EUROPE IN 18TH AND

BEGINNING OF 19TH CENTURY

 ABSOLUTISM: king by god’s right
The monarch held all the powers

Legislative power Executive power Judicial power

The laws were He named ministers He was the
decided by him and led the army highest judicial
through decrees authority and
named the judges
 1. The Enlightenment
• Enlightenment was a European intellectual movement in 18th century that
challenged the Old Regime and proposed a new social organisation based on:
- Reason: the only way to achieve knowledge and so happiness. The
education and science were vital for ongoing human progress.
- Natural rights: every human has some rights (life, private property)
that nobody neither the State can arbitrarily suppress.
- Tolerance: to others to ensure the social coexistence.
• It wasn’t a revolutionary movement although many of its ideas challenged
the Old Regime. The Enlightenment thinkers and supporters were rich
bourgeoisies that met in academies in cities.
Voltaire M.S. Merian
Rousseau Diderot

Locke Montesquieu C.L. Herschel Émile du Chatelet

 1. The Enlightenment
Enlightened despotism
• It was a form of absolutism influenced by Enlightenment ideas. “All for
the people, nothing by the people”.
• Joseph II of Austria, Catherine the Great of Russia modernised their
kingdoms by introducing several reforms:
-Education: new educational institutions and modification of the curriculum
to educate a the new elite.
-Government: modernised bureaucracy, strengthened the central
administration and tried to expand taxes to privileged estates→
increase incomes.
-Land: expropriated unused land (Church, nobility) to improve
productivity.
 2. The Thirteen colonies revolution
• In mid 18th century English territories in North America
were known as the Thirteen colonies.
• They had considerable autonomy, but many taxes were imposed by
London and they didn’t had representatives in British parliament.
• The aim to have political representation + increase of taxes in 1764-66 +
creation of a tea trade monopoly control by British = American war of
independence (1775-1783).
• France and Spain supported the revolutionaries.
• The United States constitution was the first constitution (1787):
national sovereignty and separation of the three powers.
• It was an example for the European bourgeoisie that the old regime
could be abolished and a liberal system could be stablished.
 3. The French revolution: the causes
a) The impact of the enlightenment and the Thirteen colonies revolution
• The ideas of the Enlightenment were spread over the bourgeoisie and
many members of the nobility, and they wanted to put them into
practice.
• The constitution of the USA (1787)
complied many of the ideas of the
Enlightenment (inalienable rights,
separation of powers, the right to elect
government), so it show and example
that a new social system could be
established.
 3. The French revolution: the causes

b) The social crisis

• The third estate (bourgeoisie, peasants and
artisans) wanted social reforms.
- The peasants (80% of the population)
were opposed to heavy taxes by feudal
lords.
- The bourgeoisie wanted to end the
privileges of nobility and clergy and get
political rights.
 3. The French revolution: the causes
c) The economic and financial crisis
• Economic crisis. The harvests were very bad since 1760, so the price of
bread rose up. Also, due to these poor harvests the feudal lords tried
to increase the taxes and compensate the reduction of incomes.
• Financial crisis. Originated by: the
financial cost of the American Evolution of the production and price of wheat
revolution + high expenditure at the
court. To resolved this problem Louis
XVI proposed that the privileged
begin to pay taxes. The refused and
demanded the call of the Estates-
General (only one to approve tax
reforms).
3. The French revolution: the causes
The break out
• The Estates-General met in Versailles in May
1789. It was chaired by the king and made up
of representatives of the three estates.
• Third estate representatives leave the meeting when privileged refused to
allow them greater representation (one men one vote) and proclaimed
themselves the National Assembly (representatives of the nation). They
pledge to draft a constitution.
• The people of Paris supported the Assembly and on July 14 stormed the
Bastille. The revolution spread to the countryside where nobles’ homes
were burnt, the Great Fear.
• In autumn Louis XVI accepted the National Assembly→ France was a
constitutional monarchy, end of Old Regime.
 4. The development of the French revolution
The phases of the revolution

• 4.1. The constitutional monarchy (1789-1792)

- Constituent Assembly
- Legislative Assembly
• 4.2. The social republic: the convention (1792-1794)
- Girondin Convention
- Jacobin Convention
• 4.3. The conservative republic: the Directory (1794-
1799)
4.1. The constitutional monarchy (1789-1792)
• The moderate bourgeoisie tried to reach and agreement with the king
and the privileged classes to make France a constitutional monarchy.
Constituent Assembly
In summer 1789, it abolished
feudal right and published
the declaration of the right of
man and of citizen.
4.1. The constitutional monarchy (1789-1792)
Legislative Assembly

• In 1791, the Constituent Assembly drew up the first constitution of France:

- Constitutional monarchy; national sovereignty;
- Separation of powers, but king with right of veto.
- Census suffrage: only male over 25 and with a certain level of income.
• A Legislative Assembly was formed. It implemented liberalism: nobility
paid taxes and guilds were abolished.
• To solve financial crisis, Church property was expropriated and sold. In
return the state will fund the practice of Catholicism.
• Absolutist monarchies felt threatened by the ideas of the French
revolution. Austria invaded France. The people made a national army.
4.2. The social republic: the Convention (1792-1794)

• In 1791 Louis fled Paris but was

discovered and arrested. This betrayal
+ the military invasion → revolt of the
common people, who stormed the
Tuileries Palace.
• Royal family was imprisoned and a
republic was declared.
4.2. The social republic: the Convention (1792-1794)
The Girondin Convention

• The Legislative Assembly was divided in different groups On the right:

Feuillants (royalists) and Girondins (high bourgeoisie, federalists). On the
left: Jacobins (male universal suffrage, popular sovereignty, national unity)
and Sans-culottes (more radicals).
• The Girondins took control of the republic. A new assembly, the National
Convention, was elected by male suffrage.
• The king and the queen were executed. In
response, European monarchies formed and
absolutist coalition against France. Inside
France were counter-revolutionary revolts by
privileged people and royalists.
4.2. The social republic: the Convention (1792-1794)
The Jacobin Convention
• In mid 1793 the Jacobins seized power. A new constitution was enacted:
universal male suffrage, right to social equality. And also a new calendar.
• The executive was led by a Committee of public safety, which gave power to
the Jacobin leader Robespierre.
• To stop conspirators, the Reign of Terror was imposed. Freedoms were
suspended and opponents to the government were imprisoned or executed.
• Prices and salaries were controlled, the assets of counter-revolutionaries
were distributed among the poor, Church lands were sold and education
became compulsory.
• Opposition to dictatorial government → coup in mid 1794 ended the
Jacobin government.
“Si el resorte del gobierno popular en
tiempos de paz es la virtud, el resorte del
gobierno durante la revolución son, al mismo
tiempo, la virtud y el terror. La virtud sin la
cual el terror es mortal. El terror sin el cual la
virtud es impotente”

Robespierre
4.3. The conservative republic: the Directory (1794-1799)

• Moderate bourgeoisie took back control of the

revolution.
• Jacobins laws were cancelled and a new
constitution (1795) was enacted: it granted
executive power to a collegial government of 5
members, the Directory; and restored census
suffrage.
• The instability was permanent due to tensions
between Jacobins and royalists. Napoleon
• Napoleon Bonaparte, a general with a lot of fame due to his victories
over absolutists powers, took advantage of the situation and made a
coup in 1799 (18 brumario) that ended the Directory.
 5. Napoleon
The Consulate (1799-1804)
• Napoleon’s coup was supported by large part of the bourgeoisie to put an
end to the political instability and promote economic recovery. He forced
the passing of a new constitution in 1799. It not include separation of
powers or a declaration of rights. Public opinion was censured.
• Now, the power was held by three Consuls and Napoleon was the main
consul (dictator). But in 1802 Napoleon proclaimed himself Consul for life.
• Although the Napoleon’s arrival in power marked the end of the French
Revolution, some of his reforms consolidate crucial changes to break with
the Old Regime: Napoleonic code (prohibition of certain privileges,
religious freedom), Concordat (state control over the Church and
confiscated lands were not returned).
 5. Napoleon
The Empire (1804-1815)
• In 1803 Napoleon began his conquest of
Europe and in 1804 he was crowned as
emperor by the Pope.
• His objective was to expand the ideas of
the Enlightenment throughout Europe, but
under French control. Napoleon’s coronation

• He won notable victories against Austria (Austerlitz) and Prussia (Jena)

invading most of Europe and creating a continental blockade against Britain.
• He suffer a defeat in Russia, and he was finally defeated in Leipzig (1813).
• In 1814 he returned to the power for hundred days up to his final defeat in
Waterloo (1815). He was deported to island of Santa Helena.
6. Back to black: the congress of Vienna and the Restoration

• The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was organized by the winners of the

war against Napoleon to guarantee the peace and avoid new revolutions:

-The monarchs of the Old Regime returned to power (Spain, France,

Netherlands).
-Creation of Holy Alliance (Prussia, Russia and Austria) as a common
defensive tool to combat liberalism and revolution.
-Redefinition of European boundaries.
-System of Congresses: regular meetings between the great powers as
a way to resolve international problems.
6. Back to black: the congress of Vienna and the Restoration
• Main territorial changes after the Congress of Vienna:
- France returned to the frontiers it had before the Revolution. Netherlands,
Switzerland and Piedmont were stablished as a barrier to control it.
- United Kingdom got Malta and the Ionian islands
- Austria got territories in center and north-west Italy, and Croatia
- Russia got Finland, Poland and Bessarabia
- Denmark got territories in north Germany
-Sweden got Norway
- Prussia got territories around it
- Piedmont-Sardinia got Savoy and Nice
 7. The liberal and national revolutions
• The restoration of the conservative order was more a theory than a fact.
Several factors were gradually transforming many countries in Europe
into the liberalism:
a) The example: the French revolution
was the clear demonstration that the
old regime could be deposed.
b) National movements: national
identities emerged in many parts of
Europe during Napoleonic invasion,
they were supported by the ideas of
Romanticism.
 8. The liberal and national revolutions
• Liberalism and nationalism were the main ideological ingredients for the
revolutions in Europe in 19th century.
LIBERALISM NATIONALISM
-Equality under the law = end of -Strong influence of Romanticism
privilege groups. (importance of feelings over the
-Separation of powers: legislative, Reason and supremacy of what is
executive and judicial. different over what is common.
-Natural rights: live, private -The characteristics of a group of
property, freedom. people (language, religion, history,
-Male suffrage. culture) make it a nation.
-Economic freedom: no taxes, free -Every nation has the right exercise
trade, no guilds. their sovereignty and create a State.
 7. The liberal and national revolutions 1820
• Spain: after the Riego’s pronunciamiento (1820), there was a period of
liberal government in which the Constitution of Cádiz was restored. In 1823
the Holy Alliance enter and put and end to this freedom.
• Greece: Greeks nationalists started a war of independence against the
Ottoman Empire (1821-1829) by the support of European countries. After it,
a constitutional monarchy was
stablish.
• Italy: in Naples and Piedmont
civil uprisings stablish short-lived
constitutions. Austria invaded
these territories and ended the
revolutions
 7. The liberal and national revolutions 1830
• France: the revolution started when the king Charles X dissolved the
parliament. People of Paris defeated the royal army and named Luis Felipe
de Orleans as new king. It was a parliamentary
monarchy with census suffrage.
• Belgium: a national and catholic revolution,
with the support of France, led to the creation
of present day Belgium in 1830, with a
constitutional monarchy.
• Poland: There was a nationalist uprising against
the Russian Empire in 1831. But it failed due to
the abandon of European powers, the
superiority of Russian forces and the divisions
between bourgeoisie and peasants.
The liberty leading the people, by Delacroix
 7. The liberal and national revolutions
1848
• France: is again the core from which revolution is spread over Europe.
Luis Felipe was deposed and the 2nd Republic started with male
universal suffrage. In June the lower classes made demonstration
against the lock of national workshops but the bourgeoisie government
repress them. It was the official divorce between classes.
In 1852 Luis Napoleon (Napoleon’s nephew) was elected as president
and declared himself Emperor by a coupe d’état
• Prussia: demonstrations called for German unity and a constitution
was approved, but Austria invaded Prussia and restored absolutism.
• Austria: social instability forced the king to abdicate in his son
Francisco Jose I, more liberal.
 8. The unification of Italy
• Since the fall of W.R.E. the Italian
peninsula was divided into several states
many of them under foreign control.
Garibaldi enters in Napoli
• The kingdom of Piedmont led
the unification process under
king Vittorio Emanuele II and
his prime minister Cavour.
Vittorio Emanuel II
 8. The unification of Italy
• 1859. Piedmont with French support defeated the Austrians. The region of
Lombardy became part of Piedmont and France received Savoy and Nice.
• 1860-1861. Garibaldi and
the red shirts took Naples
and Sicily, and gave them
to Piedmont. 1861 first
parliament in Turin, V.E.
became king of Italy.
• 1866. Italy supported
Prussia in its war with
Austria; in exchange it
received Venice.
• 1870. Piedmont occupied
Rome and made it capital.
 9. The unification of Germany
The precedents

• After the Congress of Vienna German territory was

divided into 39 states, all members of the German
Confederation.
• In 1834 many of these states (not Austria) created
the zollverein, a customs unity promoted by Prussia.
• In 1862 Wilhelm I became king of Prussia and
together with his prime minister, Bismarck, achieved
the unification of Germany through military action.

Bismarck
 9. The unification of Germany
The process
• 1864: Duchies war. Prussia got Schleswig
and Austria Holstein after defeated
Denmark.
• 1866: Austro-Prussian war. Prussia
wanted to expel Austria from the
unification process. After the war the
German Confederation was replaced by
North German Confederation. Prussia
annexed several states (Holstein, Hesse)
• 1870-1871: Franco-Prussian war. After intelligent pressures by Prussia,
Farce declared the war to Prussia, best prepared. France was defeated
beginning the 3rd Republic. Prussia got Alsace and Lorraine. In January 1871
Wilhelm I was crowned Kaiser in the Hall of Mirrors of Versailles.