Oxford International School

Chemistry

Valence and Electron Configuration

10.2

Group #1: Gonzalez, Valeria, Gratacos, Alanice,

Linero, Sahumi, Pan, Yanny, Rivera, Andrea

August 28, 2023

Introduction

- In this laboratory, we will delve into how quantum theory is applied to the orbitals of
atoms, focusing on the importance of electrons in the outer shell. We will also explore
the different methods used to represent the electron configuration of an element and
thus be able to understand the fascinating behavior of electrons within atoms.

Objectives

● Learn about quantum theory applied to the orbitals of an atom.

● Understand the importance of the electrons in the outer shell of an orbital.
● Learn about the different ways to indicate an element’s electron configuration.

Hypothesis

- If we learn and understand the significance of the electrons in an atom, then we’ll be
able to understand quantum theory when applied to the orbitals of an atom, and the
ways to correctly write and indicate an element’s electron configuration.
Analysis and Observation: Valence and Electron Configuration

Samples Picture:
1. Investigate the following concepts:

a. Quantum model of the atom:

- The quantum mechanical model of atoms describes the three-dimensional position of the
electron in a probabilistic manner according to a mathematical function called a
wavefunction, also called orbitals, often denoted as ψ.

b. Heisenberg uncertainty principle

- Formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, the uncertainty principle states that we

cannot know both the position and speed of a particle, such as a photon or an electron,
with perfect accuracy

c. Atomic orbitals

- An atomic orbital is a mathematical term in atomic theory and quantum mechanics that
describes the position and wavelike behavior of an electron in an atom. A maximum of
two electrons, each with its own spin quantum number s, will occupy each of those
orbitals.

d. Quantum numbers

- The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in an atom
are called quantum numbers. There are four quantum numbers, namely, principal,
azimuthal, magnetic, and spin quantum numbers. The values of the conserved quantities
of a quantum system are given by quantum numbers.

e. Pauli exclusion principle

- Pauli's Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have
identical values for all four of their quantum numbers. In other words, (1) no more than
two electrons can occupy the same orbital and (2) two electrons in the same orbital must
have opposite spins

f. Aufbau principle

- The Aufbau principle states that electrons are filled into atomic orbitals in the increasing
order of orbital energy level. According to the Aufbau principle, the available atomic
 orbitals with the lowest energy levels are occupied before those with higher energy
levels.

g. Hund’s Rule

- Hund's rule states that every orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is
doubly occupied and that all of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same
spin (to maximize total spin).

2. Write down characteristics you observe on the sample substances (color, shape, etc.)
and identify if the substance is an element or a compound. Fill out the table below.

Substance Chemical Formula Characteristics Element or

Compound?

Iron Fillings Fe Dark red color, very Element

small particles of
different shapes and
sizes.

Mossy Zinc Zn Similar appearance Element

to rocks, gray color
with some minor
white spots.

Potassium Chloride KCl White in color, Compound

although very clear
and it looks very
similar to sea salt.

Calcium Oxide CaO White color, powdery Compound

consistency which
can be confused with
flour.

Copper (II) Sulfate CuSO4 Has a powdery but Compound

grainy consistency
and it has a light blue
color.

3. Identify the constituent elements of each substance and obtain their atomic number
and the number of valence electrons. Fill out the table below.
 Substance Constituent Atomic Number # of Valence
elements Electrons

Mossy Zinc Zinc 30 2

Potassium Chloride Potassium and Potassium:19 Potassium: 1

chlorine Chlorine:17 Chlorine: 7

Calcium Oxide Calcium and Calcium: 20 Calcium: 2

oxygen Oxygen: 8 Oxygen:6

Copper (II) Sulfate Copper, Sulfur, and Copper: 29 Copper: 2

Oxygen Sulfur:16 Sulfur: 6
Oxygen:8 Oxygen: 6

4. Write the complete electron configuration for each of the constituent elements present
in each substance. Use the orbital notation and the electron configuration notation.
5. How many unpaired electrons are there in an atom of each of the constituent elements
studied in each sample?

Constituent Elements # of Unpaired Electrons

Zinc 0

Potassium 1

Chlorine 1

Calcium 0

Oxygen 2
 Copper 1

Sulfur 2

6. What are valence electrons? Why do valence electrons determine how an atom
interacts with another atom?

- Valence electrons are the electrons located in the outermost energy level of an atom.
These electrons determine how an atom interacts with other atoms and play a crucial
role in chemical reactions, and is because they are the outermost electrons and are most
loosely held by the nucleus. These electrons are involved in forming chemical bonds,
either by sharing or receiving electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. The
way these valence electrons are shared or transferred between atoms dictates the type
of chemical bond formed. This interaction ultimately determines the chemical properties
and reactivity of the elements involved.
Conclusion

- In summary, quantum theory provides insights into the orbitals of atoms and the behavior
of electrons within them. The electrons in an atom's outer shell are particularly important
as they participate in chemical reactions and bonding. Electron configurations can be
represented using various notations, each highlighting the arrangement of electrons in
different ways.

References

Sarquis, J., & Sarquis, M. (n.d.). Modern Chemistry. Holt McDougal.

Zumdahl, S., & DeCoste, D. (n.d.). Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation. Cengage.

1. Investigate the following concepts:

a. 9.4: The Quantum-Mechanical Model of an Atom. (2022, February 25). Chemistry

LibreTexts.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/College_of_the_Canyons/Chem_201%3A_General_
Chemistry_I_OER/09%3A_Electronic_Structure_and_Periodic_Table/9.04%3A_The_Qu
antum-Mechanical_Model_of_an_Atom

b. CALTECH. (2023). What Is the Uncertainty Principle and Why Is It Important? Caltech
Science Exchange.
https://scienceexchange.caltech.edu/topics/quantum-science-explained/uncertainty-princ
iple#:~:text=Formulated%20by%20the%20German%20physicist

c. Atomic Orbitals - Definition and Detailed Explanation with Examples. (n.d.). BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/chemistry/atomic-orbitals/#:~:text=An%20atomic%20orbital%20is%20a
‌
d. Quantum Numbers (Principal, Azimuthal, Magnetic & Spin) - Definition, Detailed
Explanation with Videos. (n.d.). BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/chemistry/quantum-numbers/#:~:text=The%20set%20of%20numbers%
20used
‌
e. Pauli Exclusion Principle - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.).
Www.sciencedirect.com.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-scie
nce/pauli-exclusion-principle#:~:text=Pauli%27s%20Exclusion%20Principle%20states%
20that
‌
 f. Frank. (n.d.). Aufbau Principle - Detailed Explanation, Diagram, Exceptions. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/chemistry/aufbau-principle/
‌

g. LibreTexts. (2013, October 2). Hund’s Rules. Chemistry LibreTexts.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_
Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Electronic_Structu
re_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/Hund%27s_Rules
‌

2. Write down characteristics you observe on the sample substances (color, shape, etc.)
and identify if the substance is an element or a compound. Fill out the table below.

- No link

3. Identify the constituent elements of each substance and obtain their atomic number
and the number of valence electrons. Fill out the table below.

- The Periodic Table

4. Write the complete electron configuration for each of the constituent elements present
in each substance. Use the orbital notation and the electron configuration notation.

- No link

5. How many unpaired electrons are there in an atom of each of the constituent elements
studied in each sample?

- Shang, Y., Shu, N., Zhang, Z., Yang, P., & Xu, J. (2022). Comment on “Realization of the
Zn3+ oxidation state” by H. Fang, H. Banjade, Deepika and P. Jena, Nanoscale, 2021, 13,
14041–14048. Nanoscale, 14(24), 8875–8880. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1NR07031B

- 3.15: Covalent Bonding: Drawing Lewis Structures of Covalent Molecules. (2020, May
12). Chemistry LibreTexts.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Heartland_Community_College/CHEM_120%3A_Fu
ndamentals_of_Chemistry/03%3A_Molecules_and_Compounds/3.15%3A_Covalent_Le
wis_Structures#:~:text=Since%20chlorine%20is%20found%20in

- Days, C. S. M. S., College, P. E. R. D., Valenceelectrons.com, especially on the periodic

table A. a full-time chemistry writer on, configuration, my mission is to share the
knowledge I. gained about electron, Electrons, V., all, atomic properties I. believe that
quality education should be accessible to, & Twitter, I. hope to empower learners
worldwide to explore the wonders of chemistry. (2023, March 17). Electron
 Configuration for Calcium (Ca, Ca2+ ion). Valenceelectrons.com.
https://valenceelectrons.com/calcium-electron-configuration/#:~:text=Calcium%20does%
20not%20have%20any

- How many unpaired electrons are in a copper atom? (n.d.). Www.vedantu.com.

Retrieved August 27, 2023, from
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/unpaired-electrons-are-in-a-copper-atom-class
-11-chemistry-cbse-5ff34053f291a76c57ca9d4a#:~:text=Therefore%2C%20we%20can%
20say%20that

- How many unpaired electrons are in sulfur atoms? (n.d.). Www.vedantu.com. Retrieved
August 27, 2023, from
https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/unpaired-electrons-are-in-sulfur-atoms-class-1
2-chemistry-cbse-5ffd187a7fb4331a436c7d1f#:~:text=The%20total%20unpaired%20elec
trons%20in

- Study.com. (2023a). Study.com.

https://homework.study.com/explanation/how-many-unpaired-electrons-are-in-the-potassi
um-atom.html#:~:text=Answer%20and%20Explanation%3A

- Study.com. (2023b). Study.com.

https://homework.study.com/explanation/how-many-unpaired-electrons-does-oxygen-hav
e.html#:~:text=Answer%20and%20Explanation%3A
-

6. What are valence electrons? Why do valence electrons determine how an atom
interacts with another atom?

- Biology Online. (2022, July 27). Valence electron - Definition and Examples - Biology Online

Dictionary. Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online.

https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/valence-electron#:~:text=Valence%20electrons%20def

inition%20in%20chemistry,in%20bonding%20and%20chemical%20processes.

- Admin. (2022). Valence electrons - Characteristics and determination of valence electrons.

BYJUS.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/valence-electrons/#:~:text=Valence%20electrons%20are%20the%20

electrons,react%20in%20a%20chemical%20reaction.