mixture of mineral particles and rock
fragments
• wide range of particle sizes, e.g., clay, silt, sand,
gravel, cobbles, and boulders
• wide range of water contents and densities that
affect its engineering properties
• organic material may or may not be present

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Soil Formation
• Rock is broken down through a number of
processes
• Weathering - breakdown of rocks due to
exposure to atmospheric conditions
• Disintegration = physical weathering
• Decomposition = chemical weathering
• residual soils – formed in place; well formed soil
horizons
• transported soils – erosion (transport of
particles) and deposition

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Disintegration
• breakdown of rock by mechanical forces
• stress relief (jointing/ exfoliation)
• differential thermal expansion and contraction
• frost action – ice expansion
• abrasion/ impact during erosion/deposition
• gravity – talus formation
• water – river flow (fluvial) and wave action along shorelines
(lacustrine, marine)
• wind (aeolian) – sand dunes, loess (silt)
• ice – glacial (moraines, eskers etc.)
• biological action – roots, lichen

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Decomposition
• Decomposition = chemical weathering
• change in mineral chemistry
• Dissolution, e.g., carbonic acid – dissolves
carbonate minerals, e.g., karst
• CO2 +H2O (rain) ⇔ H2CO-3
• Oxidation – minerals react with oxygen, e.g., rust –
iron oxide (Fe2O3)
• Hydrolysis – leaching of silicate minerals to form
clays
• e.g., orthoclase feldspar (granite)  kaolinite + …
• KAlSi3 O8 + H2O  Al4 Si4 O10 (OH)8 + …

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Clay Minerals

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Soil Development

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Aggregates
• Construction aggregate - particulate material
• hard, durable, non-reactive
• used by itself (unbound material) or provides bulk volume
in a mix with a binder/cementing agent
• Mineral Aggregates
• natural sand, gravel, bedrock (crushed stone,
manufactured sand)
• “Recycled” Aggregates
• construction, industrial products
• alternative sources
• Aggregate Resources Act (Ontario) Def’n:
• “… gravel, sand, clay, earth, shale, stone, limestone,
dolostone, sandstone, marble, granite, rock or other prescribed
material”

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Mineral Aggregates
• surficial deposits (pits and quarries)
• pits (unconsolidated material: glacial deposits, talus)
• natural sand, gravel, cobbles, boulders
• pit run (loader direct to hauler)
• processed: screened, crushed, classified
• quarries (consolidated bedrock)
• crushed stone, manufactured sands
• drill and blast: crushed, screened, sorted
• underwater deposits: river beds, lake bottoms,
deltas
• sand, gravel
• barge-mounted dredges, draglines, pumps

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Alternative Aggregate Sources

• reclaimed construction materials
• recycled/reclaimed asphalt (RAP), recycled/reclaimed
concrete (RCM)
• recycled products (municipal collection)
• glass, ceramic material (whiteware)
• industrial co-products
• slags, slag, mine waste rock, foundry sands, bottom ash,
coke breeze
• manufactured products
• processed mineral products, e.g., expanded clay-shale
• must meet same quality requirements as natural
aggregates
• may be subject to limitations

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Aggregate Uses
• road base and subbase
• Asphalt Cement Concrete
• Hydraulic Cement Concrete
• other important uses include:
• pipe bedding, structure backfill, winter sands, surface
treatments
• subgrade construction (special applications)
• miscellaneous uses:
• rip-rap (erosion protection), gabions
• specialty applications:
• fish habitat stone, arrestor beds

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Unbound Granulars
• road base course
• crushed gravel or quarried rock material
• moderate quality requirements (good resistance to
weathering, impact, abrasion)
• dense graded, permeable (particle size distribution)
• primary functions include drainage, strength
• road subbase
• may be unprocessed sand/gravel (pit run) or
crushed quarried rock
• lower quality requirements than base
• resistant to weathering, abrasion
• primary functions include drainage, frost protection

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Asphalt Cement Concrete

• Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA); Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
• Aggregates (the other ~95%*)
• sand, gravel, crushed rock
• very high quality (surface layers); high quality (binder
layers)
• high resistance to weathering, impact, abrasion
• provides strength, stability, surface friction, protection
• Asphalt Cement (~5%*)
• thermoplastic binder
• residue asphalt from petroleum industry
• may contain modifiers – polymers, mineral fillers, oils
*by mass

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Hydraulic Cement Concrete

• Aggregates: (~65% by mass)
• sand, gravel, stone
• very high quality requirements
• resistant to weathering, abrasion
• resistance to chemical change (AAR)
• provides strength, durability, bulk
• pavements and structures
• Hydraulic cements:
• mainly Portland cement
• supplementary cementing materials / pozzolans:
• fly ash, silica fume
• limestone cement

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Miscellaneous Uses
• Pipe bedding
• pipe support, stability, drainage
• uniformly graded clear stone, chip material
• flexible and rigid pipes
• Structure backfill
• sand, gravel or crushed rock (dense graded, easily
compacted)
• resistant to weathering, provides support, drainage
• Erosion control for slopes and watercourses
• gravel sheeting, rip-rap, rock protection

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Aggregate Production
• Extraction
• Crushing/Grinding
• Sorting/washing/
screening
• Stockpiling
• Sampling
• Testing

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Crushing/Grinding
• Fragmentation/comminution
• Primary
• initial reduction to maximum size, e.g., 150mm/75mm
• Secondary/tertiary
• specific size fractions – 25mm/19mm/16mm
• Crushing
• gyratory (cone)
• jaw
• roll
• Impact
• VSI, HSI, hammer mill
• Gravity
• rod mill, ball mill
• Impact/shear/attrition/compression

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http://www.bgs.ac.uk/planning4minerals/Resources_21.htm

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Sizing

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Washing/Classifying

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Stockpiling

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Aggregate Testing
• Production
Properties
• Physical Properties
• Composition
• Mineralogy/
Chemistry

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Sampling
• To provide materials
for testing
• representative
samples
• random samples
• Belt
• Stockpile
• Truckbox
• Delivery

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Sample Size

Coarse aggregate sample splitter for Adjustable openings to

reducing field sample size to test accommodate various maximum
specimen size. particle sizes.

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Production Tests
• Particle size distribution
• dry sieving
• washed sieve analysis
• hydrometer/ SE
• Particle shape
• Affected by source, processing – gravel vs crushed
bedrock
• roundness, sphericity, angularity
• flat, elongated particles

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Gradation
• particle sizes
distribution
• describes the
percentage of particles
within each size
fraction of a soil or
aggregate sample,
expressed as a percent
of total weight
• determined by
mechanical sieve
analysis/ hydrometer
(<75μm)

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Gradation
• Maximum particle size
• bulk volume
• grading/shaping of surface in unbound granulars
• Fines content – P75µm fraction – silt and clay
• Dense graded vs open graded
• Strength vs permeability
• influences properties, e.g.,
• shear strength
• resilient modulus/ permanent deformation
• permeability/ drainage
• frost susceptibility
• erodibility

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Granular Base (Granular A)

100
26.5 mm maximum

80
Percent Passing (%)

60

40
2 – 8% pass 75 m

20

35 – 55% pass 4.75 mm

0
0.1 1 10 100

Sieve (mm)

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Fines Content: Washed Pass 75µm

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Hydrometer Analysis
• particles passing
75 μm sieve
• fluid density
• settlement of
dispersed solids
• diameter of
equivalent sphere
(Stoke’s Law)

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Clay Content - Sand Equivalency

• AASHTO T176/ ASTM D2419
• quick index test
• measures relative proportions
of clay-fine silt sized particles
(plastic fines and dust)
• granular soils and fine
aggregates passing 4.75mm
sieve (P4.75)

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Irrigation Tube, Hose

Solution (above cylinder)

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Clay Reading

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Sand Reading

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Sand Reading
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Sand Equivalent Value (SE)

SE = Sand Reading x 100
Flocculating Clay Reading
Solution
e.g., 3.3/8.0 x 100 = 41.25;

SE = 42%
Clay Reading
Suspended Fine Silt/ Clay

Sand Reading
Sediment (sand)

CVL 633:1

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Clay Content Criteria

Traffic:
SE,
20-Year Typical Applications
minimum %
Design ESAL’s
Low volume roads, parking lots,
< 0.3 million 40 driveways, residential.
0.3 to 3 million 40 Minor collector roads.
Major collector and minor arterial
3 to 10 million 45 roads.
Major arterial roads and transit
10 to 30 million 45 routes.
Freeways, major arterial roads with
heavy truck traffic, and special
> 30 million 50 applications such as truck and bus
climbing lanes or stopping areas.

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Physical Property Tests

• hardness, durability, impact resistance
• Los Angeles Abrasion and Impact
• Micro-Deval Abrasion
• resistance to weathering
• Soundness Tests – Magnesium sulphate
• Freeze-Thaw (unconfined)
• density
• bulk, apparent
• absorption

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Los Angeles Abrasion and Impact Test

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Micro-Deval Abrasion
• 1500 g sample prepared to
one of three gradings
• A - P19.0 - R9.5
• B - P13.2 - R4.75
• C - P9.5 - R4.75
• saturated 24 hrs in stainless
steel jar (5L)
• 5 kg abrasive charge (9.5mm
Ø steel balls)
• water
• jar sealed and placed on mill
• rotated 100 rpm up to 2 hours
• washed over 1.18mm sieve
• oven dry
• determine per cent loss

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FIELD PERFORMANCE: ASPHALT SURFACE

80

GOOD
70 FAIR
POOR
MICRO-DEVAL ABRASION LOSS, %

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50 Old specification for surface and binder

(gneiss excepted [50%])

40

30

20 Specification for HL3, HL4 surface

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

LOS ANGELES IMPACT AND ABRASION LOSS, %

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Weathering/Soundness

Before After

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Resistance to Weathering
Sulphate Soundness
• simulates freezing/ thawing
• NaSO4; MgSO4
• 5 cycles soak (16-18h)/oven dry
• wetting/drying (slaking)
• heating/cooling
• chemical attack (pH)
• salt crystal growth
• wash, oven dry
• compare to original sieves
• determine per cent loss
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Unconfined Freeze-Thaw
• reproduces freezing/ thawing
• soak 24h in 3% NaCl solution
• drain
• 5 cycles of 16hr @-180C, thaw
• ice crystal growth
• wash, oven dry
• compare to original sieves
• determine per cent loss
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Sulphate Soundness Test

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Unconfined Freeze-Thaw Test

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Specific Gravity
• Density (ρ) – ratio of mass per unit volume (M/V)
• Relative Density - ratio of density of one material
to another (reference material) (dimensionless)
• Specific Gravity (G) - ratio of density to density
of water (dimensionless)
• ρ (H2O) = 1 g/cm3
• RD/SG terms are used interchangeably
• Apparent Specific Gravity - includes volume of
the impermeable portion of a permeable material
• Bulk Specific Gravity means sample contains
more than one mass and/or volume

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Apparent Specific Gravity (Dry)

Mass of aggregate (oven dry)
Gsa =
Volume of aggregate

Surface Voids
Volume of aggregate
(includes volume of
impermeable voids)

Internal Voids (impermeable)

The subscripts indicate the material tested (s = stone)

and the type of specific gravity (a = apparent)

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Bulk Specific Gravity, Oven Dry

Mass of aggregate (oven dry)
Gsb, dry =
Volume of (aggregate + surface voids)
Surface Voids
(permeable) Volume of aggregate

Volume of surface voids

(water-permeable)

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Bulk Specific Gravity, SSD

Mass of aggregate (oven dry) + mass water
Gsb, SSD =
Volume of (aggregate + surface voids)

Surface Voids
Volume of aggregate

Volume of surface voids

(water-permeable)

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Specific Gravity, CA

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Coarse Aggregate Specific Gravity

• ASTM C127/AASHTO T85
• prepare clean aggregate sample (material retained
on 4.75mm sieve (R4.75)
• Soak in water for 20-24 hours
• Decant excess water
• Use pre-dampened towel to get SSD condition
• Record mass of SSD sample (B)
• Determine submerged mass of sample (C)
• Dry to constant mass (oven)
• Determine oven dry mass (A)

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Specific Gravity, CA

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Coarse Aggregate Specific Gravity

Calculations
• A = mass, oven dry
• B = mass, SSD
• C = mass, submerged
• Gsa = A / (A - C)
• Gsb, dry = A / (B - C)
• Gsb, SSD = B / (B - C)
• Water absorption capacity, %
• Absorption % = [(B - A) / A] * 100

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Phase Diagram
(represents relationships between mass and volume)

Volume Mass
Water permeable
voids
Vv (water*)
mv

mt
Vt
Aggregate
Vs Solids ms
(includes
impermeable
voids)

* saturated condition

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Specific Gravity, FA

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Specific Gravity, FA

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Fine Aggregate Specific Gravity

• ASTM C128
• prepare dry aggregate sample
• soak in water for 20-24 hours
• Decant and dry out to SSD condition
• Add 500 g of SSD aggregate to pycnometer of
known volume
• Fill to line and determine the mass of the
pycnometer, aggregate and water
• Empty aggregate into pan and dry to constant mass
(oven dry)

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Fine Aggregate Specific Gravity

Calculations
• A = mass oven dry
• B = mass of pycnometer filled with water
• C = mass pycnometer, SSD aggregate and water
• S = mass SSD aggregate
• Gsa = A / (B + A - C)
• Gsb, dry = A / (B + S - C)
• Gsb,SSD = S / (B + S - C)
• Water absorption capacity, %
• Absorption % = [(S - A) / A] * 100

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Diabase Screenings,10.9 % fines: Abs = 2.0 %; Dr = 2.743

1 cm
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Diabase Screenings, washed: Abs = 0.73 %; Dr = 2.849

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Percent Crushed Test

• defined as % mass of particles with one or more
‘well defined’ fractured faces
• sharp edges, definitive
• ASTM 5821
• Fractured face:
• …has a projected area at least 25% of maximum
cross-sectional area of the particle
• LS-607
• Fractured face:
• … has a minimum of 20% of total surface area of the
particle

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% Crushed/ Fractured Particles

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HMA Superpave Criteria

Fractured Particles in Coarse
Aggregate, % minimum
Traffic ASTM D 5821
(Millions of ESALS)
Depth Beneath Surface

100 mm >100mm

<1 60/- 60/-

<10 75/- 60/-
<30 85/80 60/-
<100 95/90 80/75
> 100 100/100 100/100

First number denotes % with one or more fractured faces

Second number denotes % with two or more fractured faces

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Fine Aggregate Angularity

• Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate)
• Fine aggregate at a specified gradation is
allowed to flow freely into a 100 mL cylinder.
• Knowing the specific gravity of the aggregate,
the voids between aggregate particles can be
determined
• The more angular the aggregate, the higher the
void content

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Uncompacted Voids in FA

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Uncompacted Voids in FA
• Determines the loose, uncompacted void
content of fine aggregate

V – (F/Gsb)
• U= x 100
V
• V = volume of cylinder
• F = net mass of aggregate
• G = bulk dry specific gravity (relative density) of fine
aggregate
• U = uncompacted voids

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Uncompacted Void Content

• an indication of
angularity, sphericity,
and surface texture
• Natural sands: typically
< 45%
• Manufactured sands:
typically > 42%

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Fine Aggregate Angularity Criteria

Traffic Depth from Surface

Millions of ESALs < 100 mm > 100mm

< 0.3 -- --
<1 40 --
<3 40 40
< 10 45 40
< 30 45 40
< 100 45 45
> 100 45 45

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Flat and Elongated Particles

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Flat & Elongated Particles Test(s)

ASTM 4791

LS-608 (MTO)

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Petrographic Examination of
Coarse Aggregates
• to classify rock types/
mineralogy
• broad classifications,
e.g., (granite-diorite-
gabbro)
• to assess degree of
weathering, hardness,
scratch resistance
• to identify mineral
coatings
• to identify deleterious
substances

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Petrographic Examination
• examination of rocks
(aggregate) to
determine the minerals,
phases, chemistry
• macroscopic, e.g.
hardness, colour
• optical mineralogy
• chemical analysis, e.g.,
• X-ray diffraction (XRD)
• differential thermal
analysis (DTA)

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Petrographic Examination
Plane Polarized Light Crossed Polarized Light

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Petrographic Number (MTO LS-609)

– good, fair, poor, deleterious
– weighted multiplier
– Subjective, requires a skilled,
trained operator
– Information may be used to
supplement other test data

PN = PGood +(PFair x 3) + (Ppoor x 6) +(Pdel x 10)

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Petrographic Descriptions
• In the classification of each particle, the following
features may be relevant:

• Scratch hardness • Colour

• Strength • Mineralogy
• Density • Structure
• Shape • Reaction with
• Texture hydrochloric acid
• Colour • Weathering
• Magnetism

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