Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637

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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

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Effects of commercial farming on livelihoods and woody species in the

Mion district, Ghana
Damian Tom-Dery a, *, Shani Abukari Aduwa b, Kwame Ochire Boadu c, Amos Amponsah e,
Latif Iddrisu Nasare d, Nat Owusu-Prempeh e, Bernard N. Baatuuwie f
a
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biosciences, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana
b
Ministry of Agriculture, Tamale, Ghana
c
Department of Forestry and Forest Resources Management, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882,
Tamale, Ghana
d
Department of Environment and Sustainability Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882,
Tamale, Ghana
e
Department of Forest Resources Technology, Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
f
Department of Geo-Information Sciences, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, University for Development Studies, P. O. Box TL 1882, Tamale, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In Ghana, large-scale commercial farming is one of the strategies for achieving the Sustainable Development
Diversity Goals (SDGs 1 and 2). However, large-scale commercial farms have negative environmental consequences that
Farming undermine the attainment of SDGs13 and 15 at different scales. This study examined the effects of large-scale
Land cover
commercial farms on woody species diversity and livelihoods of the inhabitants in the Mion District. In­
Land use
Large farms
terviews using structured questionnaires, Remote Sensing and GIS methods and vegetation survey techniques
Woodlands were employed in data collection and analysis. The results revealed commercial farming offered employment and
community support to inhabitants. Notwithstanding commercial farming has reduced the available arable land
for small-scale farmers. The landuse landcover analysis indicated close woodland areas (14.9%) had transformed
to farm lands which now cover nearly half of the district’s landmass (44.9%) since 2015. This has resulted in an
estimated loss of 19, 117, 837 individual trees, shrubs and saplings of savanna woody species in the 12,084.6 ha
of sampled commercial farms surveyed. The study concludes that large commercial farms causes deforestation
and limits small-scale farmers’ access to arable land. The study recommends the formulation of policies by
stakeholders to help moderate the size of arable land leased out to large-scale farmers at the expense of small-
scale farmers.

1. Introduction In Africa, agriculture is projected to be a major driver of economic

Agriculture is considered a significant sector in the growth and
development of Africa and the nourishment of its rural, peri-urban and
urban citizens [1]. Any setback to the progress in agriculture has crucial
implications on sustainable development including; growth, poverty
alleviation, food security, and industrial development in the African
continent [1]. In Ghana for instance, agriculture contributes around
20% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs 42% of the
working population [2]. Over the past thirty years, Ghana’s agricultural
sector experienced about 5% growth per annum, classifying it as one of
the top sectors in Ghana and contributing to poverty alleviation and
improved food security [3,4].
growth and development but in reality, it is still mainly practiced at the
small holder farmer level. There is therefore the need to upscale the
sector to commercial proportions as a means of achieving the Sustain­
able Development Goal 2 [5]. While a number of authors [6,7] opined
that, the success of SDG 2 is anchored on introducing more sustainable
agriculture to ensure food security in harmony with the natural envi­
ronment, others such as [8] argued that the achievement of this goal
requires a shift from small-scale farming to large-scale commercialized
farming. The focal point of the global agenda is to meet the surge in food
demand resulting from population growth, urbanisation, and continued
economic growth towards 2030 [1,6]. Though this agenda is a golden
one, the question that remains unanswered is; “would commercial

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dtom-dery@uds.edu.gh, tom_dery@yahoo.co.uk (D. Tom-Dery).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100637
Received 19 January 2023; Received in revised form 18 April 2023; Accepted 14 May 2023
Available online 15 May 2023
2666-1543/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
D. Tom-Dery et al.
farming as a whole results in the achievement of the above agenda at the
local and regional level? And how commercial farming is influencing the
rural livelihoods. These are still grey in the scientific literature and re­
quires investigation.
Upscaling the contribution of agriculture to national development
has necessitated a transition from small-scale farming to large− scale
commercial farming in Africa [8]. However, various studies in Africa
indicated an inverse relationship between farm size and land produc­
tivity [9–11]. Both intensification and extensification (the expansion of
farm sizes at the expense of other land use forms) of agriculture has been
reported to be associated with reduced woody plant abundance on
cultivated fields [12]. Trees and shrubs which could have provided
essential ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, watershed
protection, nutrient cycling and other goods and services for rural
livelihoods are cleared to give way to commercial farming [13]. Ac­
cording to Ref. [14]; Ghana is likely to become one of the net importers
of wood, considering the diminishing forest and wood land resources
emanating from agricultural extensification which is driven by rapid
population growth [12]. reported for the transitional ecological zone,
that the encroachment of agriculture and pasture lands into forest
landscape are the key land cover transformations. Similar findings was
confirmed by Ref. [15] on the transformation of Savannah woodlands to
agricultural lands and plantations. Apart from deforestation, there is a
general decline in small-scale farms in Africa and an inclination towards
medium-scale farms by about 32% in Ghana [8]. This inclination is as a
results of Ghana’s Government policies which includes; Ghana Agri­
cultural Sector Investment Programme (GASIP) in 2015, Planting for
Food and Jobs in 2017 and the Savannah Zone Agricultural Productivity
Improvement Project (SAPIP) in 2018 [16]: [17,18]. These policies
share the global vision of fighting hunger and poverty as well as driving
Fig. 1. Map showing the study areas in the Mion district.
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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637
economic growth.
The landscape of the Mion district is not exempted from the
upscaling of farm sizes to commercial proportions. For instance, the
2021 national best farmer in Ghana emanated from the Mion district
who has large hectares of commercial farms in the area. The clearing of
large tracks of land in the Mion district for commercial farms can un­
dermine the local and regional achievement of SDG 13 and 15. The ef­
fects of large scale commercial farms have triggered numerous
researchers to ascertain the extent of damage caused by commercial
farming on Ghana’s vegetation cover. However most of the studies have
focused on the assessment of Agricultural Commercialisation in Ghana
[17,19,20] and forest (savannah) fragmentation assessment [12,21–24].
There is very little work on the effects of large scale commercial farms on
rural livelihoods of the inhabitants and the woody species diversity in
these farming areas. Understanding the effect of commercial farming on
the inhabitants and woody ecosystem of the Mion District would be
relevant in guiding agricultural policy for sustainable food production
and biodiversity conservation in the district. This study specifically
assessed the (1) effect of commercial farming on the livelihood of the
inhabitants of the Mion district (2) land cover change of Mion district
since the proliferation of commercial farming and (3) quantified woody
species loss as a result of commercial farming in the Mion district.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
he Mion District geographically lies between Latitude 9◦ 0′ 0" - 9◦ 44′
00′′ North and 0◦ 31′ 0′′ West - 0◦ 2′ 0′′ East (Fig. 1). The district covers a
total land area of 27,141km2 and has a population of 91,216, out of
D. Tom-Dery et al.
which 45,895 were females and 45,321 were males [25]. Most of the
population of the district are predominantly peasant farmers depending
largely on rain-fed crop farming and animal rearing. The women are
often engaged in agro-processing like shea, dawadawa, and cashew
processing as well as charcoal production as their alternative livelihood
during the off season, whiles the Men engage in wood curving and
hunting during the lean season.
The vegetation is classified under the Guinea Savannah agro-
ecological zone of Ghana, which is characterized by drought-resistant
grasses and trees. The main vegetation is grassland, interspersed with
Guinea savannah woodland, characterized by drought-resistant trees
such as Acacia spp, Adansonia digitata, Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglo­
bosa, Azadirachta indica, etc., [25]. The district’s climate is relatively
dry, with a unimodal rainfall pattern that starts from May and ends in
October. The annual rainfall varies between 750 mm and 1050 mm and
the dry season starts from November and ends in March/April, with
maximum temperatures occurring at the peak of the dry season and
minimum temperatures occurring in December and January [25]. The
harmattan winds, which take place from December to early February,
have a significant effect on the temperatures in the district. The tem­
peratures may vary between 14 ◦ C at night and 40 ◦ C during the day.
Very low humidity mitigates the effect of daytime heat [25]. The district
has vast arable land for the cultivation of cereals [91] and the soils are
generally suitable for cereal production [26], the reason for the
tremendous increase of commercial farmers in the district.
2.2. Data collection
2.2.1. Effects of commercial farming on the livelihood of inhabitants
Structured questionnaire (survey) was used to gather data on the
effect of commercial farms on the livelihoods of the inhabitants of the
Mion district. The structured questions accorded respondents the op­
portunity to select responses from available options. The target group
was people who previously used those lands for small scale farming,
grazing of domestic animals and/or collection of Non-Timber Forest
Products (NTFPs). A total of 200 people were included in the area. The
snowball sampling was used to identify farmers from the above target
groups.
2.2.2. Vegetation cover change assessment
2.2.2.1. Satellite image and ground-truth data collection. Cloud free
Sentinel-2 satellite image of Mion district was acquired for 2015 and
2021 (ie before and during the advent of commercial farming in the
district) from http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov for vegetation assessment
analysis. Cloud free satellite images for 2015 was obtained in November
2015 whiles the 2021 satellite image was obtained in April 2021. A
cloud-free satellite image is devoid of clouds that prevent constant
observation using optical sensors from space [90]. Ground truth data
was obtained for validation and accuracy assessment with a Garmin
GPSmap 62 receiver. Ground truth data is necessary to relate remotely
sensed data to the ground [27]. A total of 500 GPS coordinates were
collected in the Mion district to aid in classification and
post-classification accuracy assessment.
2.2.2.2. Satellite image pre-processing. The downloaded satellite images
were unzipped into various bands in a Joint Photographic Experts Group
2000 format (JPEG 2000). A composite image (img file) was formed by
merging the various bands (JPEG 2000) using Erdas Imagine 2015
software. The composite images were pre-processed prior to digital
image classification to correct errors due to radiometry and geometry of
the earth. Histogram equalisation (HE) under radiometric correction in
Erdas Imagine 2015 was used to correct varying sun angles and surface
reflectance changes. HE algorithm manipulates histogram of the input
image to yield an image with better quality and improved
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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637
interpretability [28,29]. The various images were further filtered to
enhance their sharpness using the Standard filters in Erdas Imagine
(2015 version) software. The satellite images were already
geo-referenced to Universal Traverse Mercator Coordinate System Zone
30 N WGS 1984, hence no need for geometric correction since Ghana
falls under this World Geodetic System. Finally the study area (i.e., Mion
district) was clipped from the larger satellite image using the vector
dataset (shapefile of the Mion district) for classification and
post-classification change detection (Fig. 2).
2.2.3. Assessment of woody species diversity and abundance
2.2.3.1. Field layout. The woody species biodiversity assessment was
carried out on the unfarmed areas adjacent to commercial farm areas as
a proxy for woody species in farmlands. A total of thirty (30) unfarmed
fields beside the 30 commercial farms that were randomly selected for
woody species assessment. These commercial farms were distributed
homogenously within the district (Fig. 2). A total of sixty plots (25 m ×
25 m) were laid for the woody species enumeration. Woody plants
having profuse branches and stems with a diameter at breast height
greater than or equal to 5 cm were considered as shrubs [30]. Trees were
considered as woody plants with diameter at breast height above 10 cm
[31]. The tree and shrub species identification was grounded on their
physiognomic features and later confirmed using appropriate literature
[32,33]. A comparison of some species was also made with already
identified specimens at the University for Development Studies Her­
barium. All botanical nomenclature in this article follows [32,33].
2.2.3.2. Mapping of the sampled commercial farms in the mion district.
The sampled commercial farms were mapped by either tracking their
boundaries on the field to create a polygon or digitising from Google-
earth images. Farm sizes ranging from 200 ha (ha) and below were
delineated by tracking around the field using a GPS. For farm sizes above
200 ha, GPS coordinates were recorded at random points within and
around the various farms in this category. The GPS data were later
converted to shapefiles of the various farms. The shapefiles for the in­
dividual farms were overlaid in Google-earth image, and their respective
boundaries were traced as shown in plate 1.
2.3. Data analysis
2.3.1. Effect of commercial farming on the livelihood of the inhabitants
Data collected via questionnaire were analyzed descriptively and
presented in tabular and graphical form using the Statistical Package for
Social Scientist (SPSS) version 20.
2.3.2. Vegetation cover change assessment
2.3.2.1. Digital image classification. Supervised classification using
maximum likelihood algorithm was applied for the image classification.
One of the most appropriate and best classification method is supervised
classification with maximum likelihood algorithm for land use/cover
classification [34]. This is because, with maximum likelihood classifi­
cation, each pixel is assigned to the class that has the highest probability
[35]. For the supervised classification technique, signature files were
created based on the spectral reflectance in the sentinel-2 satellite image
data and ground truth data to train the algorithm, which then sort and
grouped pixels based on their likelihood to belong to a specific land
cover class (Fig. 2). Five land cover classes were considered that
included close woodland (areas with dense vegetation and sometimes
canopies inter-locked), open woodland (trees in these areas were not
very close together; hence, tree canopies were not continuous), farmland
(Subsistence and Commercial agricultural lands), water bodies
(included streams, dams, and dugouts) and bare/build-up (exposed land
surfaces and settlement areas).
D. Tom-Dery et al.
Fig. 2. Sequential order for estimating the extent of agricultural transformation.
2.3.2.2. Accuracy assessment. The final stage of digital image classifi­
cation is the accuracy assessment [36]. Accuracy assessment is a tool
used to evaluate the classification approach to determine whether there
is an error between the classified image data and the corresponding
reference data from ground control points [37]. The usefulness of a map
depends on how accurate the overall map and the individual categories
of the map have been classified [38]. We assessed classification accuracy
for 2021 land cover assignments using the Pontius Matrix [39] by
considering the following parameters; Quantity disagreement and allo­
cation disagreement, along with Omission, Agreement and Commission
percentage. Quantity disagreement is the amount of difference between
the reference map and a comparison map that is due to the less than
perfect match in the proportions of the categories, whiles allocation
disagreement is the amount of difference between the reference map and
a comparison map that is due to the less than optimal match in the
spatial allocation of the categories [39]. A total of 250 ground-truth
points collected in April 2021 were used to assess the accuracy of the
classified image.
2.3.2.3. Post classification change detection. Post classification change
detection was carried-out to assess the trend in land cover change
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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637
between 2015 and 2021. The Post-classification technique is the most
commonly used quantitative change detection method in satellite data
(classified) change detection [40,41]. The matrix union tool in Erdas
Imagine software version 2015 was used to estimate how much of the
classified LULC class in the 2015 had changed to what LULC class in
2021. The output thematic images were then re-coded in Erdas Imagine
software version 2015 and the LULC maps were produced in ArcGIS 10.8
software.
2.3.2.4. Land cover transition to agricultural land. After the post-
classification change detection assessment, the extent of land cover
transformation to farmland in Mion district over the six years was esti­
mated by sorting all areas which were or had been converted to farm­
lands and made to stand out as an individual class, e.g. close woodland
to farmland, open woodland to farmland, etc. Also, all areas that were
not farmland or had been converted to farmland were put under one
class (i.e. other conversions) in a similar manner employed by Ref. [42]
on land cover change trajectory analysis of Bounfum forest reserve in
Ghana (Fig. 2).
D. Tom-Dery et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637

2.3.3. Assessment of woody species diversity and abundance Table 1

Socio-demographic characteristics of smallholder farmers and inhabitants of
2.3.3.1. Species diversity. The diversity of woody species in the Mion Mion District (N = 200).
district was quantified using the Shannon-Wiener species diversity Variable Definition Percentage (%)
index. The Shannon index is the most widely and commonly used di­ Gender Male 80.5
versity index in ecological literature because it accounts for the abun­ Female 19.5
dance and evenness of the species present [43]. The Shannon diversity Age Distribution 22 and below 4.5
index and Shannon equitability (evenness) were estimated using the 23–33 22.5
formulae below: 34–44 41
45–54 15.5
∑
s
55–64 13
H= − (Pi lnPi) (1) 65 and above 3.5
i=1
Level of Education Non formal education 62
H = Shannon Wiener’s diversity index, Pi = Relative abundance of Junior high 12
the ith species, lnPi = Natural log of the corresponding relative abun­ Senior high 13
dance (Pi) of the species HND holder 12
Graduate 1
EH= H / Hmax (2)
Farming experience 1–5 years 14.5
E.H. = Shannon’s equitability, H = Shannon Wiener’s diversity index, 6–10 years 18
More than 10 years 67.5
Hmax = lnS where; lnS = Natural log of the total number of species.
The relative frequency of families in which species belong was Social occupation Crop farming 79
Livestock rearing 17
calculated as;
Remittances 1
frequency of a species Others 3
Relative frequency = x 100 (3)
Total frequency of all species Source: Field study 2021

2.3.3.2. Quantifying the amount of woody species loss due to commercial
farming on the sampled farms. Shapefiles of sampled commercial farms
were created from the mapping data (i.e. delineated from the field and
digitised from Google-earth images). The area for the individual
sampled commercial farms was calculated in ArcMap software and
summed up to get the total size for all 30 sampled farms. The number of
woody species enumerated in the various 25 m × 25 m plots were
quantified, based on which the total number of woody species in a
hectare of land was extrapolated. The total area sampled for the sixty
plots was 37,500 m2 (3.75 Ha). Assuming the commercial farm (Plate 2)
lands were as vegetated as the contiguous unfarmed vegetation (Plate
3), it is deduced that the species estimated in the unfarmed areas per
hectare will be equivalent to the species lost as a result of commercial
farming per hectare.
3. Results and discussion
benefit of its members), which is similar to the Sagnarigu municipality
[44]. The implication of this land tenure system is that individual
farmers do not have absolute control over landuse decisions.
Currently the Mion district is a hub for commercial agricultural ac­
tivities in the northern region of Ghana and producing crops (mainly,
maize, and soybeans) in addition to the rearing of livestock on large
acreages. The fact that the commercial farms of the 2021 best farmer in
Ghana, are located in the Mion district of northern Ghana, (https://
www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/alhaji-mohammed-mashud-
is-2021-national-best-farmer.html), confirm the level of commercial
farming in the district. However literature reports that, most commercial
farmers are not indigenes of the communities in which their activities
occur but, are civil servants who have accumulated enough capital and
machinery to invest in large-scale agriculture [5,47,48]. This has some
implications to the smallholder farmer and livelihoods of the inhabitants
in general.

3.1. The effect of commercial farming on the livelihood of the inhabitants
3.1.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
A total of 80.5% of the respondents were males while19.5% were
female (Table 1). This implies that majority of small-holder farmers
involved in this study were males which have previously been reported
in other studies [44,45]. Most of the farmers were in the middle age
group ranging from 34 to 44 years (Table 1). A similar modal age range i.
e. between 36 and 50 years was reported by Refs. [44,46] in the Sag­
narigu municipality and the Mion district respectively in the northern
region of Ghana. The youth population (23–33) also recorded 22.5% of
respondents. This implies that the agricultural sector in the Mion district
is dominated by the youth and people in the middle age. According to
Refs. [44,45] the growth and development of the agricultural sector lies
in youthful hands.
The main occupation of the respondents was small-scale farming.
Crop cultivation and livestock rearing represented 67.5% of respondents
and these have been in farming for more than ten (10) years in the
district (Table 1). Smallholder livelihoods are primarily dependent on
the production and trade of agricultural goods and other ecosystem
services [44,46]. However in the Mion district there is a customary land
tenure system (where lands are owned by stools, skins, families, or clans
and are usually held in trust by the chief, or head of the clan, for the
3.1.2. Benefits of commercial farming to the inhabitants of mion district
Commercial farming creates employment for skilled casual labour
such as tractor operators for land preparation, planting, harvesting, etc.,
and unskilled labour mostly the inhabitants of fringe communities for
the removal of stumps and roots left in the soil after ploughing. The
unskilled labour also help convey crop produce to storehouse and run
other errands. Half (50%) of the respondents acknowledged that com­
mercial farming offers employment to some people in close proximity to
commercial farm areas (Fig. 3). As reported in literature, employment is
a potential outcome of agricultural commercialisation [20,49]. Com­
mercial farming on an industrial-scale requires lots of skilled and
non-skilled labourers resulting in the creation of employment [50]. This
implies that commercial farming provides a source of income for farm­
hands thereby reducing unemployment and improving the livelihoods of
those employed in this sector.
More so, when the trees are excavated during the land preparation
for farming, some farmhands and people living in close proximity to
commercial farm areas extract these felled trees as fuelwood (either
firewood or charcoal) for local consumption and for sale which also
generate income and reduce poverty. About 19% of the respondents
collect these felled trees for firewood whiles 14% of respondents extract
the felled wood for charcoal production as indicated in Fig. 3. This
finding conforms with [51] who reported that the losses of savannah

5
D. Tom-Dery et al.
Fig. 3. Contributions of commercial farming to the livelihood of the
inhabitants.
woodlands are indications of its conversion to other land covers and the
production of bulk fuelwood, forming about 70% of Ghana’s fuelwood
(firewood and charcoal).
Finally, 17% of respondents agreed that commercial farmers also
offer some level of community support through providing boreholes or
dams/dugouts for some communities and offering tractors to assist some
small-scale farmers to plough their fields which was similarly reported
by Ref. [47]. These services aid local chiefs, landowners and elders who
are into small-scale farming to prepare their lands for crop production.
In return, these land custodians offer land to commercial farmers for the
services and supports given them. In this context, if the community
support offered by commercial farmers are well negotiated and
moderated, this might stimulate rural economies and contribute to more
rapid aggregated growth.
3.1.3. The negative effect of commercial farming on the livelihood of the
inhabitants
Commercial farming has reduced the amount of arable land available
to the disposal of smallholder farmers as 33% of the respondents indi­
cated (Fig. 4). Most chiefs in the Mion district lease their lands to
commercial farmers for monetary returns or barter for tractor ploughing
services, provision of boreholes or dams for the community, among
others. The leasing of large arable savannah woodland by chiefs to civil
servant commercial farmers is causing a reduction in arable land for
smallholders in the district. This finding is consistent with [5,47,48] in
their respective studies. This imply that small holder farmers have
limited access to arable lands to cultivate their crops, which could lead
to local food scarcity since crops produced from commercial farms are
exported to the district or regional markets for sale. Moreover, if this
practice remains unchecked, there may be friction between the
Fig. 4. Effect of commercial farming on the livelihoods of the inhabitants of
Mion district.
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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637
community members and the commercial farmers or their chiefs because
community members might feel that their chiefs are releasing land to
commercial farmers at the expense of local farmers [5,47,48].
Commercial agriculture is a major cause of deforestation in the
savannah zone due to the excavation of large acreages (12,084.6 Ha for
30 sampled farms in Mion district) of savannah woodlands. This activity
may not affect only the livelihoods of the people, but also the local
climate since the number of trees available to ameliorate the local
climate are reduced. The incidence and frequency of climatic stressors
and their associated disturbances are on the increase in northern Ghana
[52]. A total of 53.5% of respondents indicated that commercial farming
had contributed to a reduction in the number of indigenous fruit trees
(economic trees) species, especially Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia
biglobosa which were abundant over the years (Fig. 4). These economic
trees have contributed to poverty reduction in Africa at large through
increases in household incomes from livelihoods [52–55]. Generally,
Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa trees contribute immensely to
rural livelihoods [52,54,56]. These tree species are often described as
the cocoa of the North because of the enormous economic opportunities
that they offer to the poor segment of society such as women.
The entire value chain of Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa are
mostly the preserve of women as a result, shea butter and ‘dawadawa’
(Locust bean powder, a local spice) production offer avenues for
achieving SDG 1 - poverty reduction and SDG 5- women’s economic
empowerment [52,56]. Aside from the processing of the seeds and nuts,
their fruits also serve as food for many households who suffer from food
shortages during the hunger season. Despite the enormous services that
indigenous economic tree species provide and the direct positive income
effects on households [53,57]; their sustainability under climate vari­
ability and change is a subject of concern [52,58].
The increasing large-scale farming among other factors in Northern
Ghana precisely the Mion district is detrimental to these prime species.
This is because, large number of the trees are cleared during the land
preparation for commercial farming to enable the use of farm machinery
[59]. Hence, this is negatively affecting the role of the economic trees
species in providing the livelihood needs of the population currently
living there now as well as their future aspirations.
3.2. Vegetation cover change assessment
3.2.1. Post classification accuracy assessment
Post classification image validation was carried out to affirm the
relationship between classified data and the reference data from ground-
truthing. The accuracy assessment report is indicated in Fig. 5. The
overall disagreement between 2021 classified land cover and the
reference data was 13.2%, which was largely due to differences in class
allocation (Fig. 5a). Omission was higher for water bodies, whiles
commission recorded higher values for bare/build-up, indicating the
tendency of misclassifying some pixels of these classes across the study
area domain (Fig. 5b).
3.2.2. Spatial distribution of land cover change (gain/loss) from 2015 to
2021
Fig. 6a and b shows the classified thematic map of Mion district
which yielded five land cover classes (close woodlands, open wood­
lands, farmlands, water bodies, and bare/build-up). The highlights of
the gain/loss in woodlands cover are also presented in Fig. 6. The land
cover class and woodlands gain/loss statistics are also indicated in
Fig. 7a and b. In 2015, close woodlands were seen to occupy the most
prominent area representing 35.4% with patches that were spatially
abundant at the south-northern part of the District (Fig. 6a). Open
woodlands recorded the second largest area, followed by farmlands
occupying 23.4% and 21.5%, respectively, and were uniformly distrib­
uted across the District. Areas occupied by water bodies recorded a
minor land size of 3.9% and are highly visible at the heart of the District.
Meanwhile, bare/build-up areas are randomly scattered in the District
D. Tom-Dery et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637

Fig. 5. (A) Disagreement between 2021 classified land cover and reference data, based on the quantity and allocation disagreement. (b) Agreement, omission
disagreement, and commission disagreement between 2021 classified land cover and reference data.

Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of land cover in 2015 and 2021.

7
D. Tom-Dery et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637

Fig. 7. (A) area of individual land cover in 2015 and 2021, (b) summary of woodlands gain/loss from 2015 to 2021.

with a coverage of 15.8% of the landmass of the District. reported by Ref. [51] and other authors. The increasing population
In 2021, the classified thematic map (Fig. 6b) and the land cover could also increase the demand for fuelwood use and farmlands at the
statistics (Fig. 7a and b). Close woodlands covered 14.9% of the total expense of woodlands.
area of the district landmass, signifying a reduction by 20.5% of close
woodlands from the year 2015. However, open woodland areas 3.2.3. Transition of other land cover types to farmlands between 2015 and
increased by 1.9% of their size in 2015 and are spatially clustered at the 2021
northern portion of the District (Fig. 6b). Correspondingly, there was a The conversion of close woodlands to farmlands was the highest
massive increase in farmland areas by 23.4% of the total land area of the (14.9%). On the other hand, the transformation of areas occupied by
District, and the farming activities are being carried out more at the water bodies (this could be marshy areas and riparian vegetation) to
southern and northern parts of the District. Though farming was carried farmland recorded the least change by 1.8%. Aside these land cover
out in the district since time memorial, this massive increased in farm­ conversions to farmlands, some areas within the District were already
land areas at this time could be attributed to the invasion of the com­ classified as farmland in 2015, which occupied 21.5% (Fig. 7b). These
mercial farmers in the district as reported elsewhere by Refs. [5,47,48]. areas were seen to have reduced by 9.8% (Table 2) in 2021.
The results of the land cover classification for the six-year period The farmlands trajectories in the Mion district suggest that all the
showed that the landscape of the Mion district has been transformed due land cover types that were considered in 2015 have partly been transi­
to the influence of anthropogenic activities. The findings indicate that tioned to farmland in 2021 (Fig. 8) and the land cover types that was
close woodlands were the largest land cover type (35.4%) in 2015, and it mostly transformed to farmlands were the close and open woodlands
was improbable that areas occupied by close woodland would expand (Table 2). Perhaps the soils in these areas were fertile and most suitable
considering the rate at which commercial farmers moved into the dis­ for crop production [62]. reported that the growing demand for food as a
trict from the year 2015 and beyond. Hence, in 2021, farmlands geo­ result of human population growth necessitated the expansion of crop­
spatially covered nearly half of the district landmass (44.9%), a doubling lands. The conversion of woodlands to farmlands in the district could be
of what was present (21.5%) in 2015 (Fig. 7b). This finding suggests that as a consequence of the expansion in agricultural frontiers that has
farmlands had increased at the expense of both close woodlands and resulted in forest/woodland cover vulnerability and degradation [54,67,
open woodland covers in the district. The outcome of this study is 68]. Human activities such as large-scale agricultural activities, wood
similar to that of Hansen and Loveland (2012) [60,61]; who reported extraction, and infrastructure extension are also causes of forest land­
that farmlands are expanding more than the developed land (urban and scape modification [64,69,70]. [71] reported the expansion of human
peri-urban areas). This finding again conforms with a study by Ref. [62] settlement as the primary cause of deforestation in the Brong Ahafo and
who concluded that cropland expansion to meet the growing demand for Western Regions of Ghana. However, this was not the case in the Mion
food is a driving factor in forest degradation. Similarly [63] reported districts based on the findings from this study which revealed woodland
that farmlands have expanded extensively in the Bolgatanga Munici­
pality at the expense of savannah woodland area. Table 2
However [51], reported firewood collection and charcoal production Transition of other land cover types Farmlands.
are the proximate causes of land cover change in Ghana because fuel­
Land cover Area (ha) Area (%)
wood accounts for more than 70% of the total primary energy supply in
Ghana [64]. also identified agriculture as a proximate contributor to Other conversion 143,175.3 55.1
Farmlands (− ) 25425.1 9.8
forest cover change in West Africa. Additionally Antwi et al. (2014) [65, CW – FL 38,582.7 14.9
66]; associated the decline in forest or woodland cover to pressures from OW – FL 28,869.9 11.1
large-scale agricultural development and woodland extraction for fire­ W – FL 4699.8 1.8
wood, charcoal production, and commercial logging. Hence, the B/B – FL 18,987.0 7.3
Total 259,739.8 100.0
extraction of fuelwood among other factors in the Mion district might
have also contributed to the decline of woodlands areas (Fig. 6) as Sampled Commercial FL 12,084.6

8
D. Tom-Dery et al.
Fig. 8. Transition of other land cover types Farmlands.
loss at the expense of farmlands. This is also in line with the report of
Oduro [61] who reported that the major causes of land use and land
cover dynamics are different in all parts of Ghana.
The advent of modern technology inagricultural activities has led to
efficient food production but also poses a negative effect on the sus­
tainability of our planet [72]. The use of these technologies to massively
replace woodlands with farmlands might affect ecosystem services i.e.
provision of food and habitat for wild animals, regulating of air quality,
ameliorating climate change, protecting water bodies, and many more.
The results on land cover change (gain/loss) suggest that farmlands
Fig. 9. Woody species abundance per hectare in the unfarmed area.
9
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637
expansion is inhibiting the integrity of woodlands cover in terms of
growth in the area. Interestingly, some portions of the woodlands were
seen to have recovered from agricultural lands. Hence it is most likely
for forest/woodland to recover from agricultural activities in the
absence of subsequent anthropogenic pressure such as fuelwood
extraction, mining, settlement expansion, among others. This assertion
is supported by Refs. [70,73,74] who reported that forest land cleared
for agricultural activities would likely regenerate when activities come
to an end, and the agricultural land is left to fallow.
3.3. Effect of commercial farming on woody species diversity and
abundance
3.3.1. Assessment of woody species diversity and abundance
A total of 41 woody species belonging to 18 families were identified
in the sampled unfarmed areas around commercial farms in Mion dis­
trict (Fig. 9). Combretum molle recorded the highest species abundance of
226 species per hectare. However, Hymenocardia acida, Grewia mollis
and Ficus gnaphalocarpa recorded the least species abundance of 2 spe­
cies per hectare each (Fig. 9).
The finding from the species diversity index using the Shannon-
Wiener diversity index reported an index of 3.0 and evenness of 0.8
for the Mion district. This index accounts for the abundance and even­
ness of the species present [43]. The Shannon Weiner diversity index
usually ranges between 1.5 and 3.5, and in some rare cases, may exceed
4.5 [75]. The higher the Shannon value, the higher the species diversity
and evenness and vice versa. Hence, the 3.0 species diversity and 0.8
evenness recorded in the Mion district is considerably high [76]. re­
ported Shannon indices of 2.2, 2.5, 1.2 and 1.1 in four reserves in the
Sudan Savannah of Ghana. However, the Mion district is located in the
Guinea Savanna so it is expected to have high species diversity than in
the Sudan Savannah. However [77], similarly recorded a Shannon index
of 3.5 in a study carried out in Kenikeni forest reserve in the Guinea
Savannah of Ghana. Also [78] recorded a Shannon index of 3.4 in the
northern forest-savannah transition ecotone of Ghana [79]. reported a
D. Tom-Dery et al.
Shannon evenness of 0.8 for woody species in both fallow lands, and
sacred groove/reserves in five communities in the Tolon district (Guinea
savannah) of Ghana. According to Ref. [80]; the evenness value com­
municates the degree of pressure on a field and indicate how equitable
the species are spatially distributed. The 0.8 evenness recorded in this
research is an indication that some woodland areas in the district are
undisturbed and well distributed spatially. The undisturbed woodland
areas within the district should be maintained as a high conservation
areas due to their role in the provision of basic ecosystem services as well
as possessing prime resources such as Shea and Dawadawa to help meet
basic needs of local communities who engage in the value chain of these
prime resources.
Furthermore, the study identified woody species in the family
Fabaceae (26.8%) and Combretaceae (17.1%) as the most dominant
families in the district (Fig. 10). This concurs with the findings of [81,
82] that the Fabaceae and Combretaceae are the dominant tree families
in guinea savanna vegetation. The study also found that leguminous
trees such as the Acacia spp belonging to family Fabaceae are abundant
in the district and may be playing a role in maintaining nitrogen balance
of agro-ecosystems for improved crop yield. This could be the reason
why large-scale farmers move to the Mion district to farm for which
reason they are protected and managed on farms. Over the years, eco­
nomic trees like Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa were managed
by local people in order to serve their livelihood needs [78]. Though the
finding of this study revealed that these economic trees have spatially
reduced as indicated by 53.5% of the respondents, the introduction of
large-scale farming will worsen the situation as all vegetation cover are
cleared during land preparation irrespective of their economic contri­
butions to the people’s livelihood. According to the IUCN categoriza­
tion, among the economic trees in the Mion District, Vitellaria paradoxa
has been declared globally vulnerable, while Parkia biglobosa is of
globally least concern. Even though Parkia biglobosa is of globally least
concern, but it is very important in meeting the nutritional and liveli­
hood needs of the people in Ghana and especially in the study area. This
finding is consistent with the findings of [79,83,84] that economically
valuable trees such as the Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa trees
which were strictly protected in the past are scarce nowadays.
Fig. 10. Families of woody species identified with their respective relative frequency.
10
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637
3.3.2. Quantification of the amount of woody species loss due to
commercial farming
The total estimated number of trees, shrubs and saplings per hectare
in the sampled unfarmed areas (as a proxy to commercial farms) of the
Mion district was 1582. The estimated area for the 30 commercial
farmlands sampled for this study was 12,084.6 ha (Table 2). With the
assumption that commercial farmland areas before their establishment
were homogeneous in nature with unfarmed areas, the estimated total
number of 19,117,837 individual trees, shrubs and sapling of woody
species have been lost through the establishment of the sampled com­
mercial farms. This loss included the commercial trees which are
sometimes the mainstay of the people in the area. Therefore if the extent
of clearing large areas for commercial farming is not moderated to create
a balance between the cultivation of crops and the conservation of the
savannah woodlands, the integrity of the guinea savannah woodland
would be compromised in the subsequent years and this may lead to
local climate variability [85]. noted that the farming households in the
Guinea Savannah zone tends to be more vulnerable to climate stress.
This climate variability if not prevented by safeguarding the tree species
would later affect food security as reported by Ref. [86].
4. Conclusion and recommendations
The Mion district has large acreage of arable lands that are leased to
commercial farmers by chiefs in exchange for goods and services at the
expense of smallholder farmers who equally need arable land for sub­
sistence farming. Aside from the increasing land shortage for small­
holder farmers, commercial farming is deforesting the savannah
woodlands due to the excavation of large acreages of land that previ­
ously retained woody species (including economic tree species) to pave
way for the use of farm machinery. The economic trees have contributed
to poverty reduction in Africa through increases in household incomes
for those who trade in them. The increasing large-scale farming among
other factors in the Mion district is detrimental to these economic spe­
cies. In spite of the problems associated with commercial farming, it
creates employment for some inhabitants of the district because both
skilled and unskilled manpower are engaged which helps them to
improve their livelihoods. Also, people living in close proximity to
commercial farm areas extract the excavated trees as fuelwood for local
consumption and for sale which also generate income and reduce
D. Tom-Dery et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 13 (2023) 100637

Plate 1. Digitised commercial farmland from Google-earth image.

Plate 2. Photographs of some commercial farm areas.

poverty. Also, commercial farmers offer some level of community sup­
port through providing boreholes or dams for some communities and
offering tractors to assist some small-scale farmers to plough their fields.
The landscape of the Mion district has been transformed due to the
influence of commercial farming activities. Close woodlands were the
largest land cover type (35.4%) in 2015 but in 2021, farmlands covered
nearly half of the district landmass (44.9%), a double of what was pre­
sent (21.5%) in 2015.
The woody species survey recorded a total of 41 woody species
belonging to 18 families which were identified in the unfarmed areas
around sampled commercial farms. Based on the thirty (30) commercial
farms (estimated area = 12,084.6 ha) sampled for this study, an esti­
mated 19,117,837 individual trees, shrubs and saplings of woody spe­
cies were lost due to commercial farming. It is considerable that the
lessons lent in this research with regards to species loss has implications
for other parts of Africa and Asia where new areas are cleared for
commercial farming in a drive to achieve the sustainable development
goals (SDG 1 and 2) to the detriment of others (SDG 13 and 15).
The study recommends that stakeholders establish policies to help
moderate the amount of farming land leased out to large-scale farmers
and that available for the small-scale farmers to cultivate their crops to
avoid future friction between land users. There should also be proper
agreement and documentation of royalties that commercial farmers are
to provide to the local people for using their land to stimulate rural
economies and contribute to more rapid aggregate growth. It is rec­
ommended that stakeholders develop measures to ensure sustainable
agriculture whiles preserving woody species for their enormous contri­
bution such as provision, regulation and protection functions to the
ecosystem to be achieved.

11
D. Tom-Dery et al.
Plate 3. Photographs of the unfarmed vegetation around sampled commercial farms.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all the chiefs and people of the Mion district.
Without them this research wouldn’t have been possible. We are also
equally to the owners of the sampled commercial farms for allowing us
to carry out the research on their property.
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