❑Water Conveyances

❖ Canals (headrace/power canals)

✓ The head race is a conveyance for water from the source (reservoir or

river) to the power plant in the form of a canal (open waterway), tunnel

(low-pressure conveyance) or penstock (high-pressure conveyance).

✓ The open waterway usually terminates in a forebay which is an enlarged

body of water from which the penstocks convey the water to the turbines

in the power house.

Head race (power canal/ low-pressure tunnel)
❖Power Canals
✓ Canals are appropriate choice when the general topography of the
terrain is moderate with gentle slopes.

✓ However, when the ground is very steep and rugged, it becomes

uneconomical to construct canals as it follows longer distances
and/or needs provision of cross-drainage works and deep cuts and
fills at a number of appropriate locations.

✓ In such cases, it is advisable to go for tunnels or pipes.

✓ The choice, in fact, has to be made based on economic analysis.

✓ The tracing of a power canal should closely follow the contour

lines of the terrain.

✓ Based on the topographic conditions, a canal may be constructed

through cuts, over fills, and in cuts-and-fills as shown in Figure

below.

✓ A very important feature of an open canal is its vulnerability to

damage from such sources as landslide and rock falls, and from
storm water runoff crossing its path.

✓ The cost of protection from these eventualities and their

associated repair costs must be included in an estimation of the

canal cost.
 Canal Sections
✓ On rugged mountain slopes it may not be possible to follow the irregular
contour lines: deep valleys have to be bridged by aqueducts (such as
elevated flumes or canal bridges).

✓ It should also be kept in mind that geological conditions of the terrain

decisively influence locations of the canal.

✓ In order to establish a reliable bases for the alignment and determining

the cross-sections,
o the geological formation,
o the dip of layers,
 o the quality of rock (degree of fissuring, permeability,
strength, tendency of weathering, etc.)

should be explored very thoroughly over sections in

cut and fill.
The proper solution will be governed by

o the permissible slope of banks and embankments,

o the depth of the cut, and the height of the fill,

o the extent and quality of lining.

❖ Canal Lining
✓ Power canals may be lined or unlined.
✓ The lined canals are usually lined with impervious material
such as concrete, masonry, or clay. Canal lining might be
carried out to:
o Reduce seepage losses
o Reduce canal surface roughness
o Prevent the growth of weeds
o Reduce damage caused by erosion, rodents, and livestock
o Permits the use of rectangular x-section
✓ Concrete is the most extensively used material in power canal
lining.
❖Design and dimensioning
✓ Canal design involves determination of the carrying capacity,
velocity of water in the canal, canal slopes & roughness
coefficient of the canal surface.
✓ The flow conveyed by a canal is a function of its cross-sectional
profile, its slope, and its roughness.
✓ Natural channels are normally very irregular in shape, and their
surface roughness changes with distance and time.
✓ The application of hydraulic theory to natural channels is more
complex than for artificial channels where the cross-section is
regular in shape and the surface roughness of the construction
materials - earth, concrete, steel or wood – is well known, so that
the application of hydraulic theories yields reasonably accurate
results.
✓ The manning formula is widely used to compute the capacity of
conveyances

S is the hydraulic gradient, which normally is the bed slope.

✓ Manning’s Equation shows that for the same cross-sectional area A, and
channel slope S, the channel with a larger hydraulic radius R, delivers a
larger discharge.
✓ That means that for a given cross-sectional area, the section with the least
wetted perimeter is the most efficient hydraulically.
✓ Semicircular sections are consequently the most efficient
✓ A semicircular section however, unless built with prefabricated materials, is
expensive to build and difficult to maintain.
✓ The most efficient trapezoidal section is the half hexagon; whose side slope
is 1 V: 0.577 H
✓ Actual dimensions have to include a certain freeboard (vertical distance
between the designed water surface and the top of the channel bank) to
prevent water level fluctuations over spilling the banks.
✓ Minimum freeboard for lined canals is about 10 cm, and for unlined canals
this should be about one third of the designed water depth with a minimum
of fifteen centimeters.
✓ One way to prevent overflow of the canal is to provide spillways at
appropriate intervals; any excess water is conveyed, via the spillway, to an
existing streambed or to a gully.
✓ The following table defines for the most common canal sections the
optimum profile as a function of the water depth y, together with the
parameters identifying the profile.

✓ Once the canal profile has been selected it is easy to compute its maximum
discharge.
✓ Apart from the hydraulic computations (e.g. capacities), the flow velocities
in the canal or other water conduits in general are determined based on
economic considerations (investments, head losses, wear and tear of
material, danger of erosion and silting).

✓ The velocity must be high enough to prevent sedimentation.

✓ It has to be low enough to prevent bed erosion for unlined and wear by
abrasion for lined-canals.

✓ Lowering the velocity keeps the head loss over the length of the canal to a
minimum; however, it increases the cost necessary to construct the canal as
the cross-sectional area increases when the velocity lowers.

✓ Table below provides permissible velocity ranges.

Permissible velocity
✓ In unlined canals flow velocities are limited by the resistance of the bed
material to erosion.
✓ In lined canals flow velocities are limited by resistance against wear.

✓ There are various recommendations for non silting and non-scouring

velocity
1) According to Ludin
o If Vmin >0.3 m/sec, there will be no silting (for silty sediments)

o Vmin >0.3 to 0.5 m/sec, there will be no silting (for sandy sediments)

2) According to R.C. Kennedy

o Non-scouring and non silting velocity is given by: V = Ch^0.64

o Where h is depth of water in meters and C is coefficient varying from 0.54 to

0.7, depending on silt load.
❑ Forebay

✓ A forebay, also called a head pond, is a basin located at the end of a

power canal just before the entrance to the penstock or pressure shaft.

✓ It acts as a transition section between the power canal and the penstock.

✓ It is formed simply by widening the power canal at the end as shown in

Figure below
▪ Its main function is to store, temporarily, the water
rejected by the plant when the load is reduced and to
meet the instantaneous increased demand when the load
is instantaneously increased.

▪ It acts as a sort of regulating reservoir.

▪ Thus, the forebay absorbs the short internal variations of

intake of water into the turbines in accordance with the
fluctuating load.
Following are the parts of a typical forebay;
o The basin (in case of smaller dimensions the entrance bay), in
some installations with a submerged (or skimmer) wall,
o The spillway (sometimes a siphon type), with the waterway,
the chute and stilling basin,
o The bottom outlet which, at the same time, used for sediment
flushing sluice,
o The sill equipped with screens,

o The gate (valve) chamber, and

o Conduit or penstock inlet with air vent

▪ The forebay can also serve as a final settling basin where any
water borne debris which either passed through the intake or
was swept into the power canal can be removed before the
water passes into the turbine.

▪ In this case, the forebay must be large enough to reduce flow

velocities sufficiently for settling to occur and to accommodate
the sediment which accumulates between cleanings.

▪ It can serve to distribute evenly the water conveyed by the

power canal among the penstocks, where two or more
penstocks are provided.
▪ Tunnels
▪ Tunnels are underground conveyance structures constructed by
special tunneling methods without disturbing the natural surface of
the ground.
▪ In many modern high head plants, tunnels form an important
engineering feature.
▪ Tunneling is always much more expensive than canals and decision
should be carefully analyzed.
▪ In general for a tunnel to be economical the designer must establish
that;
1. The geologic formation through which the tunnel will pass is stable,
2. The tunnel would be much shorter than alternative canal,
3. The construction of a canal would be prohibitively expensive because
of nearly vertical canyon walls, unstable soils, or other natural
barriers.
▪ In the headrace of water conveyance system, tunneling is popular because

of the following reasons:

i. It provides a direct and short route for the water passage thus resulting
in considerable saving in cost

ii. Tunneling work can be started simultaneously at many points thus

leading to quicker completion

iii. Natural landscape is not disturbed

iv. Tunneling work has become easier with development in techniques of

drilling and blasting and new mechanical equipment (Tunnel Boring
Machines)

v. Development of rock mechanics and experimental stress analysis has

given greater confidence to engineers regarding stability of tunnels.
▪ Tunnels of hydropower projects fall into three categories:
o free-flow tunnels,
o service tunnels, and
o pressure tunnels.
▪ Free-flow tunnels
o Design, lining and stress analysis in connection with the external forces to be
resisted are governed by principles established for conventional highway
tunnels, railway tunnels and mining cuts.
o On the other hand, in contrast to ‘dry tunnels’ the water load in the free-flow

tunnel may influence the design and selection of the type of lining.

▪ Service tunnels
o the principles of design do not differ from those for dry tunnels.

o Dimensions and shaping of their cross section depend naturally on

requirements about measures and placing of pipes.
▪ At high-head installations of low capacity, utilizing small
discharge, water is sometimes conveyed from the dam to the
powerhouse through a steel pipeline running under the
separating mountain ridge in a tunnel.
▪ In the tunnel one or more penstocks may be supported on
cradles.
▪ The shape as well as dimensions of the tunnel should be
selected to make the penstocks readily accessible from every
direction for control, maintenance, and repair.
▪ A free passageway should also be provided at least at one
side of the pipeline.
 Service tunnels

▪Pressure tunnels
▪may further be classified according to the head above the soffit of
the tunnel as,
oLow-pressure tunnels,
with H less than about 5m;
oMedium-pressure tunnels,
with H approximately 5 to 100 m;
oHigh-head tunnels,
with H higher than about 100 m.
▪ According to another classification tunnels may be
o Unlined, or

o Lined either for structural reasons, or for purposes of water sealing.

▪ Structural linings are called upon to carry rock pressure and to offer
protection against rock splitting from the tunnel roof.
▪ Full linings, in addition to being capable of resisting external loads,
are suitable
o To take internal water pressure,

o To prevent water losses, and

o To protect, if required, the rock against the aggressiveness of the

conveyed water.
▪ In the case of low-pressure tunnels the tunnel surface
may frequently be left unlined except for visible fissures
which may have to be sealed with concrete or cement
mortar..
▪ A watertight lining is usually required for tunnels
operating under medium and high heads.
▪ Seepage is more likely to occur as the head increases,
water may leak through the smallest fissures and cracks.
▪ Moreover, under high-pressure it may penetrate the
otherwise watertight rock and render it permeable.
▪ If the tunnel is unlined, or if the lining serves only water
sealing purposes, i.e., carries no load, the permissible
internal water pressure is determined by the depth of
overburden and by the quantity of rock.

▪ Denoting the former by hr (in meters) and substituting the

specific weight of the rock gr (in tons/m3), the resulting
vertical rock pressure is
[kg/cm2]

And using a safety factor n, the permissible internal water pressure is

▪ Since the internal water pressure is
[kg/cm2]
▪ the permissible head (static plus dynamic), may be
written thus:

▪ Nevertheless, where a steep valley sides constitutes the

overburden above the tunnel, this criterion has to be
modified into

Where L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the studied
point of the tunnel (or shaft) and β is the average inclination of the valley
slope in the surroundings. For horizontal terrain, L = hr and cos β = 1.
Overburden requirement in a steep valley side
▪ Another design criterion for establishing the safe overburden is based on the
constraint that the internal water pressure shall nowhere exceed the minor
principal stress in the surrounding rock.

▪ The requirements for constructing medium-head or high-head unlined

tunnels or shafts are:

o Extremely low permeability of rock materials and of the joints and

fissures. The desirable imperviousness may be limited approximately at

10-8 m/sec.

o High rock stresses to the extent that the internal water pressure cannot

cause opening of the joints and fractures (hydraulic splitting). Hard and
stable rock masses and sufficient overburden are the relevant conditions.

o Foreseeable durability of the rock masses for life time of the project.
▪ Nevertheless, if, except sufficient impermeability, all the
other conditions are fulfilled, the application of some
sealing methods may lead to the acceptance of the
unlined solution.
▪ The stability of rock around an unlined pressure
tunnel/shaft is obviously affected by any transient
pressure phenomenon, and, therefore, it is advisable to
estimate the ‘radius of effect’ of possible water hammer
shocks.
▪ Practicable values for safety factor n are from 4 to 6.
▪ The lower limit should be used for greater depth of
overburden and for sound rock, whereas in case of a
shallow cover and poor rock the use of upper limit is
expedient.
▪ Consequently, with the unit weight of rock varying from 2.4 to 3.2
tons/m3, the permissible head, in meters, related to the overburden
above the soffit, yields
H = (0.4 to 0.8) hr
▪ If dynamic overpressure owing to water hammer can develop in the
tunnel, this has to be superimposed on the piezometric static head in
any calculation.
▪ This situation occurs when either no surge tank is inserted into the
power flow conveyance system (possibly in case of very short
tunnels), or the surge tank permits noticeable transmission of
transient surges.
▪ On the basis of a more accurate rock mechanics and engineering
geology investigation the n safety factor can considerably be reduced.
▪ In deep tunnels, where under the thick rock cover stress
conditions approach hydrostatic stress distribution, the
condition is less severe.

▪ Theoretically the stability of the rock is not endangered

while the internal load remains below the rock pressure:
P ≤ Pv.
▪ The Water carrying tunnels include head race or power tunnels, tail
race tunnels and diversion tunnels.
▪ Flows in water tunnels are usually under pressure (pipe flow), but
sometimes free-flow (open channel flow) can be experienced,
especially, in tailrace tunnels.
▪ The design of free-flow tunnels follows the same principles as used
in the design of open canals.
▪ The shape of a tunnel can be circular, D-shaped and horseshoe
shaped.
▪ Circular tunnels are most stable structurally.
▪ Tunnels are aligned nearly horizontal when used as head
race, access and tailrace tunnel.
▪ Shaft and pressurized tunnels are steep with vertical
alignment or steeply inclined to the horizontal.
▪ It is very crucial to investigate in detail the geology of the
strata through which a tunnel would be passing.
▪ Sound, homogenous, isotropic, and solid rock formations
are the most ideal ones for tunneling work.
▪ However, such ideal conditions are rarely present, and
rather the rock mass exhibits various peculiarities.
▪ There may be folds, faults, joint planes dipping in a
particular direction, weak strata alternating with good
strata, etc.
▪ Lining of tunnel can be done with plain concrete, fiber
reinforced concrete, R.C. or steel in the case of pressure
shafts. Lining of tunnels is required:
▪ For structural reasons to resist external forces particularly
when the tunnel is empty and when the strata is of very low
strength.
▪ When the internal pressure is high

▪ When reduction in frictional resistance and therefore the

head loss is required for increasing capacity
▪ For prevention or reduction of seepage losses

▪ For protection of rock against aggressive water

▪ Tunnel Design Features
▪ In addition to the aforementioned general discussion, as
design features alignment, geometric shape, longitudinal
slope, flow velocity, head loss, rock cover (overburden),
lining requirements and economic x-section are most
important.
▪ Alignment
▪ In aligning water tunnels, the following points should be
taken into account:
▪ Length of the tunnel: as much as possible short route
should be followed
▪ Location of surge tanks & adits: the alignment should
provide convenient points for surge tanks & adits.
▪ Rock cover (overburden): sufficient rock cover should be
available along the alignment
 ▪ Discontinuities: the alignment should, if possible, avoid
crossing of weak zones, joint planes, etc. If crossing of
these features is unavoidable, suitable direction of crossing
should be considered.
▪ Rock quality: good quality of rock mass should be sought
in aligning the tunnel
▪ Geometrical Shape
▪ The choice of the cross-sectional profile of a tunnel
depends on:
o Hydraulic considerations: Circular is preferable
o Stability considerations: Circular is preferable
o Convenience for construction: Horseshoe is preferable
o Available tunneling equipment
▪ Longitudinal Slope
▪ The minimum slope for a pressure tunnel is limited on the
basis of dewatering requirements.
▪ And also the longitudinal profile of the tunnel should be such
that the roof remains below the hydraulic pressure line by 1 to
2 m.
▪ Likewise, the tunneling method and the equipment employed
for transportation of the excavated material (rail or wheel
transport) can limit the maximum slope possible to provide.
▪ The usual practice is to keep the slope of power tunnel gentle
till the surge tank and then steeper (even vertical) for the
pressure shaft.
▪ Flow Velocity
▪ The allowable velocities in tunnels depend upon
whether it is lined or unlined.
▪ In unlined tunnels, a velocity of 2 to 2.5 m/s is the
upper limit, while in concrete lined tunnels 4 to 5 m/s
is often in use.
▪ The velocities for the pressure shafts, which are
generally steel lined, are usually higher than that in
the power tunnel.
▪ The normal range of velocities is between 5 to 8 m/s.
▪ Head Loss
▪ Head losses in tunnels can be computed using
Manning’s, Darcy-Weisbach, or Hazen-Williams
formulas.
▪ Rock Cover (overburden)
▪ For pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the overburden on the roof of the
tunnel serves to balance the effect of upward force due to internal pressure.

▪ The required depth of overburden may vary for lined and unlined tunnels.

▪ In the case of unlined tunnels, the entire internal water pressure is

resisted by the overburden rock pressure.

▪ Where a steep valley side constitutes the overburden above the tunnel, the
rule of thumb equation, H= (0.4 to 0.8)hr has to be modified and given by:

▪ Where L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the
studied point of the tunnel (or shaft) and β is the average inclination of the
valley side with the horizontal (see previous figure).
 Overburden requirement in a steep valley side

▪ In the case of concrete or steel lined tunnels, the linings are usually
designed to carry part or full load of the internal water pressure, and the
above equations, given for unlined tunnels, are modified accordingly in
determining the required overburden depth.
▪ The optimum/economic x-section of a tunnel or a shaft
is one for which the sum of tunnel construction cost and
the economic loss due to head loss is minimum.

▪ However, for a quick initial estimate of the diameter of

pressure tunnels, the empirical formula suggested by
Fahlbusch can be used:
Penstocks
▪ The penstocks are pipes of large diameter, usually of
steel or concrete, used for conveying water from the
source (reservoir or forebay) to the power house.
▪ They are usually high-pressure pipelines designed to
withstand stresses developed because of static and
water hammer pressures created by sudden changes in
power demands (i.e. valve closures and openings
according to power rejection and demand).
▪ The provision of such a high-pressure line is very
uneconomical if it is too long, in which case it can be
divided into two parts,
▪ a long low-pressure conveyance (tunnel) followed by short high-
pressure pipeline (penstock) close to the turbine unit, separated
by a surge chamber which absorbs the water hammer pressure
rises and converts them into mass oscillations.
Figure Components of a penstock
▪ Classification of penstock
Classification may be based on:
1) The material of fabrication/construction

2) Method of support.

3) Rigidity of connection and support

4) Number of penstocks
1. Material of fabrication/construction
Factors for the choice of material are:
▪ the head to which the penstock is subjected,
▪ the topography of the terrain, and
▪ the discharge to be handled.
▪ Various materials used are steel, R.C., PVC, wood stave
pipes, banded steel, etc.
▪ Steel penstock has become the most common type of
installation due to simplicity in fabrication, strength and
assurance that they can perform in a wide variety of
circumstances.
▪ The penstocks required to withstand high pressures because
of very high heads, are fabricated usually as banded steel
pipes.
▪ Banded steel pipes are thin-walled but strengthened with the
help of hoops of high-strength steel slipped over them.
▪ Very large diameters of precast or cat-in-place R.C.
penstocks are impractical.

▪ They are usually limited to heads of less than 30 m

and working pressures of the order of 5 to 15 kg/cm2
(500 to 1500 kPa).

▪ Diameters may vary from 0.3 m to 3.0 m, and in 3 m

to 7 m sections.
▪ The following factors have to be considered when
deciding which material to use for a particular project:
o Required operating pressure,

o Diameter and friction loss,

o Weight and ease of installation,

o Accessibility of site,

o Cost of the penstock,

o Design life,

o Availability,

o Weather conditions.
2. Method of support
▪ A penstock may be either buried or embedded
underground (or inside dams) or exposed above ground
surface & supported on piers.

▪ Buried penstocks: are supported on the soil in a trench at

a depth of 1 to 1.5m and backfilled.

▪ For buried penstocks the general topography of the land

should be gently sloping and of loose material.

Burried Penstocks

Advantages Disadvantages

Continuity of support given by the Difficulty of inspection

soil provides better structural
stability
Protection of the pipe against Difficulty of maintenance
temperature fluctuations with the
help of small overburden
Conservation of natural landscape Possibility of sliding on steep
slopes
Protection from slides, storms & Expensive for large diameter in
sabotage rocky soils
Exposed penstocks: Exposed to view and supported on piers or
saddles.

Advantages Disadvantages
Ease of inspection of faults Direct exposure to weather
effect
Economy in rocky terrain & large Development of longitudinal
diameters stress due to support and
anchorage, thus requiring
expansion joints
Stability is ensured with proper
anchorage

When the situation warrants, partly buried system, may be adopted that
combines the advantages of both system.
3. Rigidity of connection & Support
▪ There are three possible methods of support,

a) Rigid pipe support: Here every support is an anchorage so

that any movement is checked completely. This type is
suitable when the temperature condition is moderate.
b) Semi-rigid pipes: Here each member of the pipe line is fixed
at one and leaving the possibility of movement over the other
support.
c) Flexible support (Flexible or loose-coupled pipes): Here
expansion joint are introduced between each adjacent
section
4) Number of Penstocks
▪ The number of penstocks used at any particular installation can be
single or multiple.
▪ The general trend at older power stations was to use as many
penstocks between the forebay/surge tank and the powerhouse as the
number of units installed.
▪ The recent trend is to use a single penstock, unless the size or thickness
of the penstock involves manufacturing difficulties.
▪ When a single penstock feeds a number of turbines, special sections
called manifolds are used at the lower end of the penstock to direct flow
to individual units.
▪ The design of such sections is an intricate job and has to be analyzed
carefully.
▪ The advantages of using a single penstock over the use
of multiple penstocks are:
o The amount of material required to manufacture is less,
making it economical.
o The cost of civil engineering components such as penstock
supports and anchors is less.

▪ On the other hand, the use of a single penstock means

reduced safety of operation and complete shutdown will
become necessary in case of repair.
▪ Furthermore, significant losses are usually experienced
at the manifolds.
▪ In general, the use of multiple penstocks is preferably
employed for low-head plants with short penstocks;
whereas for high-head plants requiring long penstocks,
provision of a single penstock with manifold at the end
usually proves economical.
❑ Design Criteria for Penstocks
▪ For the purpose of engineering feasibility and preliminary
design, there are three major considerations that need
engineering attention:
1. The head loss through the penstock,
2. The safe thickness of the penstock shell (wall), and
3. The economical size of the penstock.
▪ Head Losses
▪ The head losses consist of
o Trash rack losses,
o Entrance losses,
o Friction losses in the pipe,
o Bend losses, and
o Stop log, gate slot, and transition losses
▪ Thickness of Penstock
▪ According to ASME wall thickness may be computed
using the following formula
Where
t = wall thickness, cm
P = pressure, kg/cm2
R = internal radius, cm
S = design stress, kg/cm2
h = joint efficiency factor and 0.15 cm is allowance for corrosion.
▪ Under normal flow, the penstock is subjected to only
internal hydrostatic pressure.
▪ But when turbine gates at the end of penstock are closed
suddenly, there is a sudden pressure rise, i.e. water
hammer pressure.
▪ In this case the following steps are followed to compute
the wall thickness.
1. Calculate the pressure wave velocity, a, as;

Where
a = pressure wave velocity, m/s
r =mass density of water, kg/m3
k = bulk modulus of water ≈ 2 x 109 N/m2
D = internal diameter of penstock, m
E = modulus of elasticity of penstock material = 200 x 109
N/m2
t = thickness of the penstock wall, m
2. Calculate velocity, surge head (∆h), and total head (htot)

1. For steel penstock, if it is subjected to corrosion and welding

and rolling defects, the effective thickness is less than the
nominal thickness quoted by the manufacturer.
▪ Therefore, to find the effective thickness (teff),
✓ Welding divide t by 1.1
✓ Flat-rolled divide by 1,2
✓ Corrosion subtract 1mm for 10 years life
Subtract 2mm for 20 years life
4. Calculate factor of safety (F.S.) as follows:

Where teff = effective wall thickness, m

S = ultimate tensile strength of penstock material, N/m2
D = diameter of penstock, m
5. If safety factor is less than 3.5, reject the penstock option and
repeat the above steps for stronger wall option
▪ Economic Diameter of a Penstock
▪ For successful operation, the size of the pipe for a given
discharge may vary between wide limits, but usually there is
one size that will make for the greater economy in design.
▪ The diameter of the penstock is determined from economic
consideration and then checked to see that acceptable
velocities are not exceeded.
▪ The following two methods are used to determine the
size/diameter of a penstock
o Empirical equations

o Graphical (economic analysis)

▪ Empirical Relations
▪ These are over-simplified rule of the thumb relations
based on available experience.
1) USBR Formula

V = optimum velocity
The formula generally applies up to middle range of heads.
2) Sarkaria developed an empirical approach for
determining steel penstock diameter by using data from
large hydro projects with heads varying from 57 m to 313
m and power capacities ranging from 154 MW to 730
MW.
▪ He reported that the economical diameter of the penstock
is given by the equation

D = Penstock diameter (m)

P =rated hp (metric) of the turbines,
H = Net head at the end of the penstock, m.
3. Donald’s formula
4. Gordon and Penman: for steel penstocks used in
small hydropower installations;

5. Fahlbusch reformulated the objective of the economic

analysis in terms of the amount of the invested capital
and the capitalized value of the lost energy, and arrived
at the conclusion that the most economical diameter
can be computed within an accuracy of about ±10%
from

where P is the rated capacity of the plant (kW), H is the

rated head (m), and D is the diameter (m).
▪ Graphical Method
▪ There are various combinations of V and D which would
give the same discharge.
▪ The frictional loss in the penstock, also
depends on diameter and in turn determine efficiency on
the penstock pipe.
▪ Thus, the larger the diameter for a given discharge, the
smaller will be the head losses and greater will be the net
head available to the turbines, resulting in a greater
power development.
▪ On the other hand, greater size would mean less velocity
and greater capital investment.
▪ We should choose, therefore, a size which would give the
least annual costs.
▪ If the total annual cost of the penstock corresponding to
any given diameter is plotted, installation cost results.
▪ On the other hand, if the cost (which is the price of
energy lost in friction at the prevalent rate of sale of
energy) due to the horse power lost is plotted in the same
figure, power lost would result.
▪ The total cost would be the sum of the ordinates of the
two curves corresponding to any diameter.
▪ Then, the total cost curve is plotted in the same figure.
▪ The least cost corresponds to the optimum diameter of
the penstock.
▪ Penstock Supports and Anchors
▪ Slide blocks, anchors, and thrust blocks all serve the
same basic function: to constrain movement of the
penstock.
▪ Different terms are used with these structures simply to
indicate which specific function they serve (see figure)
▪ Slide Blocks
▪ A slide block, also called supporting pier, carries the
weight of pipe and water, and restrains the pipe from
upward and sideway movements, but allows it to move
longitudinally. In most cases the spacing between slide
blocks are assumed equal to the length of each pipe.
▪ If the penstock is buried, slide blocks are unnecessary;
rather instead the pipe is laid in a trench on a bed of sand
or gravel of consistent quality, with no big stones which
could cut into the pipe or cause stress concentrations on
the pipe wall.
▪ Forces that act on slide blocks
▪ Weight of the pipe and enclosed water: As slide blocks
do not resist longitudinal forces, only the component of
the weight perpendicular to the pipe will be considered.
▪ Friction forces on the blocks: This is due to the
longitudinal movement of the pipe over the blocks caused
by thermal expansion and contraction.
▪ Weight of the block
Figure Forces on slide block
▪ Anchor Blocks

▪ An anchor block consists of a mass of reinforced

concrete keyed to the penstock so that the penstock
cannot move in any way relative to the block.
▪ It is designed to withstand any load the penstock may
exert on it.
▪ Anchors are often used at bends (horizontal and vertical)
and before entrance to the powerhouse.
▪ They can also be used along long straight sections of
penstock, each one next to expansion joint.
▪ Because an anchor is keyed to the penstock pipe and is
also frequently located at a bend in the pipe, more forces
act on an anchor than on a slide block.
▪ The major forces which act on anchor blocks are the
following:
▪ Weight of the pipe and enclosed water

▪ Hydrostatic force on a bend

▪ Friction forces on slide blocks located between the anchor

and expansion joint
▪ Thermally induced stresses, when expansion joints are not
incorporated
▪ The weight of the anchor block itself
▪ Thrust Blocks

▪ These are a special form of anchor whose sole purpose

is to transmit forces primarily caused by hydrostatic
pressures at horizontal bends along a buried penstock to
undisturbed soil which provides the reaction force.

▪ However, if the bend is vertical, an anchor block is still

used if the back filled soil is not able to resist this force.
▪ Penstock Valves
▪ Valves are usually installed at two places in a penstock.
▪ One valve is provided at the upstream end of the
penstock, i.e., at the forebay or immediately after the
surge tank, and is called penstock inlet valve, while the
second is provided at the downstream end of the conduit,
immediately ahead of the turbine, and is named as
turbine inlet valve.
▪ The upper valve is sometimes replaced by a gate.
▪ The main purpose of penstock inlet valve is for
dewatering of the penstock in case maintenance of the
penstock is required.
▪ But, it can be omitted for short penstocks where the
closure of the power canal or power tunnel is possible
from the intake.
▪ The main purpose of turbine inlet valve is to close the
penstock while the turbine is inoperative.

▪ It can also act as an emergency shut-off device.

▪ This valve cannot be omitted except under special case where

the penstock supplies a single unit having installed the
penstock inlet valve.

▪ The number of turbine inlet valves required at a power station

is governed by the number of turbine units installed, but not by
the number of penstocks, as a single penstock can serve a
number of units through a manifold at the end.
▪ There are various types of valves for use in hydropower
installations. The most frequently applied include:
o Butterfly valves

o Spherical valves

o Needle valves

o etc

▪ The type to be applied should be determined individually

for each case after considering the various factors
involved.