Module I

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY: ITS MEANING AND IMPORTANCE

SHEILA MARIE L. BANDI

Expected Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the nature and meaning of educational philosophy
2. Recognize the importance of educational philosophy to importance to curriculum development.
3. Compare the purposes and functions of education.
4. Discuss the philosophical bases of the curriculum development.
5. Differentiate the educational philosophies.

I. Introduction to Educational Philosophy

Educational philosophy can be defined as the philosophical study of the purpose, process, nature
and ideals of education. It can be considered as a branch of philosophy and education.
Educational philosophy studies the purpose, nature and ideal content of education. Related topics
include knowledge itself, the nature of the knowing mind and the human subject, problems of authority,
and the level, e.g. at museums, libraries, with the internet and in life experience.
Fundamental purposes that have been proposed for education include:
- The enterprise of civil society depends on educating young people to become responsible,
thoughtful and enterprising citizens. This is an intricate, challenging task requiring deep
understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics and economics, not
to mention an understanding who children are, in themselves and in society.
- Progress in any special field depends on having capacities that schooling can educate. Education
is thus a means to foster the individual’s society’s prosperity. Emphasis is often put on economic
success in this regard.
- One’s individual development and the capacity to fulfil one’s own can depend on an adequate
preparation in childhood. Education can thus attempt to give a firm foundation for the
achievement of personal fulfilment. The better the foundation that is built, the more successful
the child can be. Simple basics in education can carry a child far.

I.1. Meaning of Education

Education can be seen as a product or a process and considered in a broad sense or a
technical sense.
According to Kneller, 1964), in its broad sense, education refers to any act or experience that
has formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual… In its
technical sense education is the process by which society, through schools, colleges,
universities and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural heritage- its
accumulated knowledge, values and skills- from one generation to another.

Webster defines education as the process of educating or teaching. Education is further

defined as “to develop the knowledge. Skills or character of …” Thus from these definitions
we might assume that the purpose of education is to develop the knowledge, skills or
character of students.
What is knowledge? It is a body of information that exists “out there”- apart from human thought
processes that developed it? If we look at the standards and benchmarks developed by many states – we
might assume this definition as correct. However, there is considerable research leading others to believe
that knowledge arises in the mind of an individual when that person interacts with an idea or experience.
I.2. Purposes and Functions of Education
Theorists have made a distinction between purpose of education and functions of education. A
purpose if the fundamental goal of the process – an end to be achieved. Functions are other
outcomes that may occur as a natural result of the process- by products or consequences of
schooling. Example: some teachers believe that transmission of knowledge is the primary purpose of
education, while transfer of knowledge from school to the real world is something that happens
naturally as a consequence of processing that knowledge – a function of education. Because a
 purpose is an expressed goal, more effort is put into attaining it. Functions are assumed to occur
without directed effort. For this reason it is valuable to figure out which outcomes you consider a
fundamental purpose of education.

Do this activity: Submit this in our GC

Which of the following do you include in your lesson planning? Why? (Choose 5 only)
- Acquisition of information and to predict future outcomes (decision making)
- Capacity/ability to seek out alternative solutions and evaluate them (problem solving)
- Development of mental and physical skills, motor, thinking, communication, social, aesthetic.
- Knowledge of moral practices and ethical standards acceptable by society/culture.
- Capacity/ability to recognize and evaluate different points of view.
- Respect: giving and receiving recognition as human beings.
- Indoctrination into the culture.
- Capacity/ability to earn a living: career education.
- Sense of well-being: mental and physical health.
- Capacity/ability to be a good citizen.
- Capacity/ability to think creatively.
- Cultural appreciation: art, music, humanities.
- Understanding of human relations and motivations.
- Acquisition/clarification of personal values.
- Self-realization/self-reflection: awareness of one’s abilities and goals
- Self- esteem/self efficacy.

I.3. Philosophical Perspectives in Education

Philosophy means “love of wisdom”. It is made up of two Greek words, philo, meaning love and
Sophos, meaning wisdom. Philosophy helps teachers to reflect on key issues and concepts in
education, usually through such questions as What is being educated? What is the good life? What is
knowledge? What is the nature of learning?
Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how you teach, whom you
tech, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides professional action through
the events and issues teachers face daily. Sources of you educational philosophy I your life
experiences, your values, the environment in which you live, interactions with others and awareness
of philosophical approaches.. Learning about the branches of philosophy, philosophical world views,
and different educational philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own
educational philosophy combined with these other aspects.
There are three branches of philosophy. Each branch focuses on a different aspect and is
central to your teaching. They are:
_ Metaphysics: What is the nature of reality?
_Epistemology: What is the nature of knowledge? How do we come to know?
_Axiology: What values should one live by?

Metaphysics. This word literally means “beyond the physical”. This area of philosophy
focuses on the nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to find unity across the demands of
experience and thought. At the metaphysics level, there are four philosophical schools or thought
that apply to education today: Idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialism. These provide the
root or base from which the various educational philosophies are derived.
A 5th school of thought called Scholasticism is largely applied in Roman Catholic Schools in
the educational philosophy called Thomism. It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a
framework that harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with the idealist notion of truth.
Thomas Aquinas, a theologian wrote “Summa Theologica” formalizing church doctrine. The
Scholasticism movement encouraged the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the church,
legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious framework. Let us look into the metaphysical schools
of thought:
Idealism . Idealism has its central tenet that ideas are the only reality, the only thing worth
knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting, the focus is on
conscious reasoning. Plato the father of idealism , espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his
book The Republic. He viewed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual and mental world,
which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular and universal. The second is the world of appearance,
the world experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and
disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of the mind and body.
Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical
and sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which “education to body and soul all the
beauty and perfection of which they are capable” as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the
shadows of the sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To
understand the truth, one must pursue knowledge and identity with Absolute mind. Plato also
believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal
Being. The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires brining latent ideas (fully
formed concepts) to consciousness.
In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual’s abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind:
literature, history, philosophy and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through
lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help
students. discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight and whole part logic are
used to bring to consciousness the forms of concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is
developed though imitating examples of heroes.
Realism . Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind, The ultimate
reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on body/ objects. Truth is objective –what can be
observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor’s idealist philosophy, is called the
father of both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand
objective reality through “the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data”. He believed
that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change.
Aristotle was also the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason
about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate
purpose of humankind. The realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world,
particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically
within discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on
mastery of the subject matter and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must
also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and
experimentation.
Curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based.
Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.
Pragmatism. For the pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are
real. In American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience, in the 19 th century. The
believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences
and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a ‘becoming” view of
the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather truth is what works. Pragmatism is
derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must
produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applies pragmatic philosophy in his progressive approaches. He
believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment.. Schools should
emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on context of place,
time and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and
contribute to democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order.
Character development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.
For pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on, problem-solving, experimenting and
projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to
focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized body of
knowledge to new learners, they believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real
situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living and
future careers.
Existentialism. The nature for reality in existentialism is subjective, and lies within the
individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual
choice and individual standards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before
any definition of what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices
we make. We do not accept anyone else’s predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must
take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic
individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.
Related to education, thee subject matter of existentialist classroom should be a matter of
personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner
must confront others’ views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual
responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within, not from outside authority. Examining
life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists are
opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such
educators want the educational experience to focus on opportunities for self-direction and self
actualization. They start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.
Epistemology. It is also called theory of knowledge which is a branch of philosophy
concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the following
questions:
_What is knowledge?
_How is knowledge acquired?
_What do people know?
_How do we know what we know?
_Why do we know what we know?
In Plato’s view knowledge is merely an awareness of absolute, universal Ideas or Forms,
existing independent of any subjects trying to apprehend to them. Though Aristotle puts more on
logical and empirical methods of gathering knowledge, he still accepts the view that such knowledge
is an apprehension of necessary and universal principles. Following the Renaissance, two
epistemological positions dominated philosophy: empiricism which sees knowledge as the product
of perception or sensory perception, and rationalism which sees it as a product of rational reflection.
The implementation of empiricism in the newly developed experimental sciences led to a
view of knowledge which is still explicitly or implicitly held by many people now-a- days: the
reflection-correspondence theory. According to this view of knowledge results from a kind of
mapping or reflection of external objects , through our sensory organs, possibly aided by different
sensory instruments, to our brain and mind.
The next theory is the synthesis of rationalism and empiricism by Kant. According to him, knowledge
results from the organization of perceptual data on the basis of inborn cognitive structures, which he
calls “categories”. Categories include space, time, objects and causality. This epistemology does
accept the subjectivity of basic concepts, like space and time, and the impossibility to reach purely
objective representations of things-in-themselves. Yet the a priori categories are still static or given.
The next stage of development of epistemology maybe called pragmatic. This philosophy still
dominates most present work in cognitive science and artificial intelligence. According to pragmatic
epistemology, knowledge consists of models that attempt to represent the environment in such a
way as to simplify problem-solving. It is assumed that no model can even hope to capture all
relevant information, it would be too complicated to use in any practical way. Therefore, we must
accept the parallel existence of different models, even though they may seem contradictory. The
model that is to be chosen depends on the problems that are to be solved. The basic criterion is that
the model should produce correct predictions or problem situations, and be simple as possible.
A more radical theory is constructivism. It assumes that all knowledge is built up from
scratch by the subject of knowledge. There are ‘givens’, neither objective empirical data or facts, nor
inborn categories or cognitive structures. The idea of a correspondence or reflections of external
reality is rejected. Because of this lacking connection between models and the things they represent,
the danger with constructivism is that it may lead to relativism, to the idea of any model constructed
by a subject is as good as any other and that there is no way to distinguish adequate or ‘true’
knowledge from inadequate or ‘false, knowledge.
There are two approaches to avoid such absolute relativism: First is called individual
relativism. It assumes that an individual attempts to reach coherence among the different pieces of
knowledge. Constructions that are inconsistent with the bulk of other knowledge that the individual
has will tend to be rejected. Constructions that succeed in integrating previously incoherent pieces
of knowledge will be maintained. The second is social constructivism, sees consensus between
different subjects as the ultimate criterion to judge knowledge. “Truth” or “reality” will be accorded
only to those constructions on which most people of social group agree that knowledge is
transmitted from one subject to another, and thereby loses independence on any single individual. A
piece of knowledge that can be transmitted or replicated in such a way is called a ‘meme’. The
death of an individual carrying a certain ‘meme’ now no longer implies the elimination of that piece
of knowledge, as evolutionary epistemology would assume. As long as a meme spreads more quickly
to new carriers, than that its carriers die, the meme will proliferate, even though the knowledge it
induces in any individual carrier may be wholly inadequate and even dangerous o survival. I n this
view, a piece of knowledge may be successful even though its predictions may be totally wrong, as
long as it is sufficiently ‘convincing’ to new carriers Here we see a picture where even a subject of
knowledge becomes a force of its own with proper goals of developing itself. That this is realistic can
be illustrated by the many superstitions, fads, and irrational beliefs that have spread over the globe,
sometimes with a frightening speed. An example of this are the fake news about the COVID vaccines
that after two years, the vaccinated people will die after two years, etc.
As a result the government has a difficulty of convincing many Filipinos including me to take
any vaccine available at the moment.
Axiology. This refers to the study of quality or value. It is often taken to include ethics and
aesthetics- philosophical fields that depend crucially on notions of value- and sometimes it is held to
lay the groundwork for these fields, and thus to be similar to value theory and meta-ethics. The term
was first used in the early 20th century by Paul Lapie and E. Von Hartmann.
The word axiology , derived from two Greek roots ‘axios’ (worth or value) and ‘logos’
(logic or theory), means the theory of value. Axiology has many benefits. It generates new
knowledge about the everyday world and creates a frame of reference which provides a new way of
looking at ourselves and our environment. What is even more important is the knowledge of
axiology provides its objective and independent of anyone observer.
After these discussions, please do the following activities:

As a teacher, what philosophy do you have to include the nature of reality,

acquisition of knowledge of your learners and formation of their values.
 MODULE 2
Philosophical Bases of Education
SHEILA MARIE L. BANDI

1. Discuss the philosophical bases of education.

2. Identify objectives, activities or content of the K 12 Curriculum which represent these
philosophies.
3. Differentiate the philosophies of curriculum development

Five Philosophical Bases:

1. Perennialism
Perennialism maintain the basic principles f education as changeless and perennial.
For the perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that the students acquire
understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential
f solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting to seek
enduring o on truths which were constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at
their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical.
Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the
intellectis the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses
on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students’ growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest
accomplishments of humankind are emphasized- the great works of literature and art, the
laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard
Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further
developed this curriculum based on western civilization.
From the above discussion, the following are principles of perennialism:
a. Since the nature of education is constant, so is the nature of education.
b. Since man’s distinguishing characteristic is his reason, education should concentrate on
developing rationalism.
c. It is the only adjustment to truth which is universal and unchanging.
d. Education is not a replica of life but a preparation for it. Education is not an imitation of
life but a preparation for life.
e. Children should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint them with the
world’s permanencies, both spiritual and physical.
f. The permanencies are best studied in what the perennialists call as Grate Books.
g. Men everywhere are basically the same, hence, education should be the same for
everyone.
h. Men vary from society to society, but the function of man as a man should be the same
is the same in every age and every society.
i. If man is a rational animal there must be constant features of a sound educational
program, regardless of culture.
j. Education is a task to adjust to the truth which is eternal rather than to the
contemporary world.

2. Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be
transmitted to students in a systematic and disciplined way. The emphasis in this
conservative perspective is on the intellectual and moral standards that schools should
teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor.
Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to perennialism, essentialists
accept the idea that the core curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical,
preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts- the
objective reality out there, and the “the basics,” training students to read, write and
 compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students
should be taught hard work, respect for authority and discipline. Teachers are to help
students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression and mindfulness.
Therefore, the following are the important principles of essentialism
a. Learning involves hard work and application. The learners should be taught to learn
the skills by themselves diligently and perform exercises on their own. Parents
should not be the ones to accomplish the reading, writing and mathematics lessons
because their children will never learn the skills.
b. The initiative in education lies on the teacher rather than with the learners. That is
why teachers spend a lot time for planning, preparing visual aids and evaluating the
results of teaching.
c. The core of education is the absorption of prescribed subject and subject matter.
Mastery is emphasized so that the succeeding lessons will be easier, problems can
be solved easily by the students.
d. The school should retain the traditional methods of mental discipline. Do you
remember when you first learn how to read? Your teacher required you to
memorize the alphabet and their sounds before you can read properly. In
multiplication, you were required to memorize the multiplication table.
As a whole, the essentialists devote their efforts to examine curricular matters,
distinguishing the essential and non-essential programs, re-establishing the authority of the
teacher in the classroom. It failed to cultivate the initiative of the child by requiring him to
absorb the subject matter that he has neither chosen or arranged.

3. Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than
on the content of the teacher. This philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by
active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through
experiencing the world. It is active not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker
who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural
context. Effective teachers provide experiences so the students can learn by doing.
Curriculum content is derived from the student interests and questions. The scientific
method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events
systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on-process- how one comes to know. John
Dewey was the foremost proponent. One of his tenets was the school should improve the
way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared
decision making, planning of teachers and students, selected topics are all aspects. Books
are tools rather than authority.

Dewey expressed his educational philosophy in terms of the following:

a. Education is life. Education is life not a preparation for life. This is based on the idea
that education is not learned alone but it is living. In other words, education must
be viewed as an affair of the on-going life of society.
b. Education is growth. According to Dewey, it means growth in knowledge, habits,
skills, abilities and attitudes. Education grows with the growth of society. As long as
growth continues, education is taking place. Education grows with the growth of
humanity. Education is a continuous process because its source is life, thus
education is growth and development.
c. Education is a social process. The concept means that education is a social function
or social process. The construction of the aim of education is the study f the child
in connection with the conditions and institutions of society. Dewey believes that
education should be integrated from the social standpoint because society insures
its continuance through the education of its young. By sharing its experience
 through the process of communication, society transmit its way to the young and
thus perpetuates itself.
The following principles are derived:

a. The child is the center of the educational process. This means that the abilities,
interests and needs of the child must be considered in the selection and
organization of programs and activities.
b. Promoting total growth of the child is the main aim of education. This means
growth in knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes.
c. Teaching and learning must utilize the theory of self-activity. This is based on
Dewey’s belief that we learn by experiencing and reacting. The teacher must bear
in mind that he/she cannot learn for his/her pupils. Similarly, parents cannot learn
for their children.
d. Evaluation is an integral part of teaching and learning. Evaluation completes the
teaching process or pattern. Through evaluation the teacher can identify the area
of the lesson that is not learned by the students and it guides him/her in deciding
whether to re-teach, reinforce or continue the lesson.
e. Thinking and reasoning are stressed in classroom activities. Truth can be achieved
through reasoning.
The Child-Centered Philosophy of Education

The child-centered-education finds the chief value of education in the child.

The curriculum is selected and organized according to the physiological principles of learning
that stresses the child’s interests, motivation and activities. The learning situation is based
on the experiences f the child. The teacher must direct and guide the child. Rousseau was
the first to insist that education shall be based on the nature of the child.

Thorndike likewise recognizes the nature of the child as the first principle of
education. The child’s nature or what the child inherits from his ancestors is his capital with
which education must work. His intelligence, attitudes, interests and desires underlie the
educative process.

In spite of the difference traits and tendencies, the child must be considered as a
whole. The child grows and develops as a whole organism, therefore, he must be the center
of the educative process.

4. Reconstructionism
It aims to reconstruct society, thus education is for change.
Education acts as an agent of change and reforms. It focuses on present
and educational landscape. The trends are curricular global education,
collaboration and convergence, standards and competencies.

5. Existentialism

This school of philosophy is the most recent to appear upon the intellectual sense. The only
significance is the meaning that each individual gives to his/her life. Each person is free to make
whatever choices he wishes. These decisions and commitments result in the kind of persons one
becomes. This is his/her essence which is continually becoming, When man is aware of his identity
as an individual alone, he realizes the true reason for his real existence. However, it is imperative
that every human being chooses and finds some significance and meaning for himself in the act of
existing.
Some existentialists assert that God exists. They however admit the impossibility of proving
this by reason. They choose to believe it in the absence of any evidence. They believe the existence
of God through faith, on the basis of this faith yields a significant life which may or may not be
rewarded at its termination. ”Existence is the basic value for man and the values which are
significant for each individual are relative to the individual circumstance of one’s existence.”
 To the existentialists, the purpose of education is to serve the individual human being by
guiding him an awareness of his condition and promoting his successful commitment to a
significant existence. Complete individual freedom of the child in the classroom is recommended
by this philosophy and that he must choose for himself those activities which he believes are
significant, and the teacher serves as guide and a resource person.

Activity:

1. After reading these 5 philosophies, identify subjects in the grade level that you are
teaching where each philosophy is applied. Explain why.
 Module 3
Educational Theories
SHEILA MARIE L. BANDI

Students vary from each other. They differ in the way they learn. They have unique brains
and have different experiences which contribute to their different ways of learning. As a result each teacher
needs to understand each learner he /she handles. Let us go over the five Learning Theories:

1. Cognitive Learning Theory. This has something to do with how people think. This theory believes
that learners can be influenced by both external and internal elements. Jean Piaget is the highest
proponent of this theory and his work focuses on environments and internal structures and how
they affect learning. Cognitive theory suggests that internal thoughts and external forces are both an
important part of the cognitive process. As students understand how their thinking impacts their
learning, they are able to have more control over it and therefore, helps them learn. Teachers can
give their students opportunities to ask questions, to fail, and think out loud. With these strategies
used, the students understand how their thought process works and utilize this knowledge to
construct better learning opportunities.
2. Behaviorism learning theory. It is based on the idea that a student behaves based on his interaction
with his environment. It means that their behaviors are influenced and learned from external forces
rather than internal forces. Positive reinforcement is a popular element of behaviorism. It is also
called classical conditions which were based from Pavlov’s experiments on his dog where he
concluded that behaviors are directly motivated by the reward that can be obtained.
As classroom teachers, you can utilize positive reinforcement to help your students learn a
concept. Learners who get positive reinforcement are likely to retain information and move forward
in the learning process.
3. Constructivism learning theory. It is based on the idea that students actually create their own
learning based on their previous experiences. They are being taught and add it to their previous
knowledge and experiences, creating a reality that is unique to them. This theory focuses on learning
as an active process.
In this theory, the teachers role is to understand that each student bring his own past to the
classroom everyday. They are more of a guide so that their students are able to create their own
learning and understanding.

4. Humanism learning theory. This theory directly focuses on self-actualization.

Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs, Self-actualization is at the top f the hierarchy of
needs- it is the brief moments when a person feels all his needs are met and they are the best
possible version. The Filipino saying that “wala na akong hahanapin pa dahil nakamit ko na ang
aking hinahangad” is self-actualization. Everyone is striving for this, and learning environments can
either move toward meeting needs or away from meeting needs.
As teachers you can create a classroom environment that help your learners get closer to
their self-actualization. You fulfill the emotional and physical needs, giving them a kind of
environment that is safe and comfortable place to learn., plenty of food, and the support they need
to succeed.

5. Connectivism learning theory. It focuses on the idea that people learn and grow when they form
connections. This can be connections with each other or connections with their roles and
obligations in their lives. Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that influence learning.
Teachers can use connectivism in their classrooms to help their learners make connections to
things that excite them to learn like using media. They can create connections and relationships with
their students and with their peer groups to help students feel motivated about the lessons taught.
 Three laws of Learning: (Thordike)

a. Law of readiness- This refers to the degree of preparedness or eagerness to learn. Individual
learn best when they are ready to learn, and they will learn much if they see no reason for
learning. The teacher should therefore arouse curiosity for learning so that the pupils feel
ready to imbibe the new experiences. Before teaching a new lesson, he/she must arouse
interest and desire of the pupils to learn.
b. Law of Exercise- Things that are most often repeated are best remembered. Related laws to
this are the law of use and law od disuse. The law of use state that learnings are strengthened
with repeated trial and practice. On the other hand, law of disuse states that learnings are
weakened when trial or practice are discontinued. The teacher then should provide different
opportunities for learners to practice or repeat the task through drill, recall and review.
Constant practice must be done on something that was already learned to avoid forgetfulness.
c. Law of Effect- This states that learning is strengthened when it is accompanied by a pleasant
or satisfying feeling while learning is weakened when it is associated with an unpleasant
feeling. The emotional state of the learner affect learning. Reward and recognition play a great
role in encouraging the pupil to learn while punishment should be avoided as it produces
negative effect and it causes discouragement to the pupil.

Secondary laws of learning:

1. Law of primacy . Learning that takes place in the beginning is lasting. Learning should be
done correctly for the first time since it is difficult to unlearn or changed and incorrectly
learned material. This implies that the teacher must be ready on the first day to impress
his learners and make sure that what he/she teaches are correct.
2. Law of Recency. Things learned most recently are best remembered, while things
learned some time ago are remembered with more difficulty. Frequent review and
summarization help fix in the mind the material learned. It is always a must for the
teacher to repeat, restate, or reemphasize or summarize the lesson after instruction.
3. Law of intensity states that if stimulus (experience) is real, the more likely there is to be
a change in the behavior (learning). A vivid, dramatic or exciting learning experience
teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The teacher should use
demonstrations, dramatization or role playing to intensify the lesson taught.
4. Law of Multiple Response- Confronted with a new situation the learner responds in a
variety of ways arriving at the correct response.
5. Law of Set Attitude- Learning is guided by a total set of attitude of the learner, which
determine not only what the learner will do but what will satisfy him/her. This means
that the learner will perform better if his attitude is set on the task.
6. Law of analogy and assimilation – According to this law, te individual makes use of old
experiences or acquisitions while learning a new situation. There is a tendency to use
common elements in the new situation as existed in a similar past situation.
Other Theories:

Transformative learning theory. This approach is for adult education and young adult
learning. It is also called transformation learning as it focuses on the idea that learners can adjust
their thinking to new information. This works well with adult learners. They can draw childhood
experiences and transforming those beliefs and understandings using critical reflection., leading
them to an understanding of what they should believe and understand as adults.

As a whole, this theory states that our worldview is changed the more we learn, which helps
us grasp new concepts and new ideas. By getting new information that helps evaluate past ideas,
 students are able to make a dramatic educational shift beyond standard learning. For the teachers,
they can encourage their students to learn new perspectives while questioning their assumptions.

Social Learning Theory. (Albert Bandura) This theory focuses on the concept of children
learning from observing other by acting or not acting on what they see exhibited by their classmates.

From the study of Bandura, there are four elements of the social learning theory:

1. Attention, which calls upon different or unique lessons or activities to help children focus.
2. Retention, focusing on how the student will internalize information and recall it later on.
3. Reproduction, drawing on previously learned behavior and when it’s appropriate to use it.
4. Motivation, which can extend from seeing other classmates being rewarded or punished for
their actions.

By using social modeling based on these elements, teachers have a very powerful tool in their
arsenal that can effectively guide their students to be more active in their learning, pay more attention, and
channel their energy into their schooling

Experiential learning theory focuses on learning by doing. Using this theory, students are
encouraged to learn through experiences that can help them retain information and recall facts.
Experiential learning theory, or ELT, was identified by David Kolb in 1984. Though his influence came
from other theorists such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, Kolb was able to identify four stages of
ELT. The first two stages, concrete learning and reflective observation, focus on grasping an experience. The
latter two, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation are about transforming an experience. To
Kolb, effective learning is seen as the learner goes through the cycle of experiential learning theory. Students
can enter the cycle in any way and at any point.
Some examples of this form of learning include taking students to the zoo to learn about
animals instead of just reading about them or growing a garden to learn about photosynthesis instead of
watching a video about it. By creating environments where students can learn and experience at the same time,
teachers offer students the opportunity to immediately apply their knowledge and get real-world experiences.
This approach also encourages teamwork and is shown to improve motivation.

Activities:
1. Give one illustration each on how you apply the learning theories in your teaching activities.
2. What strategies do you implement in teaching to realize the effects of the laws of learning?
 MODULE 4
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
SHEILA MARIE L. BANDI

Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and systematic process to create positive
improvements in the educational system. Every time there are changes or developments happening around the
world, the school curricula are affected. There is a need to update them to address the society’s needs.

Phases of Curriculum Development

1. The curriculum design or structure
2. The implementation scheme and
3. Evaluation scheme
4. Need to pilot the curriculum design before the wide scale implementation.
5. Design (objectives, content, organization, evaluation) The frameworks become the basis for the
development of textbooks, syllabi and lesson plans. The different elements are considered singly but
interactively in curriculum planning. For instance, the evaluation element of curriculum design refers to
the assessment of what learning is taking place based on the identified objectives of the curriculum and
undertaken too determine the effect of instruction.
The assessment of what learning is taking place or has taken place is differentiated from the
evaluation phase of the curriculum development process which has a more comprehensive meaning.
Evaluation as a phase in curriculum development refers to the assessment of effectiveness, efficiency
and impact of the curriculum in consideration of other mediating variables that may include physical
and human resources, schedules, and monitoring strategy, among others. Effectiveness refer s to the
extent to which the objectives of the curriculum are realized. Efficiency measures are in consideration of
the input variables of resources, cost and time. Impact suggests the value added to the educational
system. The inverted model of curriculum design is advocated by Taba (1962)s to the extent to which
the objectives of the curriculum are realized..

Types of Curriculum Development

A curriculum contains the knowledge, skills and attitudes that a student needs to master in order to get a degree or
move to the next level. By thinking about how their curriculum is designed, teachers ensure they’ve covered all the
necessary requirements. From there, they can start exploring various approaches and teaching methods that can
help them achieve their goals. There are three basic types of curriculum design: subject-centered, learner-centered,
and problem-centered design.

Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject or discipline, such as e-marketing,

research skills or communication. This type of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject, rather than the
student. It is the most common type of standardized curriculum that can be found in higher education. Subject-
centered curriculum design is not student-centered, and the model is less concerned with individual learning
compared to other forms of curriculum design. This can lead to problems with student engagement and motivation
and may cause students who are not responsive to this model to fall behind.

Learner-centered curriculum design revolves around student needs, interests and goals. It acknowledges
that students are not uniform and therefore should not be subject to a standardized curriculum. This approach aims
to empower learners to shape their education through choices.
Differentiated instructional plans provide an opportunity to select assignments, teaching and learning experiences
and activities. This form of curriculum design has been shown to engage and motivate students. The drawback to
this form of curriculum design is that it can create pressure on the teachers to source materials specific to each
student’s learning needs. This can be challenging due to teaching time constraints. Balancing individual student
interests with the institution’s required outcomes could prove to be a daunting task.
 Problem-centered curriculum design teaches students how to look at a problem and formulate a solution.
Considered an authentic form of learning because students are exposed to real-life issues, this model helps students
develop skills that are transferable to the real world. Problem-centered curriculum design has been shown to
increase the relevance of the curriculum and encourages creativity, innovation and collaboration in the classroom.
The drawback to this format is that it does not always consider individual learning.

Steps in Curriculum Development:

1. Principles and purpose. Set out the intent of your curriculum. Reflect your school’s values, context
pedagogical approaches and needs.
2. Entitlement and Enrichment. Develop your learners’ entitlement (knowledge, abilities, skills Decide
what works well and where there is room for improvement. and attitudes). Enrich his experiences so
that he can make use of them as a means of learning new ideas.
3. Breadth and Balance. Curate the content of your curriculum. See to it that your curriculum content have
sequence skills and knowledge framework.
4. Teaching Narrative. Planning is essential in curriculum development, hence you need to plan how you
will deliver to your learners.
5. Resources. There must be high quality of resources to deliver your curriculum.
6. Review and evaluate. Decide what works well and where there is room for improvement.

Curriculum Approaches
Curriculum Approaches maybe classified into two broad, contrasting categories: the technical
scientific approaches and non-technical/non-scientific approaches (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988).
Technical scientific approaches reflect a traditional orientation about education and formal methods of
schooling. The behavior-rational approach, systems-managerial approach and intellectual-academic
approach belong to this category. In contrast, non-technical/non-scientific approaches tend to challenge
traditional theories and practices and reflect the more progressive views about education. The
humanist-aesthetic approach, the re-conceptualist approach and the reconstructionist approach are
classified in this broad category.

A. Technical scientific approaches view curriculum development as something similar

to engineering or architecture. The curriculum developers which may include specialists,
superintendents, principals and coordinators are likened to engineers and architects who use
instruments and empirical methods in preparing a blue-print and well-defined elements, orderly
sequenced procedures, and quality control measures to increase the probability of success in its
implementation. The basis for the procedure is the scientific method which involves a logical step-by-
step procedure f problem- solving. Curriculum planning involves gathering, sorting, selecting, balancing
and synthesizing relevant information. The procedure is guided by well-defined objectives which are
formulated based on the analysis of normative needs as defined by developmental and psychological
theories, rather than individual needs and interests.
Tyler, a well known proponent of this approach discussed four basic principles in his book “Basic
Principles of Curriculum and Instruction”. These are: 1) purposes of the school, 2) the educational
experiences related to the purposes, 3) organization of these experiences and 4) evaluation of the
purposes when undertaking curriculum development projects. According to Tyler, purses or general
objectives maybe gathered from the subject matter, the learner and society. The educational
experiences are selected to provide the attainment of the objectives. These educational experiences are
organized and sequenced systematically under key concepts, skills and values so as to produce optimal
cumulative effect. As to the fourth principle, the effectiveness of the learning experiences in producing
the intended outcomes is evaluated.
The technical approach employs democratic group decisions and addresses specific curriculum
problems of particular schools. The development process involves not only the teachers but students,
parents and community as well. The effectiveness of the model is based on the following interwoven
principles:
1. The curriculum will improve as the professional competence of the teachers improves.
2. The competence of teachers will improve when they participate in curriculum development.
 3. When the teachers share in selecting the goals and selecting the content and method of
instruction as well as evaluating results, their involvement is assured.
4. 4. When people interact during face-to-face sessions, they will better understand one another.

Behavioral-rational approach. It is a means-end approach which is logical and

prescriptive. It clearly defines the why (objectives, what (content), how (method), when (sequence)
and how much (scope). It relies on technical and scientific principles and involves the preparation of
detailed lesson plans, prescribed step-by-step strategies for formulating curricula. Formulated are
goals and objectives that become the basis for the selection and content and the evaluation of
learning outcomes. Curricula developed through this approach become the blueprint which
prescribe the roles of key figures in the educative process: students, teachers, administration and
staff. Because of the logic, orderliness and rationality of the approach, it is preferred by many
educators in planning a curriculum. Many syllabi, course outlines and lesson plans currently in use in
the educational system reflect this orientation specifying behavioral objectives in the design.
Behavioral objectives which are S-M-A-R-T occupy a central role in curriculum under this approach.

Systems-managerial approach. This considers the major interconnected elements of inputs,

throughputs (process) and outputs that comprise the educational system. This model is influenced by the
systems theory, systems analysis, systems engineering and cybernetics. Curricula prepared under this
orientation describe the interaction of human resources as well as financial resources with the
throughput or process (curriculum and instruction) to produce the desired outputs.
This approach emphasizes the managerial/leadership and supervisory aspects of curriculum
especially in the implementation and organization processes. It suggests that effective learning is a
management and supervisory function. To insure effectiveness of the curriculum, the are certain roles
that the leader must exercise which require interpersonal, academic and technical skills. These roles
include the following:
1. Motivate interests of all stakeholders.
2. Encourage participation and involvement of all stakeholders.
3. Arbitrate conflicting interests of various groups.
4. Synthesize divergent points.
5. Identify common vision and goals.
6. Encourage unity of purpose.
7. Translate abstract ideas to concrete ones.
8. Clarify vague ideas.
9. Organize and implement in-service programs.
10. Communicate timely and accurate information to all stakeholders.
11. Procure needed materials.
12. Monitor curriculum implementation.
13. Organize and implement a mechanism for periodic evaluation.
14. Create a climate of innovation and change.

Intellectual academic approach. This emphasizes the importance of theories and principles in
curriculum planning. This is influenced by the philosophical and intellectual works of Dewey(1916),
Morrison (1927), and Bode (1927). It attempts to analyze and synthesize the historical development,
cultural demands, and philosophical ideas which underpin the curriculum, including issues and trends.
The curriculum boundaries expand to include not only the traditional aspects of teaching- learning,
evaluation and the structure of discipline but also other areas such as guidance, the study of education
and administrative procedures. With this, aspirants for administrative responsibilities must take their
masters degree in administration and supervision or educational management.

A. Non-technical-scientific approach .This is flexible and less structured to guide the

learning- teaching process. It is based on the progressive philosophy where the needs and interests of
individual learners and the needs of society are the priority concerns. It considers that the curriculum
evolves rather than being planned precisely (Ornstein and Hunkins (1988). The proponents of this
approach contend that all ends of education can be known nor indeed need to be known in all cases. The
curriculum is influenced to a large extent by the educational vision wich Jean Jacques Rousseau
espoused in his book Emile. Rousseau believes that teachers provide the pupil opportunities to observe
and discover nature, and learn on his/her own. Advocates of this approach prefer child-centered and
problem centered designs. Emphasis is on the relevance of the curriculum and instruction contextualized
in family life, social activities in school and community life, and individual life adjustment concerns. Using
this approach would mean curriculum goes beyond the formal, prescribed and specified plan to include
the informal and the non-specific one.

Humanistic-aesthetic approach. It is also rooted from the progressive philosophy which

promotes the liberation of learners from authoritarian teachers. These stereotyped teachers emphasize
rote learning and recitations and believe that books are the only source of knowledge. In contrast,
progressive education focuses on the learner rather than the subject matter. It emphasizes activities,
experiences and problem-solving rather than verbal instruction. The curriculum is arranged inductively
where knowledge about the individual learner in terms of interests, concerns and characteristics
become the starting point for individualized instruction. The emphasis is how to learn not what to learn.
The purpose of learning is to enhance the learner’s self-image and to help them gain control of their
lives (personal empowerment).
Progressivism also encourages group learning activities which promote cooperation, rather than
learning through individual competitive efforts. This is an important aspect of the democratic way of life.
This orientation considers the use of democratic classroom procedures essential for social reform.
According to Dewey, an American progressive educator, the school is a mini society where students and
learn and live the democratic way.
Curricula for most pre-schools in the Philippines exhibit humanistic-aesthetic orientation. The
Montessori schools provide the children a variety of activities that interest them at the moment. They
play with educational toys or doing simulation like setting the table which are later on applied in real life
situations.

Reconceptualist approach. It reflects on the existentialist orientation. Proponents argue that the
aim of education is not to control instruction in order to preserve existing orders. Instead, the purpose
of education is to emancipate society from traditional outmoded orders through individual free choice.
They propose that this cannot be accomplished through the means-end approach exemplified by the
techno-scientific models. In contrast, inner consciousness and existentialist ideas serve the foundation of
their views.
Michael Apple (1979), a well known proponent of reconceptualism, emphasizes the relationship
between what he perceives to be political, economic and cultural denominations of the individual in
relation to schools and society. In his view, the school plays a major role in distributing various forms of
knowledge which in turn leads to power and control over others.
Other reconceptualists like Paulo Friere (1970) , consider the curriculum as “human phenomenon”
or “ and background awareness” and “problematic situations”. The larger system is oppressive and
needs to be changed. To this end there is a need to develop a “pedagogy for the oppressed” in which
people must become active participants in changing their own status. This may be done through social
action that aims at changing the larger social order. The foci of the curriculum are community, national
and world problems that need to be addressed through an interdisciplinary approach.
Based on the reconceptualists view the curriculum must be done subjectively through the process of
spiritual and moral introspection, personal reflection to understand the inner self, with the
interpretation of inner consciousness. All of these will contribute to the refinement of an ideological
position. Intuitive, transcendental and mystical concerns are brought to bear on the curriculum planning
process. In line with this idea, conceptualist curricula emphasize learning experiences that develop
personal self-expression, linguistics ,personal biographies, art, poetry, dance, music, drama, literature,
psychology, ethics, and religion among others.

Reconstructionism. The advocates propose a curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism,

internationalism and nationalism which are beyond individual concern. It insists on a social- centered
curriculum. The school is considered as an agent of change which should be on the forefront in creating
a new vision of society and of the future. Then then consider the school as an institution of social
reform. The premise is that, the society is in crisis, it has to look to the school for direction and guidance.
It is the school which should initiate the necessary reforms through research, instruction and community
outreach programs so that a better society can emerge. The vision of Philippines 2000(Philippines 2000
Document) for social transformation and renewal which recognizes the important role of education
toward national development promotes reconstructionism.

Eclectic approach. This is a combination of several approaches in the development of the

curriculum. They are combined to form an integrated whole. What do you think is the approach used in
our Philippine curriculum? Why? Identify the approaches used and discuss the areas/subjects. (Please
include this in your portfolio.)
 MODULE 5
CURRICULUM DESIGN
SHEILA MARIE L. BANDI

Curriculum design refers to the structure or the arrangement of the components or elements of a curriculum. The
basic components are: 1) objectives, 2) content, 3)method and organization and 4) evaluation which are similar to
the four principles formulated by Tyler.

Selection of Objectives

The selection of objectives under a technical scientific orientation is based on the desired outcomes of the
teaching-learning process : development of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, and habits. The current structure
evident in many curricula demonstrates how these outcomes 1)relate to content, 2)provide the basis for its
arrangement, 3)guide the selection of evaluation procedures. Curricula that do not provide opportunities for
learning in these different domains lack balance and constrain the learning process.

Role of Philosophy in determining Objectives

Curriculum development initially proceeds from the identification of purpose which is based on a
philosophical view about education. From general purposes, progressively more specific ones, in the form of
aims/goals and objectives maybe eventually deduced and derived.

Aims. The term is considered as “orientations” not specific quantifiable outcomes that suggest endpoints
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988). According to Doll (1986) educational aims should address the intellectual or cognitive,
the social-personal or affective, and productive. Aims that deal with the intellectual focus on the acquisition and
comprehension of knowledge, problem-solving skills and various levels and methods of thinking. Aims that pertain to
the social-personal are concerned with person-to-society, person to person, and person-to- self interactions. Aims
related to productivity refer to aspects of education that allow individual to function in the home, on the job and as a
citizen and member of a larger society.

Goals. They are specific statements written to be used as guidelines for achieving particular purpose. Goals
are derived from aims. The provide teachers and curriculum decision-makers with broad statements regarding what
should be accomplished in terms of student learning as a result of a particular subject or educational program. The
can be written at several levels of generality- from broad to specific.

Objectives. Here are two types of objectives: those describe school-wide outcome as curriculum goals and
the more specific, and describe behaviors to be attained through various levels of the curriculum (lesson, subject,
unit, program), Taba(1962). These objectives that are school-wide are described as curriculum goals and the more
specific objectives as curriculum objectives. The curriculum objectives as referred to as instructional objectives and
by Mager (1970 as performance objectives.

Philosophy provides the basis for a general theory of education and suggests its goals. It serves a screen for
selecting educational objectives. It also guides the selection of learning methods and strategies in the classroom.
Moreover, philosophy is a source of reflective consideration which enables those working in schools to identify and
even define their specific roles.

The following table presents the aims, goal and objectives of different educational philosophies:

Philosophy Aim Goal Objective

Perrenialism cultivate the intellect Transmit unchanging demonstrate
knowledge knowledge gained
Essentialism educate the competent Master essential skills demonstrate
person and knowledge knowledge gained
Humanism/Progressivism develop the human promote self- apply problem solving
potential actualization in daily life
Reconceptualization develop total promote self- allow self expression
 personality knowledge
Reconstructionism improve society develop skills and apply knowledge and
knowledge needed for skills to change society
change.

Goals of Philippine education. The goals of Philippine education are derived from the 1987 Constitution, Education
Act of 1982 and the Medium Term plan of 2004 to 2010 which states :

“To provide for a broad general education that will assist each individual in the peculiar ecology of his own
society to:

a) attain his potentials as human being;

b) enhance the range and quality of individual and group participation in the function of society, and

c) acquire the essential educational foundation for his development into a productive and versatile citizen.”

The goals of the Medium Term Plan states :

“The ultimate aim of education and manpower development is to enable each Filipino to develop his/her
potentials for self-actualization and productivity. This will enable each citizen to effectively contribute to the
improvement of the family, the community and the biggest society. Central to this goal is the inculcation of
desirable social, moral and cultural values from which shall spring strong, meaningful, and productive
participation in society.”

From the above goals/aims, research on the objectives of Phil. education under the K-12

Curriculum. (to be included in your portfolio)

Taxonomy of Objectives.

Benjamin Bloom, has formulated three different domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. A hierarchy
of objectives was formulated for each domain.

Cognitive domain. Under this domain, objectives are arranged from the lowest category which is knowledge
to the highest for which is evaluation The following figure shows the hierarchy of cognitive objectives based on
Bloom’s Taxonomy:

Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis

Application
Comprehension

Knowledge

Affective domain. These constitute a continuum. According to Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia the
continuum runs the following differentiate behaviors:

1) receiving,
2) responding,

3) valuing,

4) organization and

5) characterization.

The classification of educational objectives emphazises a feeling tone, an emotion or a degree of acceptance or
rejection.

Psychomotor domain. This pertains to physical movement which may involve reflex, basic or skilled
movements as well as perceptual abilities and non-discussive (non-verbal) communications.

(Please do more readings here for you to get the specific verbs that you can use when you prepare
your lesson plans.)

Selection of content.

The following questions are asked when selecting content of the curriculum:

1. What should be included in the curriculum?

2. What knowledge is important?
3. What are the bases for selecting content?
4. What are the sources of information when making a decision for content?

Content is an important component of the curriculum. The current literature on curriculum uses the terms
knowledge, subject matter and content interchangeably. Depending on the level of curriculum, content can have
different meanings. It can mean a list of subjects for program or year level as the content of the elementary
curriculum or secondary curriculum. It can refer to discipline such as science and mathematics. It can denote specific
subject a biology, algebra or history.
When the focus of instruction is the subject matter, classroom teachers become unduly preoccupied with
finishing the syllabus within the allotted periods. The make sure the topics covered will be finished within the
prescribes period, often at the expense of the quality of classroom instruction