Complete Traditions and

Encounters Notes
Chapter 28-32

1750-1900 Time Period

 Revolutions and National
States in the Atlantic World
Chapter 28 Notes
Popular Sovereignty and
Political Upheaval
 Enlightened and Revolutionary Ideas
• Popular sovereignty:
relocating sovereignty in the
people
– Traditionally monarchs
claimed a "divine right" to
rule
– The Enlightenment
challenged this right, made
the monarch responsible to
the people
– John Locke's theory of
contractual government:
authority comes from the
consent of the governed
• Freedom and equality:
important values of the
Enlightenment
– Demands for freedom of
worship and freedom of
expression
– Demands for political and
legal equality
• Condemned legal and social
privileges of aristocrats
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The
Social Contract
– Equality not extended to
women, peasants, laborers,
slaves, or people of color
– Ideals of Enlightenment were
significant global influence
 The American
Revolution

• Tension between Britain and the North American colonies

– Legacy of Seven Years' War: British debt, North American tax
burden
– Mounting colonial protest over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary
rule
(a) Colonial boycott of British goods
(b) Attacks on British officials; Boston Tea Party, 1773
– Political protest over representation in Parliament: Continental
Congress, 1774
– British troops and colonial militia skirmished at the village of
Lexington, 1775
• The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776
– Thirteen united States of America severed ties
with Britain
– Declaration inspired by Enlightenment and Locke's
theory of government
• The American Revolution, 1775-1781
– British advantages: strong government, navy, army,
plus loyalists in colonies
– American advantages: European allies, George
Washington's leadership
– Weary of a costly conflict, British forces surrendered in
1781
• Building an independent state: Constitutional
Convention, 1787
– Constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech,
and of religion
– American republic based on principles of freedom,
equality, popular sovereignty
– Full legal and political rights were granted only to men
of property
The French Revolution
 Summoning
the Estates
General
• Financial crisis: half of government revenue went to
national debt
• King Louis XVI forced to summon Estates General to
raise new taxes
• Many representatives wanted sweeping political and
social reform
• First and Second Estates (nobles, clergy) tried to limit
Third Estate (commoners)
 The National Assembly Formed by
Representative of Third Estate in June 1789
• Demanded a written
constitution and
popular sovereignty
• Angry mob seized the
Bastille on 14 July,
sparked insurrections
in many cities
• National Assembly
wrote the "Declaration
of the Rights of Man
and the Citizen"
 "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity"
• Slogan and values
of the National
Assembly
• The Assembly
abolished the
feudal system,
altered the role of
church
• France became a
constitutional
monarchy, 1791
Convention Replaces National Assembly
Under New Constitution in 1791
• Austrian and Prussian armies
invaded France to restore
ancien régime
• Convention abolished the
monarchy and proclaimed
France a republic
• King Louis XVI and Queen Marie
Antoinette executed, 1793
• Radical Jacobins dominated the
Convention in 1793-94 in a
"reign of terror"
• Revolutionary changes: in
religion, dress, calendar,
women's rights
 The Directory, 1795-1799
• A conservative
reaction against
the excesses of
the Convention
• Executed the
Jacobin leader
Robespierre, July
1794
• New constitution
 The Reign
of Napoleon,
1799-1815
 Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
• Brilliant military leader;
became a general in the
royal army at age twenty-
four
• Supported the revolution;
defended the Directory
• His invasion of Egypt was
defeated by British army
• Overthrew the Directory
and named himself consul
for life
 Napoleonic France Brought Stability
After Years of Chaos
• Made peace with the
Roman Catholic church
and pope
• Extended freedom of
religion to Protestants
and Jews
• Civil Code of 1804:
political and legal
equality for all adult
men
• Restricted individual
freedom, especially
speech and press
 Napoleon's Empire
• Proclaimed himself
emperor in 1804
• Dominated the European
continent: Iberia, Italy,
Netherlands
• Defeated Austria and
Prussia; fought British
on high seas
• Disastrous invasion of
Russia in 1812 destroyed
Grand Army
 The Fall of Napoleon
• Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in
1814, exiled on Elba
• Escaped, returned to France and raised an army
• Defeated by British at Waterloo in 1815
The Influence of Revolution
The Haitian Revolution is the Only
Successful Slave Revolt in History
 Saint-
Domingue

• Rich French colony on western Hispaniola

• Society dominated by small white planter class
• 90 percent of population were slaves working under brutal
conditions
• Large communities of escaped slaves, or maroons
• Free blacks fought in American war, brought back revolutionary
ideas
• Widespread discontent: white settlers sought self-governance,
gens de couleur sought political rights, slaves wanted freedom
 Slave Revolt Began in 1791
• Factions of white
settlers, gens de
couleur, and
slaves battled
each other
• French troops
arrived in 1792;
British and
Spanish forces
intervened in
1793
 Toussaint Louverture (1744-1803)
• Son of slaves, literate,
skilled organizer, built
a strong and
disciplined army
• Controlled most of
Saint-Domingue by
1797, created a
constitution in 1801
• Arrested by French
troops; died in jail,
1803
 The Republic of Haiti
• Yellow fever ravaged French troops; defeated
and driven out by slave armies
• Declared independence in 1803; established the
Republic of Haiti in 1804
Wars of Independence in
Latin America
Latin American Society
Rigidly Hierarchical
• Social classes:
peninsulares,
creoles, slaves, and
indigenous peoples
• Creoles sought to
displace the
peninsulares but
retain their
privileged position
 Mexican Independence
• Napoleon's invasion of Spain in
1807 weakened royal control of
colonies
• 1810: peasant revolt in Mexico
led by Hidalgo, defeated by
conservative creoles
• 1821: Mexico briefly a military
dictatorship, then in 1822 a
republic
• South part of Mexico was split
into several independent states in
1830s
 Simon Bolivar (1783-1830)
• Led independence
movement in South
America
• Inspired by George
Washington, took arms
against Spanish rule in
1811
• Creole forces overcame
Spanish armies
throughout South
America, 1824
• Bolivar's effort of creating
the Gran Colombia failed
in 1830s
 Brazilian Independence
• Portuguese royal court
fled to Rio de Janeiro,
1807
• The king's son, Pedro,
agreed to Brazilian
independence, 1821
• Became Emperor Pedro I
in the independent Brazil
(reigned 1822-1834)
 Creole Dominance in Latin America
• Independence brought little social change in
Latin America
• Principal beneficiaries were creole elites
The Emergence of Ideologies:
Conservatism and Liberalism
 Conservatism
• Resistance to change
• Importance of continuity,
tradition
• Edmund Burke viewed
society as an organism
that changed slowly over
time
– American Revolution: a
natural and logical
outcome of history
– French Revolution:
violent and irresponsible
 Liberalism
• Welcomed change as
an agent of progress
• Championed freedom,
equality, democracy,
written constitutions
• John Stuart Mill
championed
individual freedom
and minority rights
 Testing the Limits of
Revolutionary Ideals: Slavery
 Movements
to End Slave
Trade

• Began in 1700s, gained momentum during

revolutions
• In 1807 British Parliament outlawed slave trade
• Other states followed suit, though illegal slave
trade continued from some time
 Movements to abolish slavery
• More difficult because of property rights
• In Haiti and much of South America, end of
slavery came with independence
• In Europe and North America, campaign against
slave trade became campaign to abolish slavery
• Abolition in Britain in 1833, France in 1848, the
United States in 1865, Brazil in 1888
– Abolition brought legal freedom for slaves but not
political equality
Testing the Limits of
Revolutionary Ideals:
Women's Rights
 Enlightenment Ideals and Women
• Enlightenment call for
equality not generally
extended to women
• Women used logic of
Locke to argue for
women's rights
– Mary Astell attacked male
dominance in the family
– Mary Wollstonecraft:
women possessed same
natural rights as men
Women Crucial to Revolutionary Activities

• French revolution granted

women rights of education
and property, not the vote
• Olympe de Gouges's
declaration of full
citizenship for women too
radical
• Women made no significant
gains in other revolutions
– Women's rights movements
gained ground in the
nineteenth century in United
States and Europe
 The Consolidation of
National States in Europe
Nations and Nationalism
 Cultural Nationalism
• An expression of
national identity
• Emphasized common
historical experience
• Used folk culture and
literature to illustrate
national spirit
(Volkgiest)
 Political Nationalism
• More intense in the
nineteenth century
• Demanded loyalty and
solidarity from members
of the national group
• Minorities sought
independence as a national
community
• Young Italy formed by
Giuseppe Mazzini
 Highest Presidential Job Approval
Ratings of All Time
President Date Approval Events
One month after the terrorist attacks
of September 11, President Bush
George W. Bush Oct. 9, 2001 92% achieved the highest approval rating
of any president since modern
polling began.
With the ground war in Iraq less than
a week old, the public was near-
George H.W. Bush Mar. 4, 1991 90%
unanimous in its support for the
president.

Another president buoyed by

Harry S. Truman June 5, 1945 87% wartime success, Truman reached a
peak on the eve of V-E Day.

FDR had widespread support in

these Gallup polls, among the first
Franklin D. Roosevelt Jan. 13, 1942 84%
conducted after the bombing of
Pearl Harbor.
 Nationalism in Sports
July 11, 1994

When 24 national soccer teams began World Cup play in

the U.S. on June 17, it was difficult for most Americans to
comprehend the frenzied passions unlocked in other
cultures by this, the most-watched sporting event on the
planet. Sadly, we are now a little closer to comprehending.
Andres Escobar, a defender for the Colombian national
team, died in a hail of gunfire in his homeland last
Saturday, apparently because of a goal he had
inadvertently kicked in for the U.S. in its surprising 2-1 win
over Colombia on June 22 in Pasadena, Calif., which
helped bring about Colombia's unexpected early
elimination from the Cup.
 March 16, 2009

BAGHDAD - Police say an Iraqi soccer player has

been shot dead just as he was about to kick what could
have been the tying goal in a weekend game south of
Baghdad.
Police Maj. Muthanna Khalid says a striker from
the Buhairat amateur team was facing only the goalie
during a Sunday match in Hillah when a supporter of the
rival Sinjar club shot him in the head in the final minute of
play.
Sinjar was leading 1-0 when the shooting
occurred. Khalid said a spectator was arrested.
More Iraqis are turning out for sports events now that
security is improving. Major matches in Baghdad are
heavily guarded but security in amateur games in smaller
cities is often lax.
Nationalism in Movies

Scottish • American
Braveheart
Australian – The Patriot
Crocodile Dundee – Saving Private Ryan
British
Any 007 Film – Rocky IV
– Red Dawn
– Miracle
 Zionism
• Jewish nationalism as a
response to widespread
European anti-
Semitism
• Movement founded by
Theodor Herzl to create
a Jewish state in
Palestine
• Jewish state of Israel
finally created in 1948
 The Emergence of
National Communities
Congress
of Vienna
814-15

• Conservative leaders determined to restore old

order after defeat of Napoleon
• Succeeded in maintaining balance of power in
Europe for a century
• Failed in repressing nationalist and
revolutionary ideas
 Nationalist Rebellions Against Old
Order Throughout Nineteenth Century
• Greek rebels
overcame Ottoman
rule in 1827
• 1830 and 1848,
rebellions in France,
Spain, Portugal, and
German states
• Conservative
government usually
restored afterward
but ideals persisted
The Unification of Italy and Germany
Cavour & Garibaldi United Italy by 1870
• Mazzini's Young Italy
inspired uprisings against
foreign rule in Italy
• Cavour led nationalists
and expelled Austrian
authorities in northern
Italy, 1859
• Garibaldi controlled
southern Italy, returned it
to King Vittore
Emmanuele, 1860
Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck
(1815-1898) Created a United Germany
• In Germany,
nationalist rebellion
was repressed in
1848
• Bismarck provoked
three wars that
swelled German
pride
• 1871, Prussian king
proclaimed emperor
of the Second Reich
The Making of Industrial Society

Chapter 29 Notes
Patterns of Industrialization
 Foundations of
Industrialization
 Coal
• Critical to the early
industrialization of
Britain
• Shift from wood to coal
in eighteenth century
– Deforestation caused
wood shortages
• Abundant, accessible
coal reserves in Britain
 Overseas Colonies
• Provided raw materials
• Plantations in the Americas provided sugar and cotton
• Colonies also became markets for British manufactured goods
• Grain, timber, and beef shipped from United States to Britain
after 1830
 Mechanization of Cotton Industry
• Demand for cheap cotton spurred industry
• John Kay invented the flying shuttle, 1733
• Samuel Crompton invented the spinning "mule,"
1779
• Edmund Cartwright invented a water-driven
power loom, 1785
 James Watt's Steam Engine, 1765
• Burned coal, which
drove a piston, which
turned a wheel
• Widespread use by
1800 meant increased
productivity, cheaper
prices
 Iron and Steel Important Industries
• Continual refinement
• Coke (purified coal)
replaced charcoal as
principal fuel
• Bessemer converter
(1856) made cheaper,
stronger steel
Transportation
Improved

• Steam engines and stronger steel led the improvements

• George Stephenson invented the first steam-powered
locomotive, 1815
• Steamships began to replace sailing ships in the mid-
nineteenth century
• Railroads and steamships lowered transportation costs
and created dense transportation networks
The Factory System
 Factory
Gradually
Replaced the
Putting-Out
System

• Factory system required division of labor

– Each worker performed a single task
• Required a high degree of coordination, work
discipline, and close supervision
 Working Conditions
• Often harsh
• Workers lost status;
not skilled, just wage
earners
• Harsh work
discipline, fast pace
of work, frequent
accidents
 Industrial Protest
• Luddites struck
against mills and
destroyed machines,
1811 and 1816
• Fourteen Luddites
hung in 1813, and
the movement died
The Early Spread of Industrialization
Industrialization in Western Europe
• British industrial monopoly,
1750 to 1800, forbade
immigration of skilled
workers
• By 1850, England
dominated the world market
– Produced 2/3s of the world’s
coal
– Produced 1/2 of the world’s
iron & cloth
Industrialization in Western Europe
• Napoleon abolished
internal trade barriers in
western Europe,
dismantled guilds
• Belgium and France moved
toward industrialization by
mid-nineteenth century
• After German unification,
Bismarck sponsored heavy
industry, arms, shipping
 Industrialization in North America
• Slow to start, few
laborers, little capital
• British craftsmen started
cotton textile industry in
New England in 1820s
• Heavy iron and steel
industries in 1870s
• Rail networks developed
in 1860s; integrated
various regions of United
States
Industrial Capitalism
 Mass Production
• Provided cheaper
goods
• Eli Whitney promoted
mass production of
interchangeable parts
for firearms
• Later (1913), Henry
Ford introduced
assembly line to
automobile production
 Industrialization Expensive
• Required large capital
investment
• Encouraged
organization of large-
scale corporations with
hundreds of investors
• New laws protected
investors from liability
 Monopolies, Trusts, and Cartels
• Competitive associations
• Vertical organization
– Rockefeller's Standard Oil
Co.
• Horizontal organization (or
cartel)
– IG Farben, world's largest
chemical company
Industrial Society
The Fruits of Industry
 Population Growth
• Industrialization raised material
standards of living
• Populations of Europe and America
rose sharply from 1700 to 1900
• The population of Europe increased
130% between 1800 to 1910
– From 175 to 435 million
• Thomas Malthus Essay on
Population
– Believed that human population would
outrun the earth’s ability to produce
food
• Better diets and improved sanitation
reduced death rate of adults and
children
 Demographic Transition
• Population change typical of industrialized
countries
• Pattern of declining birthrate in response to
declining mortality
• Voluntary birth control through contraception
Urbanization and Migration
From Countryside to Urban Centers
• By 1900, 50 percent of population of industrialized
countries lived in towns
• By 1900, more than 150 cities with over one hundred
thousand people in Europe and North America
• Urban problems
– Shoddy houses, fouled air, inadequate water supply
• By the late nineteenth century, governments passed
building codes, built sewer systems
 Transcontinental Migration
• Some workers sought
opportunities abroad
• 1800-1920, 50 million
Europeans migrated to
North and South
America
• Fled: famine in Ireland,
anti-Semitism in Russia,
problems elsewhere
Industry and Society
Living Conditions
• Sickness widespread;
epidemics, like cholera,
sweep urban slums
– Life span in one large city is
only 17 years
• Wealthy merchants, factory
owners live in luxurious
suburban homes
• Rapidly growing cities lack
sanitary codes, building
codes
• Cities also without
adequate housing,
education, police
protection
 New Social Classes Created by
Industrialization
• Captains of industry
– New aristocracy of wealth
• Middle class
– Managers, accountants,
other professionals
• Working class
– Unskilled, poorly paid,
vulnerable
 Dramatic
Changes to
Industrial
Family

• Sharp distinction between work and family life

– Worked long hours outside home
• Family members led increasingly separate lives
 Men in Industrial Age
• Gained increased stature and
responsibility
• Middle- and upper-class men were
sole providers
• Valued self-improvement,
discipline, and work ethic
• Imposed these values on working-
class men
– Workers often resisted work
discipline
– Working-class culture: bars,
sports, gambling, outlets away
from work
 Opportunities for Women
• Narrowed by industrialization
• Working women could not bring children to
work in mines or factories
• Middle-class women expected to care for
home and children
• Increased opportunities for women to work in
domestic service
Children in Industry
• Many forced to work
to help support family
• 1840s, Parliament
began to regulate child
labor
• 1881, primary
education became
mandatory in England
The Socialist Challenge
 Utopian
Socialists

• Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, and their followers were the

founders
• Established model communities based on principle of
equality
• Stressed cooperative control of industry, education for all
children
 Marx and Engels
• Leading nineteenth-century
socialists
• Scorned the utopian socialists as
unrealistic, unproductive
• Critique of industrial capitalism
– Unrestrained competition led to
ruthless exploitation of working
class
– State, courts, police: all tools of
the capitalist ruling class
 The Communist Manifesto, 1848
• Claimed excesses of capitalism would lead to a
communist revolution
• "Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy
capitalism
• Socialism would follow; a fair, just, and
egalitarian society
• Ideas dominated European and international
socialism throughout nineteenth century
 Social Reform
• Came gradually through
legislative measures
• Regulated hours and
restricted work for women
and children
• Under Bismarck,
Germany provided
medical insurance and
social security
 Trade
Unions

• Formed to represent interests of industrial workers

• Faced stiff opposition from employers and governments
• Forced employers to be more responsive to workers'
needs
– Averted violence
 Scientific Advances
During Industrialization
• Charles Darwin
– Discovered the Theory of Evolution
• Wrote On the Origin of Species by Means
of Natural Selection
• Redefined the way people view how life
evolves
• Sir Charles Lyle
– Discovered that Earth is billions of
years old
• Wrote Principles of Geology
• Redefined the way people view how the
Earth was formed
• Gregor Mendel
– Discovered the Laws of Heredity
– Helped to produce bigger plants
and stronger animals
• Also helped with later research on
chromosomes
• Joseph Lister
– Developed new antiseptic
practices
• Led to major advances in stopping
the spread of infections during
surgery
• Louis Pasteur
– Discovered the concept of
vaccines
• Discovery led to the end of diseases
Global Effects of Industrialization
 The Continuing Spread of
Industrialization Beyond Europe
and North America
 Industrialization in Russia
• Promoted by tsarist government
• Between 1860 and 1900, built thirty-five
thousand miles of railroads
• Finance minister, Sergei Witte, promoted
industry
– Witte oversaw the construction of the trans-
Siberian railroad
– Reformed commercial law to protect industries
and steamship companies
– Promoted nautical and engineering schools
– Encouraged foreign investors
• By 1900 Russia produced half the world's oil,
also significant iron and armaments
 Industrialization
in Japan

• Promoted by government like in Russia

• Hired thousands of foreign experts to establish modern
industries
• Created new industries; opened technical institutes and
universities
• Government-owned businesses then sold to private
entrepreneurs (zaibatsu)
• Japan was the most industrialized land in Asia by 1900
The International Division of Labor
 Industrialization Increased
Demand for Raw Materials
• Non-industrialized
societies became
suppliers of raw
materials
• Cotton from India,
Egypt; rubber from
Brazil, Malaya, and
Congo River basin
 Economic
Development

• Better in lands colonized by Europe

• High wages encouraged labor-saving
technologies
• Canada, Argentina, South Africa, Australia,
New Zealand: later industrialized
 Economic Dependency
• More common in other countries
• Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia,
and southeast Asia
• Foreign investors owned and controlled
plantations and production
• Free-trade policy favored foreign products over
domestic
• World divided into producers and consumers
 The Americas in the
Age of Independence
Chapter 30 Notes
The Building of American States
Latin America: Fragmentation and
Political Experimentation
 Creole Elites After Independence
• Faced political instability
• Creole leaders had little
experience with self-
government
• White minority dominated
politics
– Peasant majority was without
power
• Political instability
aggravated by division
among elites
 Social Unrest
• Conflicts between farmers
and ranchers and
indigenous peoples
common
• Intense fighting in
Argentina and Chile
– Modern weapons used
against native peoples
• Colonists had pacified most
productive land by 1870s
 Caudillos
• Military leaders who held
power after revolutionary era
• Juan Manuel de Rosas
dominated Argentina from
1835-1852
– Took advantage of chaotic
times
– Brought order to Argentina
– Used personal army to crush
opposition
– Opposed liberal reforms
 Mexico: War and Reform 1821-1911
• Shifted from monarchy to
republic to caudillo rule
• La Reforma led by President
Benito Juarez
– Liberal movement in 1850s
– Granted universal male
suffrage
– Limited power of priests and
military
• Reforms strongly opposed by
landowning elites
 Mexico: Revolution (1911-1920)
• Fundamentally a class conflict
– 95 percent of people were landless and
impoverished
• Middle class joined with peasants and
workers to overthrow the dictator
Diaz
• Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa led
popular uprisings in countryside
• With U.S. support, Mexican
government regained control
• New constitution of 1917 brought
sweeping reform
American Economic Development
 Migration to the Americas
• Latin American
migrants mostly
worked on agricultural
plantations
– Italians migrated to
Brazil and Argentina
– Asians migrated to
Cuba and the Caribbean
sugar fields
 Latin American Dependence
• Colonial legacy prevented
industrialization of Latin American
states
– Spain and Portugal never encouraged
industries
– Creole elites continued land-based
economies after independence
• British didn't invest in industry in
Latin America; no market for
manufactured goods
– Instead invested in cattle and sheep
ranching in Argentina
– Supplied British wool and beef; most of
profits returned to Britain
 Latin American Dependence
• Some attempts at industrialization
with limited success
– Diaz encouraged foreign investors
to build rails, telegraphs, and
mines
– Profits to Mexican oligarchy and
foreign investors, not for further
development
– While Mexican industry boomed,
average Mexican standard of
living declined
• Economic growth in Latin
America driven by exports: silver,
beef, bananas, coffee
American Culture and
Social Diversity
 Ethnicity, Identity, and Gender
in Latin America
• Latin American societies organized by ethnicity and
color, legacy of colonialism
• Large-scale migration in nineteenth century brought
cultural diversity
– Small number of Chinese in Cuba assimilated through
intermarriage
– Larger group of East Indians in Trinidad and Tobago
preserved cultural traditions
– European migrants made Buenos Aires "the Paris of the
Americas"
 Ethnicity, Identity, and Gender
in Latin America
• Gauchos: Argentine cowboys
on the pampas
– Gaucho society: ethnic
egalitarianism, mostly mestizos
or castizos (mixed race)
– Distinctive gaucho dress,
independent, celebrated in
legend and song
– Caudillo rule disrupted gaucho
life: impressed into armies,
lands enclosed
 Ethnicity, Identity, and Gender
in Latin America
• Male domination
central feature of Latin
American society in
nineteenth century
– Machismo: culture of
male strength,
aggression
– No significant women's
movement; some efforts
to improve education
for girls
Societies at Crossroads
Chapter 31 Notes
Ottoman Empire, Russia, China, and Japan
Common problems
• Military weakness,
vulnerability to foreign
threats
• Internal weakness due to
economic problems,
financial difficulties, and
corruption
Reform
Efforts

• Attempts at political and educational reform and at industrialization

• Turned to western models
 The
Ottoman
Empire in
Decline
The Nature of Decline
• Military decline since the late
seventeenth century
• Ottoman forces behind European
armies in strategy, tactics,
weaponry, training
• Janissary corps politically
corrupt, undisciplined
• Provincial governors gained
power, private armies
The Nature of Decline
• Military decline since the late
seventeenth century
• Ottoman forces behind European
armies in strategy, tactics,
weaponry, training
• Janissary corps politically
corrupt, undisciplined
• Provincial governors gained
power, private armies
The Nature of Decline
• Military decline since the late
seventeenth century
• Ottoman forces behind European
armies in strategy, tactics,
weaponry, training
• Janissary corps politically
corrupt, undisciplined
• Provincial governors gained
power, private armies
 The Nature of Decline
• Extensive territorial losses in nineteenth
century
• Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia;
western frontiers to Austria; Balkan provinces to
Greece and Serbia
• Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed
campaign in 1798
(a) Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a
powerful, modern army
(b) Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt
an autonomous province
 The Nature of Decline
• Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century
• Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin
• Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods
• Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest
• Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882
 The Nature of Decline
• Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century
• Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin
• Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods
• Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest
• Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882
 The Nature of Decline
• Exported raw materials, imported
European manufactured goods
• Heavily depended on foreign loans, half
of the revenues paid to loan interest
• Foreigners began to administer the
debts of the Ottoman state by 1882
The Nature of Decline
• The "capitulations": European
domination of Ottoman economy
• Extraterritoriality: Europeans
exempt from Ottoman law within
the empire
• Could operate tax-free, levy their
own duties in Ottoman ports
• Deprived empire of desperately
needed income
Reform and Reorganization
• Attempt to reform military led to
violent Janissary revolt (1807-1808)
• Reformer Mahmud II (1808-1839)
became sultan after revolt
• When Janissaries resisted, Mahmud
had them killed; cleared the way for
reforms
• He built an European-style army,
academies, schools, roads, and
telegraph
 Reform and Reorganization
• Legal and educational reforms of the
Tanzimat ("reorganization") era (1839-
1876)
• Ruling class sought sweeping restructuring
to strengthen state
• Broad legal reforms, modeled after
Napoleon's civic code
• State reform of education (1846), free and
compulsory primary education (1869)
• Undermined authority of the ulama,
enhanced the state authority
 Reform and Reorganization
• Opposition to Tanzimat reforms
• Religious conservatives critical of
attack on Islamic law and tradition
• Legal equality for minorities resented
by some, even a few minority leaders
• Young Ottomans wanted more
reform: freedom, autonomy,
decentralization
• High-level bureaucrats wanted more
power, checks on the sultan's power
The Young Turk Era
• Cycles of reform and repression
• 1876, coup staged by bureaucrats
who demanded a constitutional
government
• New sultan Abd al-Hamid II (1876-
1909) proved an autocrat: suspended
constitution, dissolved parliament,
and punished liberals
• Reformed army and administration:
became source of the new opposition
 The Young Turk Era
• The Young Turks, after 1889, an active
body of opposition
• Called for universal suffrage, equality,
freedom, secularization, women's rights
• Forced Abd al-Hamid to restore constitution,
dethroned him (1909)
• Nationalistic: favored Turkish dominance
within empire, led to Arab resistance
• The empire survived only because of distrust
among European powers
 The
Russian
Empire
Under
Pressure
Military Defeat and Social Reform
• The Crimean War (1853-1856)
• Nineteenth-century Russia expanded from Manchuria, across Asia to Baltic
Sea
• Sought access to Mediterranean Sea, moved on Balkans controlled by
Ottomans
• European coalition supported Ottomans against Russia in Crimea
• Crushing defeat forced tsars to take radical steps to modernize army, industry
 Military
Defeat and
Social Reform

• The Crimean War (1853-1856)

• Nineteenth-century Russia expanded from Manchuria, across Asia to Baltic Sea
• Sought access to Mediterranean Sea, moved on Balkans controlled by Ottomans
• European coalition supported Ottomans against Russia in Crimea
• Crushing defeat forced tsars to take radical steps to modernize army, industry
Military Defeat and Social Reform
• Emancipation of serfs in
1861 by Alexander II
• Serfdom supported landed
nobility, an obstacle to
economic development
• Serfs gained right to land, but
no political rights; had to pay
a redemption tax
• Emancipation did not increase
agricultural production
Military Defeat and Social Reform
• Political and legal reforms
followed
• 1864, creation of zemstvos, local
assemblies with representatives
from all classes
• A weak system: nobles
dominated, tsar held veto power
• Legal reform more successful:
juries, independent judges,
professional attorneys
 Industrialization
• The Witte system: developed by
Sergei Witte, minister of finance,
1892-1903
• Railway construction stimulated other
industries; trans-Siberian railway
• Remodeled the state bank, protected
infant industries, secured foreign loans
• Top-down industrialization effective;
steel, coal, and oil industries grew
 Industrialization
• The Witte system: developed by
Sergei Witte, minister of finance,
1892-1903
• Railway construction stimulated other
industries; trans-Siberian railway
• Remodeled the state bank, protected
infant industries, secured foreign loans
• Top-down industrialization effective;
steel, coal, and oil industries grew
Industrialization
• Industrial discontent intensified
• Rapid industrialization fell hardest
on working classes
• Government outlawed unions,
strikes; workers increasingly radical
• Business class supported autocracy,
not reform
 Repression and
Revolution

• Cycles of protest and repression

• Peasants landless, no political power, frustrated by lack of meaningful reform
• Antigovernment protest and revolutionary activity increased in 1870s
• Intelligentsia advocated socialism and anarchism, recruited in countryside
• Repression by tsarist authorities: secret police, censorship
• Russification: sparked ethnic nationalism, attacks on Jews tolerated
 Repression and Revolution
• Terrorism emerges as a tool of
opposition
• Alexander II, the reforming tsar,
assassinated by a bomb in 1881
• Nicholas II (1894-1917), more
oppressive, conservative ruler
• Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05:
Russian expansion to east leads to
conflict with Japan
 Repression and Revolution
• Revolution of 1905: triggered by
costly Russian defeat by Japan
• Bloody Sunday massacre: unarmed
workers shot down by government
troops
• Peasants seized landlords' property;
workers formed soviets
• Tsar forced to accept elected legislature,
the Duma; did not end conflict
The Chinese
Empire
Under Siege
The Opium War and the Unequal Treaties
Opium Trade Serious Threat to Qing Dynasty
by 1800s
• Chinese cohong system restricted
foreign merchants to one port city
• China had much to offer, but little
demand for European products
• East India Company cultivated opium
to exchange for Chinese goods
• About forty thousand chests of opium
shipped to China yearly by 1838
The Opium War (1839-1842)
• Commissioner Lin Zexu directed
to stop opium trade
• British refused; Lin confiscated
and destroyed twenty thousand
chests of opium
• British retaliated, easily crushed
Chinese forces, destroyed Grand
Canal
Unequal Treaties Forced Trade Concessions from
Qing Dynasty
• Treaty of Nanjing, 1842
• Britain gained right to opium trade, most-
favored-nation status, Hong Kong, open
trade ports, exemptions from Chinese
laws
• Similar unequal treaties made to other
western countries and Japan
• By 1900, China lost control of
economy, ninety ports to foreign
powers
The Taiping Rebellion
Internal Turmoil in China in the Later Nineteenth
Century
• Population grew by 50
percent
• Land and food more slowly
• Poverty strained resources
• Other problems: official
corruption, drug addiction
• Four major rebellions in 1850s
and 1860s
• The most dangerous was the
Taiping
The Taiping ("Great Peace") Program
Proposed by Hong Xiuquan
• Called for end of Qing dynasty
• Resented Manchu rule
• Radical social change
• No private property,
footbinding, concubinage
• Popular in southeast China
• Seized Nanjing (1853)
• Moved on Beijing
Taiping Defeat by Combined Qing and Foreign
Troops
• Gentry sided with
government
• Regional armies had
European weapons
• Taipings defeated in 1864
• The war claimed twenty to
thirty million lives
Reform Frustrated
The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)
• Sought to blend Chinese cultural
traditions with European industrial
technology
• Built shipyards, railroads, weapon
industries, steel foundries, academies
• Not enough industry to make a
significant change
• Powerful empress dowager Cixi
opposed changes
Spheres of Influence Eroded Chinese Power
• Foreign powers
seized Chinese
tribute states of
Vietnam, Burma,
Korea, Taiwan
• 1898, they carved
China into spheres
of economic
influence, each a
different province
The Hundred-Days Reforms (1898)
• Two Confucian scholars
advised radical changes in
imperial system
• Young emperor Guangxu
inspired to launch wide-range
reforms
• Movement crushed by Cixi and
supporters
• Emperor imprisoned
• Reformers killed
The Boxer rebellion (the Society of Righteous
and Harmonious Fists), 1899-1900
• Local militia attacked
foreigners, Chinese
Christians
• Crushed by European
and Japanese troops
• Collapse of Qing
dynasty in 1912
The Transformation of Japan
From Tokugawa to Meiji
Crisis and Reform in Early Nineteenth Century
• Crisis: crop failure, high
taxes, rising rice prices all
led to protests and
rebellions
• Tokugawa bakufu tried
conservative reforms,
met with resistance
Foreign Pressure for Japan to Reverse Long-
Standing Closed Door Policy
• 1844 requests by British,
French, and United States
for the right of entry
rebuffed
• 1853, U.S. Commodore
Perry sailed U.S. fleet to
Tokyo Bay, demanded entry
• Japan forced to accept
unequal treaties with United
States and other western
countries
The End of Tokugawa Rule Followed These
Humiliations
• Widespread
opposition to
shogun rule,
especially in
provinces
• Dissidents rallied
around emperor in
Kyoto
The Meiji restoration, 1868
• After brief civil war, Tokugawa
armies defeated by dissident
militia
• The boy emperor Mutsuhito, or
Meiji, regained authority
• End of almost seven centuries of
military rule in Japan
Meiji Reforms
 Meiji Government Welcomed Foreign
Expertise
• Japan’s only defense against the
west was to become like the west
• For thousands of years Japan had
borrowed from Chinese culture,
now it borrowed from European
culture
• Government based on Germany
• Industry based on Britain and U.S.
• Navy trained by British officers
• Army trained by German and French
officers
• Calendar changed to western dates
Abolition of the Feudal Order Essential to
New Government
• Daimyo and samurai lost
status and privileges
• Districts reorganized to
break up old feudal
domains
• New conscript army
ended power of samurai
• Rebelled in 1877 but lost
The Building of Global Empires

Chapter 32 Notes
Foundations of Empire
Motives of Imperialism
 Modern Imperialism
• Refers to domination
of industrialized
countries over
subject lands
• Domination achieved
through trade,
investment, and
business activities
Two Types of Modern Colonialism
• Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
• Colonies controlled by imperial powers
without significant settlement
 Economic Motives of Imperialism
• European merchants and
entrepreneurs made
personal fortunes
• Overseas expansion for
raw materials: rubber, tin,
copper, petroleum
• Colonies were potential
markets for industrial
products
 Political Motives
• Strategic purpose:
harbors and supply
stations for industrial
nations
• Overseas expansion
used to defuse
internal tensions
 Cultural Justifications of Imperialism

• Christian missionaries
sought converts in
Africa and Asia
• "Civilizing mission" or
"white man's burden"
was a justification for
expansion
Tools of Empire
 Transportation Technologies
• Supported imperialism
• Steam-powered
gunboats reached
inland waters of Africa
and Asia
• Railroads organized
local economies to
serve imperial power
 Western Military Technologies
• Increasingly powerful
• Firearms: from muskets
to rifles to machines
guns
• In Battle of Omdurman
1898, British troops
killed eleven thousand
Sudanese in five hours
 Communication Technologies
• Linked imperial lands with colonies
• Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain
to India from years to weeks
• Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900
European Imperialism
The British Empire in India
 Company Rule
Under the English
East India
Company
• EIC took advantage of Mughal decline in India, began
conquest of India in 1750s
• Built trading cities and forts at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay
• Ruled domains with small British force and Indian troops
called sepoys
• Sepoy mutiny, 1857: attacks on British civilians led to swift
British reprisals
British Imperial Rule Replaced the EIC, 1858

• British viceroy and high-

level British civil service
ruled India
• British officials
appointed a viceroy and
formulated all domestic
and foreign policy
• Indians held low-level
bureaucratic positions
 Economic Restructuring of India and
Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
• Introduction of
commercial crops: tea
in Ceylon, also coffee
and opium
• Built railroads and
telegraph lines, new
canals, harbors, and
irrigation methods
 British Rule
• Did not interfere with Indian culture or Hindu religion
• Established English-style schools for Indian elites
• Outlawed Indian customs considered offensive, such as
the sati
Imperialism in Central Asia and
Southeast Asia
 "The Great Game"
• Refers to competition
between Britain and Russia in
central Asia
• By 1860s Russian expansion
reached northern frontiers of
British India
• Russian and British explorers
mapped, scouted, but never
colonized Afghanistan
• Russian dominance of central
Asia lasted until 1991
Dutch East
India
Company

• Held tight control of Indonesia (Dutch East

India)
 British
Colonies in
Southeast
Asia

• Established colonial authority in Burma, 1880s

• Port of Singapore founded 1824; was base for
conquest of Malaya, 1870s
 French
Indochina
Created,
1859-1893

• Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos--

former tribute states of Qing dynasty
• French encouraged conversion to Christianity,
established western-style schools
 Kingdom
of Siam
(Thailand)

• Left in place as buffer between Burma and

Indochina
The Scramble for Africa
 Europeans Seized Almost all of Africa
• Occurred between 1875 and
1900
• Early explorers charted the
waters, gathered information on
resources
• Missionaries like David
Livingstone set up mission posts
• Henry Stanley sent by Leopold
II of Belgium to create colony in
Congo, 1870s
• To protect their investments and
Suez Canal, Britain occupied
Egypt, 1882
 South Africa Settled First by Dutch
Farmers (Afrikaners) in 17th Century
• By 1800 was a European
settler colony with
enslaved black African
population
• British seized Cape
Colony in early nineteenth
century, abolished slavery
in 1833
• British-Dutch tensions led
to Great Trek of Afrikaners
inland to claim new lands
 South Africa settled first by Dutch
farmers (Afrikaners) in 17th century
• Mid-nineteenth century,
they established Orange
Free State in 1854,
Transvaal in 1860
• Discovery of gold and
diamonds in Afrikaner
lands; influx of British
settlers
• Boer War, 1899-1902:
British defeated Afrikaners,
Union of South Africa
 The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885
• European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies
• Occupation, supported by European armies, established
colonial rule in Africa
• By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was
controlled by European powers
Colonial Rule
Challenging
and
Expensive
• "Concessionary companies": granted considerable
authority to private companies
– Empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads
– Made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian
Congo
– Unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule
 Colonial Rule Challenging and Expensive

• Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--

French model
– Justified by "civilizing mission“
– Hard to find enough European personnel
• Indirect rule: control over subjects through local
institutions--British model
– Worked best in African societies that were highly organized
– Assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed
European Imperialism in the Pacific
 Settler Colonies in the Pacific
• 1770, Captain James
Cook reached Australia,
reported it suitable for
settlement
• 1788, one thousand
settlers established
colony of New South
Wales
• 1851, gold discovered;
surge of European
migration to Australia
Settler Colonies
in the Pacific

• Fertile soil and timber of New Zealand

attracted European settlers
• Europeans diseases dramatically reduced
aboriginal populations
• Large settler societies forced indigenous
peoples onto marginal lands
 Imperialists in Paradise
• Delayed colonization of Pacific Islands until late
nineteenth century
• Early visitors to the Pacific were mostly whalers,
merchants, some missionaries
 Imperialists in Paradise
• Late nineteenth century, European states sought coaling
stations and naval ports
• By 1900, all islands but Tonga claimed by France, Britain,
Germany and United States.
• Island plantations produced sugarcane, copra, guano
 The Emergence of
New Imperial Powers
 U.S. Imperialism in
Latin America and the Pacific
 The Monroe Doctrine; 1823
• Proclamation by U.S.
president James Monroe
• Opposed European
imperialism in the Americas;
justified U.S. intervention
• United States purchased
Alaska from Russia in 1867
• Hawaii became a
protectorate in 1875,
formally annexed in 1898
 Roosevelt Corollary of Monroe Doctrine

• U.S. right to intervene

in domestic affairs of
Latin American
nations if U.S.
investments threatened
• “Speak softly and
carry a big stick.”
The Spanish-American War (1898-99)
• United States defeated Spain
and took over Cuba, Puerto
Rico, Guam, and Philippines
• United States backed
Filipino revolt against
Spain, purchased and took
over the colony
• 1902-1904, bitter civil war
killed two hundred thousand
Filipinos, ended in U.S.
victory
 The Panama Canal, 1903-1914
• Colombian government
refused U.S. request to
build canal at Panama
isthmus
• United States helped rebels
establish the state of
Panama for the right to
build a canal
• Completed in 1914; gave
United States access to
Atlantic and Pacific
Imperial Japan
 Japanese Resented Unequal
Treaties of 1860s
• Resolved to
become an
imperial
power
Early Japanese Expansion in Nearby Islands

• 1870s, to the north:

Hokkaido, Kurile
islands
• By 1879, to the
south: Okinawa and
Ryukyu Islands
 Meiji Government
• Bought British warships, built up navy, established
military academies
• 1876, imposed unequal treaties on Korea at gunpoint
• Made plans to invade China
 The Sino-
Japanese War
(1894-95)

• Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order,

reassert authority
• Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished
Chinese fleet
• China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores
Islands, Liaodong peninsula
 The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)
• Russia also had territorial
ambitions in Liaodong
peninsula, Korea,
Manchuria
• Japanese navy destroyed
local Russian forces;
Baltic fleet sent as
reinforcements
• Japan now a major
imperial power
Legacies of Imperialism
 Colonial Rule
• Transformed
traditional production
of crops and
commodities
• Indian cotton grown to
serve British textile
industry
• Inexpensive imported
textiles undermined
Indian production
 New Crops
• Transformed landscape
and society
• Rain forests of Ceylon
converted to tea
plantations
• Ceylonese women
recruited to harvest tea
• Rubber plantations
transformed Malaya and
Sumatra
Labor Migrations
 European
Migration

• Fifty million Europeans migrated 1800-1914,

over half to the United States
• Other settler colonies in Canada, Argentina,
Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
• Most European migrants became cultivators,
herders, or skilled laborers
 Indentured Labor Migration
• More typical from Asia, Africa, and Pacific islands
• About 2.5 million indentured laborers globally during 1820-1914
• Indentured migrants tended to work on tropical and subtropical
plantations
• Example: Indian laborers to Pacific island and Caribbean plantations
• Japanese laborers to Hawaiian sugar plantations
Large-Scale Migrations Reflected
Global Influence of Imperialism
Empire and Society
 Colonial
Conflict

• Not uncommon in nineteenth century

• In India, numerous insurrections, such as the sepoy rebellion of
1857
• 1905, Maji Maji rebellion in east Africa thought traditional magic
would defeat the Germans
• Resistance included boycotts, political parties, anticolonial
publications
• Conflict among different groups united under colonial rule, for
example, Hawaii
 "Scientific Racism"
• Popular in nineteenth century
• Race became the measure of
human potential; Europeans
considered superior
• Gobineau divided humanity into
four main racial groups, each
with peculiar traits
• Social Darwinism: "survival of
fittest" used to justify European
domination
 Colonial Experience
• Only reinforced
popular racism
• Assumed moral
superiority of
Europeans
• Racist views in U.S.
treatment of Filipinos,
Japanese treatment of
Koreans
 Nationalism and
Anticolonial Movements
 Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)
• “Father of modern India"
• Sought an Indian society
based on European
science and traditional
Hinduism
• Used press to mobilize
educated Hindus and
advance reform
 The Indian National Congress
• Founded 1885
• Educated Indians met,
with British approval, to
discuss public affairs
• Congress aired grievances
about colonial rule, sought
Indian self-rule
• 1906, All-India Muslim
League formed to advance
interests of Indian
Muslims
 Limited Reform in India
• 1909; wealthy Indians could elect
representatives to local councils
• Indian nationalism a powerful movement,
achieved independence in 1947
• India served as a model for anticolonial
campaigns in other lands