CONNECTIONS BETWEEN WIND TONGUINGS AND

KEYBOARD FINGERINGS (1500-1650)

A Document

Presented to

The Faculty of

The Moores School of Music

University of Houston

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

By

Benjamin Jay Crandall

May 2008
 UMI Number: 3311732

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 CONNECTIONS BETWEEN WIND TONGUINGS AND
KEYBOARD FINGERINGS (1500-1650)

U L/Rpniamin Tav Crandall

Benjamin Jay CranHf

APPROVED:

Robert Bates, Ph.D.

Committee Chair

Stf&o u-wt^
Matthew Dirst, Ph.D.

timothy Koozin, Ph.D.

)ean, College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences

Department of Economics

ii
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN WIND TONGUINGS AND
KEYBOARD FINGERINGS (1500-1650)

An Abstract of a Document

Presented to

The Faculty of

The Moores School of Music

University of Houston

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Musical Arts

By

Benjamin Jay Crandall

May 2008
 Organists should understand early wind tonguings. Knowledge of this topic is

essential for grasping the true nature of early keyboard fingerings and is critical for

deciding the proper fingerings to be used when none are indicated in the score. The

thesis of this document is that the various early tonguing systems have analogous

keyboard fingering systems. Wind tonguings can therefore serve as articulation models

for organists. This document comes after an extended period of experimentation as a

performer on both organ and recorder.

The opening chapter includes a transcription, English translation and analysis of

all extant texts on wind tonguings from the period 1500-1650, the first of its kind in any

publication. These tell us what tonguings were used by early wind players, as well as

when and how they were used. The sources suggest that early wind players preferred

using softer consonants than is standard today. Performers used compound tonguings

even for passages played at moderate tempi; single tonguing was reserved for only the

longest note values. Though most of their tonguings produce patterns of strong-weak,

Venitian performers preferred a tonguing that produces patterns of weak-strong.

The second chapter summarizes the contents of all extant written sources on

keyboard fingerings before 1650. These sources describe fingerings that produce single,

double, triple and quadruple articulations. While single articulations are produced by the

use of a single finger on consecutive notes, other patterns are formed by using two or

more fingers in alternation. The most common form, paired fingering, features two

fingers in alternation and normally results in strong-weak patterns. The Venetian,

Girolamo Diruta, advocated a system that reversed the order of fingers, thus creating

patterns of weak-strong.
iii
 The final chapter shows the connections between the physical aspects of the organ

and the recorder. Moreover, the chapter discusses connections between tonguings and

fingerings that produce single, double, triple and quadruple articulations. The Venitian

forms of tonguing and fingering were likely the result of a collaboration between

organists and wind players. The study should help organists employ "keyboard

tonguings" to produce effects similar to those achieved by players of early wind

instruments.

IV
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to first and foremost thank the members of my committee for their

assistance and guidance in the writing of this document. A special thanks goes to Dr.

Robert Bates who headed my committee. I would also like to thank the organ faculty at

the Eastman School of Music, at Brigham Young University and at The University of

North Texas for inviting me to present portions of this document and to receive feedback

from them and their students. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Kristie, for her

unfailing support in completing this document.

v
 CONTENTS

Abstract iii
Acknowledgements v
List of Examples viii

Introduction 1
Overview 1
Review of Previous Research on Early Keyboard Fingerings 6

Chapter 1: Primary Sources on Wind Tonguings 10

Introduction 10
The Written Sources 11
Sylvestro Ganassi dal Fontego 11
Martin Agricola 16
Hieronymus Cardanus 20
Girolamo dalla Casa 23
Thoinot Arbeau 30
Riccardo Rogniono 33
Giovanni Maria Artusi 35
Francesco Rognoni 40
Marin Mersenne 45
Girolamo Fantini 48

Chapter 2: Primary Texts on Keyboard Fingerings 51

Introduction 51
Germany 52
Overview 52
HansBuchner 53
Elias Nicolaus Ammerbach 55
Spain 56
Overview 56
JuanBermudo 57
Luys Venegas de Henestrosa 58
Fray Thomas de Santa Maria 59
Hernando deCabezon 60
Correa de Arauxo 60
Italy 62
Overview 62

vi
 Girolamo Diruta 63
Adriano Banchieri 63
A Comparison of the Texts of Santa Maria and Diruta 64

Chapter 3: Connections Between Wind Tonguings and Keyboard Fingerings 72

Introduction 72
Physical Properties of the Instruments 73
Structure of the Pipes 73
Bellows and Lungs 74
Articulations 76
Even Articulations 77
Single Tonguing/Single Fingering 77
Hard Double Tonguing 81
Double Articulations 82
Review of Intermediate and Soft Double Tonguings on Wind Instruments 83
Review of Intermediate and Soft Double Tonguings at the Keyboard 83
Stongto Weak: Intermediate Tonguing and Paired Fingering 86
Weak to Strong: Soft Double Tonguing and Step-over Fingering 87
Triple Articulations 89
Quadruple Articulations 90
Summary 91

Bibliography 93
Original Sources and Translations, Wind Tonguings 93
Original Sources, Keyboard Fingerings 94
Secondary Sources, Wind Tonguings 95
Secondary Sources, Keyboard Fingerings 97

vu
 EXAMPLES

Example 1. Albert Dolmetsch, "Phrasing" Inherent in Various Early Fingering Systems. 7

Example 2. Kimberly Marshall, Chart of Articulation on the Keyboard 9

Example 3. Hans Buchner, Fundamentum. Summary of Fingerings Rules 2-5 54

Example 4. Ammerbach Fingerings 55

Example 5. Comparison of the Texts of Santa Maria and Diruta on Several Topics 70

Example 6. Structure of Organ Flue Pipes and the Recorder 74

Example 7. Pin Action in a Renaissance Chamber Organ 74

Example 8. Parallels between the Organ Mechanism and the Human Body 75

Example 9. Martinus Agricola, Paradigm for Application of the Tongue 78

Example 10. Hans Buchner, Quern terra pontus 80

Example 11. Ganassi's Double Tonguings 81

Example 12. "Compound Tonguing" in Early Keyboard Fingering Systems 85

Example 13. "Triple Tonguing" in Ammerbach's Fingering Exercise 89

Example 14. Summary of dalla Casa's Compound Tonguings 90

vm
 To Kristie

Whose continued support and encouragement

have assured this document's completion

vin
 "Tonguing is that which, above all else, produces a good and beautiful effect in

playing wind instruments."

—Francesco Rognoni, Selva de variipassaggi, Parte seconda, Milano, 1620, 4.

"Say what one will, such knowledge [of fingering] is of the greatest importance,

and they are wrong who say that it does not matter with which finger one plays a 'good'

or 'bad' note."

—Girolamo Diruta, 77 Transilvano, Venice, 1593, fol. 6r.

IX
 INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

Organists should understand early wind tonguings. Knowledge of this topic is

essential for grasping the true nature of early keyboard fingerings. This knowledge is

also critical for deciding the proper fingerings to be used when none are indicated in the

score. The thesis of this document is that the various early tonguing systems have

analogous keyboard fingering systems. Woodwind tonguings can therefore serve as

articulation models for organists. This document comes after an extended period of

experimentation using early tonguings and fingerings on both the recorder and the organ.

The conclusions presented here are in part the result of feedback received from students

and professors at the University of Houston, Brigham Young University, the Eastman

School of Music and the University of North Texas, where I have had the opportunity to

present this material during the past two years.

Chapter 1 provides the texts and translations of all extent original sources on wind

tonguings from 1500 to 1650. Ten authors from this period provide information on the

topic: Ganassi, Agricola, Cardanus, dalla Casa, Arbeau, R. Rogniono, Artusi, F. Rognoni,

Mersenne and Fantini. Most of these sources originate in Italy; Arbeau and Mersenne

were French; Agricola was German. All but one of the Italian sources concern tonguings

for woodwind instruments; Fantini's text is exceptional in that it concerns tonguings for

the natural trumpet. The earliest source, by Sylvestro Ganassi, supplies instructions

1
primarily for the recorder. The remaining Italian authors wrote principally for the

cornetto.

All of the Italian sources explain two types of tonguings and some of the sources

also explain a third type. The first uses a single consonant (t or d), which creates uniform

articulations. The second type uses two syllables and is divided into three forms. The

first form uses t or d followed by ch; Ganassi described it as "crudo e aspro [crude and

harsh]." The second uses / followed by r; he described it as "tenero [soft]." The third

uses one syllable from the first form followed by r from the second; he described it as

"mediocre [intermediate]." Of these three forms, the soft was preferred by the northern

Italians. Called "lingua riversa [reversed tonguing]," this flourished in sixteenth-century

Venice. It may also have been used in France to some extent.1 One of the last sources to

mention this form is Bartolomeo Bismantova's treatise on playing the recorder from

1677, written shortly after the end of our time period.2 The form fell out of fashion in the

eighteenth century. The third type of tonguing uses three different consonants (t or d, I

and r) arranged so as to produce quadruple articulations (i.e. terelere or derelere).

Chapter 2 provides a discussion of texts from the same period concerning

keyboard fingerings. Nine authors wrote about the topic: Buchner, Ammerbach,

Bermudo, Venegas de Henestrosa, Santa Maria, Hernando de Cabezon, Correa de

Arauxo, Diruta and Banchieri. Four countries are represented among these sources:

Germany, Italy, Spain and France. No contemporaneous texts on keyboard fingerings are

extant from the Netherlands or England, although many keyboard pieces with original

1
The French author, Thoinot Arbeau, mentions a tonguing that used the same consonants, / and r but in
reverse order.
2
Marcello Castellani, "The Regola per suonare UFlauto Italiano by Bartolomeo Bismantova (1677)," The
Galpin Society Journal 30 (May 1977): 81-82.

2
fingerings of English and Dutch origin are extant—most notably those by Sweelinck,

Bull and Byrd. (The many fingered compositions are not discussed in detail in this

study.) The Spanish and Italians, on the other hand, provided texts on fingerings but did

not leave fingered compositions. Modern organists should extract information on

fingerings from these texts and apply this information to the works of Merulo,

Frescobaldi, Correa de Arauxo and Cabezon, among others.

As with tonguings, fingerings may be categorized as belonging to several types.

In the first type—given by some Spanish, German and English sources—a single finger is

used for consecutive notes, normally relatively long ones. In the second—given in both

texts and scores throughout Europe—two fingers alternate when playing scales and

figurations. This latter type has two forms. In the first form, one finger crosses over the

other before the beat or beat division. This was widely employed throughout Europe, and

may be found in Dutch, German, English, French and Italian sources. In the second

form, one finger crosses over the other after the beat or beat division. This was

championed by early Germans as well as the Italian, Girolamo Diruta. Finally, a third

type of fingering, given primarily in Spanish and Dutch sources, calls for three or four

fingers in repeating groups. This type seems to have been reserved for special purposes:

quick scales, figurations and left-hand passages.

Chapter 3 shows connections between woodwind and keyboard instruments, and

between wind tonguings and keyboard fingerings. First, we examine the connection

between the physical characteristics of the recorder and flue pipes of the organ. Then we

examine the connection between the human body (as it pertains to playing the recorder)

3
and the key action, chests and bellows of the organ. When playing with early fingerings,

it is important to keep in mind that the two instruments are physically very similar.

Chapter 3 continues by showing connections between articulations produced by

wind tonguings and keyboard fingerings. First we examine wind tonguings and keyboard

fingerings that produce uniform articulations. The tonguing that uses a single syllable

(called "single tonguing" in modern terminology) is analogous to the keyboard fingering

calling for one finger on consecutive keys. As mentioned above, this type of

tonguing/fmgering was generally employed for relatively long note values. However, a

form of tonguing with two alternating syllables, t and ch (k), could function as a

surrogate single tonguing in passages containing short note values. Although no specific

analogous fingering exists on the keyboard, groupings of three or four fingers may have

sometimes served this purpose.

Second we examine wind tonguings and keyboard fingerings that produce double

articulations. In this section we study two forms of double-syllable tonguings (called

"double tonguing" in modern terminology) and the two forms of keyboard technique

employing alternating fingers. In the first of these two forms, called intermediate or

moderate, the tonguing produces a strong-weak accent pattern: t, d or ch (k) followed by

r. This form is analogous to the fingering described by writers throughout Europe

wherein the crossover occurs before the beat or beat division. In the second of these

forms, called lingua riversa, the tongue produces a "soft" articulation, using / and r to

produce the effect of weak to strong. This effect is soft because the syllable r creates

only a very small articulation after /, which itself does not completely block the flow of

air. In context, however, this weak-strong pattern is not heard as "against the grain." The

4
off-beat of the lingua riversa together with its soft articulations promote a forward

feeling of suavity, grace and elegance of musical line. This form of tonguing corresponds

to fingering with the crossing after the beat or division of the beat. Here the accent

pattern is also weak-strong. When performed in a sensitive manner, this also will not be

heard as "against the grain."

Finally I address triple and quadruple articulations respectively. Since our

sources on tonguing do not address the issue of triple tonguing, we cannot draw any solid

connection between triple tonguings and fingerings. Quadruple articulations are,

however, given by some tonguing and fingering sources. This type of tonguing is formed

by combining t or d with the consonants / and r (terelere or derelere). The Spanish

keyboard sources give fingerings for quadruple articulations; for both hands the

performer uses fingers one, two, three and four repeating (1234 1234).

Perhaps more important than mere data, this document is a unique effort in its

attempt to show the intimate connections that exist between the organ and other wind

instruments. The connections run deeper than just the physical similarities of the

instruments or the transferability of notated music from one instrument to another. The

application of fingers to the keyboard was in a very real way directly and intentionally

analogous to the application of tonguings to woodwind instruments.

5
REVIEW OF PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON EARLY KEYBOARD FINGERINGS

Two of the most recent discussions regarding interpretive aspects of early

keyboard fingerings come from North-German organist, Harald Vogel,3 and from

American organist Kimberly Marshall.4 Their writings, particularly those of Vogel, serve

as benchmarks to our current understanding of the interpretive nature of early fingerings.

I shall refer to some of their writings now and again in Chapter 3.

Vogel identifies Albert Dolmetsch as the first scholar in the modern age to have

discussed the interpretational nature of early keyboard fingerings. In his 1915 book, The

Interpretation of the Music of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Revealed by

Contemporary Evidence, Dolmetsch argues that different systems of early fingerings

produce drastically different articulations.5 Example 1 shows a scale from Dolmetsch

with two different fingering systems, Italian [Diruta] and English [Virginalists]. His

articulation marks are based on hand positions. Notes that can easily be played legato are

given slurs; others are given staccato marks; accents give added weight to the first note of

slurred groups.

Dolmetsch's interpretations conflict with perspectives presented in more recent

discussions. Modern scholars find it difficult to envision early keyboardists as thinking

of their fingering systems as a way of "phrasing" musical lines in pairs or small groups of

3
Harald Vogel, "Keyboard Playing Techniques around 1600," in the works of Samuel Scheidt, Tabulatura
Nova, vol. 3 (Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Hartel, 2002), 145-71. Also see Vogel's comments on keyboard
fingerings in his edition of the Sweelinck keyboard works: Samtliche Werkefur Tasteninstrumente
(Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Hartel, 2005), intro.
4
Kimberly Marshall, "The Fundamentals of Organ Playing," in The Cambridge Companion to the Organ,
ed. Nicholas Thistlethwaite and Geoffrey Webber (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 93-112.
5
Albert Dolmetsch, The Interpretation of the Music (London, 1915), reprint, Washington Paperbacks 51
(Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1969), 380ff.

6
notes. Vogel correctly states that if Dolmetsch's indications are played literally they can

"lead to a crude, unpolished playing style. i»6

Example 1. Albert Dolmetsch, "Phrasing" Inherent in Various Early Fingering

Systems7
With Italian (Diruta's) fingering

it, r r—T a
§JJj £
With English Fingering 3 V ^ <.
2 y
/ 2 3 H ^ ~ \ 3 2-32 i

y" • • • •

Dolmetsch's interpretations have, however, influenced several discussions and

studies of the subject. For instance, Newmann Powell's extensive thesis from Stanford

University, written just after mid-century, follows similar ideas. Powell incorporates

some terminological developments, and he conceives of the articulations as less "violent"

than what Dolmetsch depicts. More recently, discussions have steered away from

6
Vogel, "Keyboard Playing Techniques," 163. Vogel also says, "[Dolmetsch's] interpretation of the
connection between fingering and articulation leads to very distinct groupings in which the articulation of
figuration causes perpetual breaks. In contrast, string bowing and wind instrument tonguing reveal a much
more subtle articulation."
7
Dolmetsch, The Interpretation of the Music, 380.
8
Newmann Powell, "Early Keyboard Fingering and Its Effect on Articulation," (M.A. Thesis, Stanford,
1954), 2-6. For fingering patterns where the finger crossing occurs before the beat, Powell uses the term,
time group. For patterns where the finger crossing occurs after the beat, he uses the term, rhythm group.
These terms have not been employed in any subsequent major discussion on the interpretation of fingering
patterns. However, George Houle does refer to these terms in his article on early woodwind tonguings. See
George Houle, "Tongueing and Rhythmic Patterns in Early Music," The American Recorder 6:2 (Spring
1965): 7.

7
interpretations resulting in "perpetual breaks." Sandra Soderlund's method book (first

published in 1980), Organ Technique: An Historical Approach, features quotations on

articulation extracted from original sources; but her text includes very little editorial

commentary on the interpretation of those excerpts.9

Kimberly Marshall approaches the interpretation of early fingerings a bit more

scientifically by creating a chart showing varying degrees of articulations between

successive keystrokes. Example 2 is a reproduction of her table. A dotted line represents

a depressed key that is lifted where the line angles upward; a solid line represents a

second key being lowered and then held down. Reading her interpretation of staccato on

the chart from left to right, one can see that a wide articulation is formed as the first key

is raised; this is followed by a relatively long silence before the next key stroke begins.

On the other extreme, shown at the bottom of the chart, over-legato is produced by a

significant overlapping of keystrokes.

Sandra Soderlund, Organ Technique: An Historical Approach (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Hinshaw Music, 1986).
Example 2. Kimberly Marshall, Chart of Articulation on the Keyboard10

KEYA KETB
beginning of attack on Key B

Combination of key movement

N
/
/
t
I staccato

/
\
2 non-Ugato
>

/ \
3 structured legato
V /
/ \
4 balanced legato
/

5 modern legato \

/
6 over-legato \

Based on various factors—including statements made by the Spanish keyboardist

Thomas Santa Maria (1565) and the Italian organist Girolamo Diruta (1593)—Marshall

concludes that early fingerings were meant to produce articulations ranging from

structured legato to balanced legato. Her chart shows that in structured legato, the

second keystroke begins as soon as the first has ended. In balanced legato, the second

keystroke begins just as the first keystroke begins its ascent.

10
Marshall, "The Fundamentals," 100.
11
Marshall, "The Fundamentals," 101.

9
 CHAPTER 1

PRIMARY SOURCES ON WIND TONGUINGS

INTRODUCTION

We begin our study with primary texts and examples concerning wind tonguings

published before 1650. Ten written sources are extant, including seven from Italy, two

from France and one from Germany. These extend in time from Sylvestro Ganassi's

extensive Fontegara of 1535 to Girolamo Fantini's Modoper Imparare a sonare di

tromba of 1638. Until now, no publication has brought together all ten original sources

along with English translations of the texts. The original texts given in this chapter are

taken from facsimiles and microfilms of the original publications. Translations of the

Italian and German sources included in this chapter are adapted from modern

publications, edited here for style, clarity and occasional mistakes or misinterpretations;

new translations of the two French sources are by Robert Bates. This chapter also

includes commentaries on difficult issues that arise in the primary sources. We shall

refer back to these documents on tonguings in Chapter 3, which deals with connections

between keyboard fingerings and wind tonguings.

10
THE WRITTEN SOURCES

Sylvestro Ganassi dal Fontego, Opera intitulate Fontegara, laquale insegna a sonare

diflauto chon tutta I'arte opportuna a esso instrumento massime il diminuire il quale

sara utile ad ogni instrumento difiato et chorde: et anchora a chi si dileta di canto

(Venice, 1535), chapters 5-8.12

From 1517, Sylvestro Ganassi dal Fontego (1492-ca. 1550) was a "piffero del

Doge" i.e. a wind player for the Venetian government. As such he probably participated

in many and various processions associated with the Basilica of San Marco. Ganassi

wrote two treatises on instrumental practice, Opera intitulate Fontegara (Venice, 1535)

and Regola rubertina (Venice, 1542). The former discusses performance on wind

instruments, specifically the recorder, while the latter deals with performance on the viola

da gamba.

Ganassi's Fontegara of 1535 is the earliest extant source on wind-instrument

tonguings. It gives a detailed presentation of performance matters specifically for the

recorder, including tables of passaggi and trills; it includes principles concerning breath,

fingering and tonguing. The following is his explanation of the primary forms of

tonguings in use during his time, along with a practice chart illustrating various ways of

pronouncing tonguing syllables:

Original text transcribed from Silvestro Ganassi, Opera Intitulata Fontegara (Venice, 1535); facs.
reprint, Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, no. 18 (Bologna: Forni, 1969). English translation based on
Silvestro Ganassi, Opera Intitulata Fontegara, Venice 1535: A Treatise on the Art of Playing the Recorder
and of Free Ornamentation, ed. by Hildemarie Peter; English translation based on the German translation
(1956) by Dorothy Swainson (Berlin-Lichterfelde: R. Lienau, 1959).

11
 Dimostratione de varie sorte de
lingua.
Cap. 5.
Nota che il moto della lingua si fa
varii effetti per causa del suo proferir
con varie sillabe per tanto intenderai
esser tre moti de lingua ditte
originale. II primo si e in esempio
queste due sillabe te che te che te che.
II secondo tere tere tere te. Et il terzo
lere lere lere le. Et sapi che questi tre
moti originale contiene in si li estremi
con il suo mezzo. Che sia il vero il
primo proferire dil moto primo
originale prociede per sillabe che
causano effetto crudo & aspro: & il
moto terzo de ditte originale per
sillabe piacevole over plane: & il
mezo suo sie il moto de la seconda
originale il quale muove in questo
modo tere tere tere te & chel sia moto
mediocre tu vedi chel contiene in si
due sillabe: la prima del primo moto
originale la seconda del moto terzo
originale pero viene havere il
temperamento di questi dui estremi
cioe de dureza e tenereza. Seguita ti
daro il modo dele variatione sue
produtte dale originale.
De varie effetti de lingua produtte
dale originale.
Capitulo. 6
Nota che i diti moti originali si causa
alcuni effetti de lingua compiuta e
non compiuta: cioe meza la compiuta
sara composta de due sillabe come
son loriginale: la mezza de una
sillaba over litera in questo modo con
velocita. ttttt. ouer ddddd: & dela
sillaba de de ge che over da de di do
Illustration of the Various Kinds of
Tonguing
Chapter 5
You are aware that your tongue can
move in various ways and pronounce
different syllables. Therefore, you
will easily understand that there are
three basic kinds of tonguing. We
have the first kind in these two
syllables: teke, teke, teke; the second
in: tere, tere, tere; and the third kind
in: lere, lere, lere. Notice that the two
extreme kinds of tonguing have a link
in common. The first kind consists of
syllables that are hard and sharp; the
third kind, on the contrary, consists of
gentle and smooth syllables. The link
between them is the second kind of
tonguing: tere, tere, tere, te. That this
should be the intermediate kind is
because the first syllable belongs to
the first kind, and the second belongs
to the third kind. In this way, this
tonguing is a link between the two
extremes of hard and soft. In what
follows, I will show you all the
various possible combinations of these
three basic tonguings.
Possible Combinations of the Three
Basic Tonguings
Chapter 6
Notice that complete and incomplete
strokes of the tongue form the basis of
these three kinds of tonguing. The
complete form consists of two
syllables, as does in general the basic
form: first, a half-syllable or
consonant, tttt or dddd, which occurs
in playing rapid notes, and secondly
du. pero intenderai poter mutare la
prima litera in ogni altra: si come
seria ta te ti to tu. ca che chi co cu: &
in altri modi: & anchora causa uno
nome de lingua chiamata dretta &
riversa la drita sie quella che piu
proferisse la silabe como e la prima
delle originale: & la roversa sera
quella che mancho proferira le silabe
como e la terza originale: & chel sia
la verita doprandose con la sua
velocita perde il suo proferire
pertanto se adimandara riversa.
Modo de praticar li varii effetti
produtti da le lingue originale.
Capitulo. 7.
Nota come io procedo da le litere
vocale accioche possi invistichar
quala silaba over litera la natura ti
habia dotado di esprimere tal che con
piu velocita procedendo con questo
ordine deponendoti li tre moti
originali e poi a mot per moto io
distendero li sui varii effetti da essi
derivati: cioe in questo modo
Teche teche teche teche teche.
Tacha teche tichi tocho tuchu.
dacha deche dichi docho duchu.
Tere tere tere tere tere.
Tara tere tin toro turu.
dara dare dari daro daru.
chara chare chari charo charu.
Lere lere lere lere lere
Lara lere liri loro luru.
13
the syllable de de, ge ge, or da de di
do du. It should be obvious that you
can change the first consonant, so that
you get for instance ta te ti to tu, ka ke
ki ko ku, or other combinations. In
tonguing, one differentiates between
the so-called direct strokes of the
tongue and those that are reversed.
The direct tonguing of syllables is
nearest the first basic form, whereas
the reversed syllables are hardly
tongued at all, like in the third basic
form. Actually, in rapid repetition, the
stroke of the tongue is lost and is
therefore called reversed.
On the Use of Various Tonguings
Chapter 7
You will have noticed that I started
with all the vowels so that you may
decide which syllable or which letter
comes most naturally to you. You
should be able to utter them in such a
way that even at the greatest speed,
the three basic articulations are
pronounced in the order given above.
I will now give you a few of the
possibilities of each of the three basic
forms of articulation.
Teke teke teke teke teke
Taka teke tiki toko tuku
Daka deke diki doko duku
Tere tere tere tere tere
Tara tere tiri toro turu
Dara dare dari daro daru
Kara kare kari karo karu
Lere lere lere lere lere
Lara lere liri loro luru
Et a piu modi che non scrivo secondo
che la natura hopera il terzo moto
dele originate non produse altro
effetto si non che la serve media de
una sillaba come dito inanti. Nota
che volendo tu esercitarti in alcuno
moto di queste lingua sopra ditta in
nela prima originale tu invistigerai
alcune de quelle sillabe qual piacera a
te & essercitarla che con la
frequentatione la farai veloce dela
originale mediocre il simile farai ma
etiam in questo modo con velocita di
modo con espicar una sillaba de tre
litere: cioe in questo modo tar ter tir
tor tur: dar der dir dor dur: char cher
chir chor chur: ghar gher ghir ghor
ghur: il simile dela terza originale
laverai di procedere con questo modo
lar ler lir lor lur & anchora saprai
come tutti li effetti de lingua sia una
sillaba dreta e laltra riversa la dretta
sie la prima sillaba la contraria sie la
seconda.
Dechiaratione della lingua di testa e
gorza & exalar il fiato per comodo
della lingua.
Cap. 8.
Nota che tutti li effetti che fa la
lingua dritta si adimanda lingua di
testa perche la occupa il fiato disoto il
palato & apresso i denti & la lingua
riversa sara lingua di gorza per la
occupatione del fiato che la fa
apresso la gorza & trovasi unaltra
lingua la quale non proferisse sillaba
niuna & il moto suo sie da uno labro
a laltro & per occupar il fiato arente i
lapri la si domanda lingua di testa.
14
There are other ways of articulating
which I have not given here. As
already said, the two syllables of the
third basic form of tonguing naturally
melt into one. When you wish to
practice any one of the above, choose
the syllables you prefer among the
first basic forms and practice them
diligently until you can play them
fluently. Do the same with the
intermediate form, observing however
that, at the same speed, you clearly
pronounce a syllable of three letters,
as for instance: tar ter tir tor tur, dar
der dir dor dur, kar ker kir kor kur, gar
ger gir gor gur. Practice the third form
in the same way, that is to say, lar ler
lir lor lur. Thus you will realize that
all these forms consist of a direct
syllable and a reversed one. The
direct one is the first, the reversed one
the second.
The Function of the Tongue, the
Throat, and the Lips
Chapter 8
In the first basic form, the articulation
of the first syllable is called the
tongue-stroke, because in this, the
breath is released by the tongue
striking the palate near the teeth. The
second syllable is formed in the throat,
as the breath is released there. There
is yet a third method wherein no
syllables are pronounced and is called
head-breath. In this, the lips control
the breath which flows out between
them.
 Already in 1535, Ganassi mentions all types of tonguings discussed by Italian

writers of the later sixteenth and seventeen centuries. He categorizes the tonguing

syllables according to where the consonant is formed in the mouth. The consonants t and

d are produced near the front, while ch is produced at the rear {ch in Italian is pronounced

similarly to k in English). In his eighth chapter (quoted above), Ganassi refers to

articulation with the lips. It should be noted that this is not possible on the recorder (or

other like instruments) since the performer's lips surround the beak of the instrument; it

is, however, possible on some other instruments such as the cornetto, where the lips

vibrate.

Ganassi gives three primary types of tonguing: hard, medium and soft. The hard

type uses the consonants t, d and ch in the following combinations (v= vowel): t[v]ch[v]

or dfvjchfvj. The soft form uses the consonants / and r (in Italian the r is pronounced as a

dental consonant-discussed in detail later): lere. The medium form is created by

combining one hard consonant with r from the soft form and includes tfvjrfv], dfvjrfv]

and chfvjrfvj. The consonant, rather than the vowel, determines the articulatory nature

of the tonguings (hard, medium or soft). The vowels serve to shape the mouth, and for

this reason Ganassi uses all possible vowels (a, e, i, o and w). The performer is required

to practice the tonguings as Ganassi has shown, but he or she may choose whatever

vowel is easiest in performance. Ganassi is unique among our writers because of his

discussion of vowels. His significance cannot be underestimated, both as our earliest

writer on the topic and for the thoroughness of treatment.

15
Martin Agricola, Musica instrumentalis deudsch (Wittenberg, rev. ed. 1545), fols.

32r-35r. 13

Martin Agricola (ca. 1486-1556) spent his working life in Magdeburg (Saxony).

He taught at the Protestant municipal school there and directed music at the Lutheran

Church of St. Ulrich. Among his several treatises, Musica instrumentalis deudsch (rev.

ed.1545) is encyclopedic in nature and includes discussions of music for many types of

instruments. Like Ganassi, his section on tonguings for wind instruments includes

syllables to be used. But unlike Ganassi, he also illustrates and discusses tonguings

appropriate for various note values. The excerpt from his Musica instrumentalis deudsch

concerning these topics is written in poetic verse:

Volget von der zungen bewegung oder The following concerns the
application auffden Pfeiffen. movement or the application of the
tongue to wind instruments:

Ich wil dir nicht bergen noch eins
Welchs auff Pfeiffen nicht ist ein Kleins
Sondern das vornemste stuck zwar
Unter andern / gleub mir furwar /
Nemlich wie die zung im mund gfurt
Auff die Noten wird applicirt.
There is one more thing that I will
not conceal from you, which is not
insignificant in wind instruments
but is indeed the chief aspect—
believe this for a fact. It is namely
how the tongue, guided in the
mouth, is applied to the notes.

Drumb ich dir sag zu dieser stund
Wenn du die Pfeiffe setzt an mund /
Und wild pfeiffen nach dem gsang /
So merck / ob die Noten gehn lang /
Nemlich / ob es Maxime sein
Longae odder Breves allein /
A u s welchen m a n gmeinlich macht
Thus I say to you at this time that
when you bring the wind
instrument to your mouth and wish
to play from vocal notation, then
notice if the notes are long; that is,
if they are large maxime, longs, or
just breves, out of which whole

13
Original text transcribed from Martin Agricola, Musica instrumentalis deudsch (1529 und 1545), facs.
ed. Alterer praktischer und theoretisher Musikwerke, vol. 20 (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hartel, 1896), 183-4
and 186-9. English translation based on William E. Hettrick, ed. and trans., The "Musica instrumentalis
deudsch" of Martin Agricola, Cambridge Musical Texts and Monographs (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1994), 92-95.

16
Semibreves / da halt inn acht.
Die Semibreff / wie ichs verste
Minimae / Semiminimae
Haben gleich application
Das soltu aber so verstan /
Die zunge mustdu bewegen
Und jmm deinem munde regen
Auff ein jtzlichjnn sonderheit
Wie volgend im Exempel steht.
Finger und zung sollen gleich seits.
So laut die Colorathur rein /
Denn wo die zung wird ehr geregt
Dann die finger vom loch bewegt
Lauts nimmer so wol zusammen
Als wenn sie beid zugleich kommen.
Die andern beide Noten schnell
Als Fusa und Semifusel
Haben auch beid einerley weis
Im applicirn / das merck mit vleis /
Wie von den andern ist gelart.
Ydock nicht auff die selbig art
Wievol etzlich im applicirn
Die Semiminimas so furn
Wie es jtzunder ist verzalt
Das wirtstu deudlich sporen bald
Inn einem Exempel gantz fein
Darnach applicir das zunglein /
Auff jtzliche Noten mit list
Wie es drunder geschrieben ist /
Auff Sackpfeiffen kann mans nicht furn
Da miissens die finger regirn.
Volget nach das Exempel von der
zungen application
Wiltu das dein pfeiffen besteh
Lern wol das diridiride /
Dans gehort zu den Noten klein
Darumb las dirs nicht ein spot sein.
17
notes are commonly made.
Observe this.
As I understand, whole notes, half
notes and quarter notes have the
same application, and you should
understand this thus: you must
move your tongue and set it in
motion in your mouth for each
individual note, as the following
example shows. The fingers and
the tongue are to be coordinated,
and thus the rapid passage will
sound clean; for when the tongue is
set in motion before the fingers are
moved from their holes, the sound
is never as good as when they are
both activated at the same time.
The other two fast notes, the eighth
note and the sixteenth note also
both have one method of
application. Observe this
diligently, but not in the same
manner as was taught for the other
notes—although some people, in
their playing, produce quarter notes
in the way described below. You
will soon observe this clearly in a
very fine example. Apply your
tongue accordingly to every note
with artfulness, as indicated below.
On bagpipes the tongue cannot be
used; there it is the fingers that have
control.
Here follows the example of the
application of the tongue.
If you want your playing to stand
the test, then learn well your di ri di
ri de, for this belongs to the small
notes. Thus do not let yourself be
made a mockery.
Auch wiltu weiter speculirn
Und reinnlich lernen colorirn
Mit mordanten rechter massen
So magstus von Lehrmeister fassen
Denn es wil sich hie leiden nicht
Das ich daruon thu unterricht.
Also, if you want to investigate
further and learn to play divisions
cleanly with embellishments of
correct proportions, you may learn
this from a teacher, for it is not
appropriate here for me to give
instruction in this.

Exempel von der zungen application Example of the application of the

tongue:

Dc DC »c DC/DC DC D* 9<t/9t l»c Dc Dc/Dc Dc t>c be/

t>tti 01 r< / t>t r* D i r t / 01 rt W r i / &i ri Df rf /

musics
Dc&cDcDcy
M n f i ri/ &l r t W "V W ri Dt' t ' /

g^a**^
Dt ri Di n / DI i7 Ot rr/ DC DC

DC Dirt DC 01 ri DI ri DI t l DC DC Df,

DC DC Dc tc/Dc Dc Dc bc/bt DC Dcfcc/DeDcDc DC/

01 u Ci ft / Di ri pi n / b<rtDJ vi / DI n DI ri /

[Continued on next page]

18
[Continued from previous page]

Otf DC DC DC/DC DC D* &vVO< DC DC DC/DC DC DC DC/

MtiDfrf / M r i M r i / DirtDirf/DirtDftf/

HUte
DcDt'DCDC/ , .

BffiEPSE^
M rf Di i t / Dl i* Ot rf/ DC DC

*fc-

DcDfrtDcDi t i M tf t>f It DC DC Dtf*

[In the above example, the end of the second staff of the previous page
contains these words in translation: "Or thus." Above the third line are these
words: "And this last one is considered the best by certain people." The
excerpt continues as follows:]

Etzliche brauchen im Colorirn diese Some people employ this method in

art und nemen es die flitter zunge playing divisions and call it the flutter-
wie volget. tongue, as follows.

Exemplum Example

M I N I
I I 1 II
teUdldlcUdbHelicl/lJ
Gttnittttttu,
[The word on the bottom line of this example is "Semitactus," meaning "half-
bar."]

19
 Agricola's treatise is the earliest to explain appropriate forms of simple and

compound tonguings for various note values. Longer note values are tongued with a

single syllable (di) while shorter ones are tongued with two alternating syllables (diri).

The various tonguings may be summarized as follows. The single syllable de is used for

large maxime, longs, breves, whole notes, half notes and quarter notes. The two

alternating syllables di and ri are used for eighth and sixteenth notes; quarter notes can

also be tongued in this manner. For both long and short note values, each note is

tongued. Agricola's flutter tonguing example seems to show a manner of creating

vibrato. The rapid tonguing with / creates this effect because this consonant never

completely blocks the flow of air.

Hieronymus Cardanus (Girolamo Cardano or Jerome Cardan), De musica, ca. 1546,

Chapter 8.14

Cardano was born in Pavia in 1501; he lived in Milan and died there in 1576. The

education that inspired his writings was undertaken in Milan and at the University of

Pavia, where he received a medical degree in 1526. As a youth he studied recorder with

Leo Oglonus. He was granted permission in 1539 to practice medicine in Milan, and in

the ensuing years he became one of the best-known physicians in Europe. Gambling was

his "chief passion"; music was his "chief recreation." His De musica is only a small

segment from his ten-volume Opera omnia, published in 1663.

14
Original text transcribed from Hieronymus Cardanus, De Musica, X, 112-13, in Opera Omnia, 10 vols.
(Lyons, 1663); facs. repint (Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Friedrich Frommann Verlag, 1966). Translation based
on Hieronymus Cardanus, Writings on Music, ed. and trans, by Clement A. Miller, Musicological Studies
and Documents, 32 (Dallas: American Institute of Musicology, 1973), 60-61.

20
 [112] Capvt VIII
De modis generalibus pulsandi
instrumenta secundi generis.
In omnuibus instumentis secundi
generis haec tria pulsando considerari
debent: digitorum varietas Spiritus &
lingua. Digitorum varietatem varias
efficere voces adeo manifestum est vt
demonstratione non indigeat, hoc
enim & praecedenti capite fatis
ostensum est, & in nono dilucidius
declarabitur. Nam hoc vel solo
intuitu cuilibet manifestum est, & qui
nunquam pulsarunt, diserimen hoc
per se intelligent.
At spiritus duae sunt differentiae
generales, altera quidem a
magnitudine sumpta altera ab
impetus : ab impetus tres sumuntur
differentiae remissus qui & grauis
incitatus & medius inter hos : a
magnitudine tres, rursus plenus
vacuus ac?mediocris. Graui seu
remisso vtimur in instrumentis
maioribus & quae facile inflantur vt
Elymis & in grauioribus vocibus,
nam si intento vtaris, maiora
instrumenta stridebunt, & voces
graues proferre non poteris. Contra
acuto seu incitato vteris in
instrumentis quae difficulter inflantur
vt cornibus, item in instrumentis
minoribus & vocibus acutioribus.
Quod si remisso vtaris cornu non
resonabunt voces in paruis
instrumentis & in acutis locis
languidiores factae, propriam
quantitatem non ad amusssim
retinebunt sed discordabunt.
Medius spiritus in mediis vocibus &
in[l 13]strumentis conueniet vt in
lituis, medio enim haec inter cornua
21
Chapter 8
Technique of playing instruments of
the second type
In all instruments of the second type
three techniques of playing should be
considered: use of breath, tongue, and
fingers. Through varied application of
the fingers different tones are formed,
as is clear by demonstration, for this
has been shown somewhat in the
preceding chapter and will be treated
fully in chapter nine. It is evident to
anyone by intuition alone, and even
those who have never played can
understand this difference.
There are two general distinctions in
breathing, one in its amount and the
other in its force. The three kinds of
force are relaxed or slow, intense, and
the median between them. The three
amounts are full, shallow, and
moderate. We use relaxed or slow
breath on larger instruments and on
those that are easy to blow, as
recorders; also in lower tones, for if
you use an intense breath on a larger
recorder it will sound harsh and you
will not be able to produce low tones.
Contrariwise, you use a sharp or
intense breath on instruments that are
hard to blow, as horns (cornua), also
on smaller instruments and higher
tones. But if you use a relaxed breath
on a horn, in smaller instruments the
tones will not sound and in a higher
register they will become feeble and
lose their exact pitch, so that they will
sound discordant.
A moderate amount of breath is
appropriate for tones in the middle
range and for medium-sized
& elymas. Pleni non eadem est
ration quas remissi, licet enim
grauioribus vocibus & instrumentis
conueniat, non tamen his quae facile
inflantur, sed quas difficile. Inani in
paruis instramentis acutis vocibus,
sed instrumentis, quas facile inflantur
: plenissimo igitur & incitato vtemur
in cornibus maximis, paruis cornibus
incitatus & plenus ob inflandi
difficultatem conuenit, vt quarta
coniugatio pereat, nisi forsan in
paruis elymis in grauioribus vocibus
inani atque remisso vtamur,
medioctibus inter rarum & densum
spiritibus vtemur cum omnia fuerint
mediocria.
Lingua autem quatuor modis
pulsando vtimur, Spiritu primo dum
minuit reflexa ad palatum vel extensa
auget obstruendo meatum &
aperiendo vt in cornibus: motu & hoc
bifariam vel recto vel reflexo, mirum
quantum iuuet voces ac variet
mutetque :
Prolatione, haec autem triplex lenis,
quae per liquidas fit vt lere, aspera
quae per mutuas aspiratas vt theche,
mediocris quae mixta est vt there vel
thara.
22
instruments as trumpets (litui), for
they are between horns and recorders.
The effect of a full breath is not the
same as that of a relaxed breath, for
although it is appropriate in lower
tones and larger instruments it is used
on instruments that are hard to blow,
not on those that are easy. A shallow
breath is use in small instruments and
high tones, and in instruments which
are easy to blow. Thus we use a very
full and intense breath on the largest
horns, a very full and relaxed breath
on larger recorders, and a shallow and
intense breath on small recorders. On
small horns a full and intense breath is
used because they are hard to blow, so
that the fourth octave {coniugatio)
may be lost unless, as for example on
small recorders, we use a shallow and
relaxed breath for the lower tones.
We use a moderate breath, between
shallow and full, when everything else
is moderate.
We use the tongue in four ways in
playing: first, when the tongue is
turned up toward the palate it lessens
the amount of breath, or when the
tongue is extended it increases the
breath by closing and opening the
passage, as in horns. This is twofold,
either a direct or reflected flow of air.
It is wonderful how much this
improves the tones and also varies and
colors them.
We also use the tongue to articulate
syllables. This is threefold: a gentle
breath which is formed by liquids as
lere, a sharp breath formed by mute
aspirates as theche, and a moderate
breath which is mixed, as there or
thara.
 This is our text that talks extensively about the nature of the breath and breath

pressure as applied to wind instruments. Only in the last paragraph of our excerpt does

Cardanus mention the tonguing syllables to be applied to playing woodwind instruments.

He calls for the syllables lere for the gentlest of breath pressures. He terms these

syllables "liquidas [liquids]," presumably because of the circular breath associated with

the consonant / and the soft articulation of the consonant r. (Chapter 3 contains more

information on the nature of the various tonguing consonants.) The syllables theche are

to be used for hard articulations. He calls the t and ch sounds "mutuas aspiratas [mute

aspirates]" because they momentarily stop the flow of breath, which simultaneously

creates an increase in breath pressure and in turn creates a harder articulation. Cardanus,

like Ganassi, combines syllables from the soft and hard species to form a "mediocris

[intermediate]" tonguing that uses the syllables there and thara.

Girolamo dalla Casa, II vero modo di diminuir, con tutte le sorti di stromenti difiato,

& corda, & di voce humana (Venice, 1584), introduction to the first and second

books.15

Dalla Casa (d. 1601) performed as a wind instrumentalist (principally on the

cornetto) at the Church of San Marco in Venice. He was well known and respected as a

musician; the Venetian organist Girolamo Diruta referred to a musician who was

probably dalla Casa in his important treatise on organ playing from 1593,77 transilvano

15
Original text transcribed from Girolamo dalla Casa, 77 vero modo di diminuir, con tutte le sorti stromenti
difiato, & corda, & di voce humana (Venice, 1584); facs. reprint, Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, no. 23
(Bologna: Forni, 1970). English translation based on Kevin Seiji Kishimoto, "Girolamo Dalla Casa's II
Vero Modo di Diminuir (1584): Improvisation Performance Practices in Late Renaissance Italy," (M.A.
thesis, University of California at Santa Cruz, 1999), 24-25.

23
(discussed in detail in Chapter 2). Dalla Casa composed many compositions, several of

which are based on pre-existing melodies filled with diminutions. His II vero modo di

diminuir (1584) is the first Italian book to discuss tonguings during the half century

following Ganassi's treatise of 1535, although other treatises explaining diminutions did

appear in print during this time period. In his introduction to book one, dalla Casa

provides the following descriptions concerning tonguings and playing the cornetto:

Libro primo Book one

Delle tre lingue principali. Of the three Principal types of

tonguing

Essendo la lingua riversa, la principal Since the principal type of tonguing is

delle tre lingue la metteremo nel
primo loco, per haver lei la
simiglianza della gorgia piu che
l'altre. Et si dimanda lingua di
gorgia. Questa lingua e velocissima,
& e difficile da rafrenar, lo batter suo
e al palato, & si proferisse in tremodi.
Ler, ler, ler, ler, der ler, Ter, ler, ter,
ler. E'l primo e proferir dolce. II
secondo e mediocre, & il terzo e piu
crudo de gli altri, per esser piu
pontata lingua. Nel principio
deH'opera havete gli essempij di tutte
tre le sorte di proferir: nel qual sara
scritto le sue sillabe sotto ogni nota,
& compagnerete la lingua con la
mano. Questa regola la osservarete
sopra tutti gli essempii.
that of the lingua riversa, we will
discuss it first, for it is more similar to
that of the gorgia type of articulation
than the others. And it does require
gorgia tonguing. This type of
tonguing is extremely fast, and
difficult to control. Its beating is on
the palate, and it proffers itself in three
ways. Ler, ler, ler, ler, der, ler, Ter,
ler, ter, ler. The first is to be done
softly. The second is medium, and the
third is harder than the others, being a
more pointed tonguing. In the
beginning of this work you have the
examples of all three sorts, in which
the syllables shall be written below
each note, and you will accompany the
tonguing with your hand. This will
hold for all of the examples.

La seconda lingua e questa. Tere
tere, tere, terete. Questa lingua si
dimanda lingua dretta, il suo batter e
nelli denti, & e lingua per natura leda,
& e buona per la Minuta di Croma, &
The second tonguing is this: tere, tere,
tere, terete. This tonguing requires a
straight tongue, its articulation is in
the teeth, and is by nature a light
tonguing, and good for examples of

24
Semicroma, essendo naturalmente
rafrenata. Dove haverete il
medesimo essempio, che dico de
sopra.
La terza lingua e questa Teche, teche,
teche, techete. Questa lingua si batte
nel palato appresso alii denti e lingua
cruda per sonatori, che vogliano far
terribilita; non e troppo grata
all'orecchio, & e per natura veloce, &
difficile da raffrenar. Havete
l'essempio simile alle altre.
Ne sono poi due altre, che si
essercitano ordinariamente,
lassaremo alcune altre, che non fanno
proposito per hora di parlarne, parlero
solamente di queste due. La prima e
questa, te, te, te, te, questa e buona, &
si essercita nel proferir le note fino
alia Minuta di Croma. Seguita poi
quest'altra che sproferisse per De, in
questo modo de, de, de, de, Vi potrete
essercitar sopra li medesimi essempi
dell'altre. Questa e piu dolce, che
non e la prima, si batte nel palato, &
l'altra nelli denti. Potrete pigliar
quella vi pare a voi, sono tutte due
pigre per natura, sono dedicate alia
Minuta di Croma. Io non estendero
piu in questo, havendo detto a
bastanza. Trattaremo nel seguente
ragionamento del Cornetto.
Del Cornetto
Degli Stromenti di fiato il piu
eccellente e il Cornetto per imitar la
voce humana piu de gli altri
stromenti. Questo stromento si
adopera piano, & forte, & in ogni
sorte di Tuono, si come fa la voce.
Bisogna dunque essercitarsi a far
25
croma and semicroma, being naturally
controlled. Here you will have the
same format explained above.
The third tonguing is this: Teche,
teche, teche, techete. This tonguing is
articulated in the palate close to the
teeth, and is a crude tonguing for
players who want to give an effect of
terror. It is not especially gratifying to
the ear, and is by nature quick and
difficult to control. You have the
same format as above.
There are two others commonly used,
not to mention several others of which
it would not be appropriate for me to
speak at this time; I will discuss only
these two. The first is this: te, te, te,
te. This is good, and is used in
playing the croma and longer note
values. Then follows the other
tonguing, used for De, in this way: De,
de, de, de. You can use these to make
diminutions upon the same note values
as the first. This tonguing, articulated
in the palate, is softer than the first,
which is articulated in the teeth. You
may use whichever seems best; both
are by nature lazy and are used for the
croma. I will not speak more of this,
having already said enough. We shall
treat in the following paragraph the
cornett.
OftheCornett
The cornett is the most excellent of the
wind instruments since it imitates the
human voice better than the other
instruments. This instrument is played
both loud and soft, in every sort of
tone, as does the voice. You must
practice in order to master this
 buon stromento, & guardarsi di non
far il stromento, che habbi del Corno,
ne del muto. Adonque si deve
accomodar il labro talmente, che
faccia buon stromento, il labro aperto
fa il strumento che ha del Corno, &
muto, il labro troppo stretto fa il
stromento sfesso. Dunque si tenera la
via di mezzo. Vuol esser sonato con
descretione, & giuditio. La lingua
vuole esser ne troppo morta, ne
troppo battuta: ma vuole esser simile
alia gorgia. Poi nella Minuta far poca
robba, ma buona. Si che ogn'uno
tendi al bel stromento, alia bella
lingua, & alia bella Minuta, & ad
imitar piu la voce humana, che sia
possibile.
Io scriuerei ancor de gli altri
stromenti di fiato, ma per esser
questo il principal lasso di scriuerne,
per adesso attenderemo alia Minuta
e next page is a reproduction of only one page of dalla Casa's tonguing examples
26
instrument and take care not to
produce a tone that is horn-like or
muted. One must then adjust the lips
in such a way as to produce a good
tone; open lips give the tone a
somewhat horn-like or muted quality
[whereas] lips which are too tight
make the tone shrill. Therefore follow
the middle way. It should be played
with discretion and good judgment.
The tonguing should be neither too
dead nor too strongly articulated but
should be similar to the gorgia.
Moreover, with divisions do few
things, but make them good. So let
everyone strive for a good tone, good
tonguing and good divisions and
imitate as much as possible the human
voice.
I would write more of other wind
instruments, but since this is the first
of which I shall write, for now let us
proceed to the examples.
 Pflmo E/ftitytoit\\t titfntl it h»gut mtt[f,vitllttht iutftlnitfJl.

it it h it It
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Te rt It it ttrt It tt It Te re If f t tt it tt tt tt ij Toe It tttttt tttt tt ij

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iPiii«piiigiiiiiiiiii
U it.tilt It tt tt it te </ Tt tttt ittt tttt rite ij ^ Tttttt It Hit tttt tt

Tttt tt it tttt tt tt tt H Tt tt tt tttt tt tt tt tt Tt At tt At tt r.tttAt tt

-r.
•Attt Attt Attt Attt ij Ti Attt Attt Attt At tti) Ttihttt&.t
Ttiht

htttchtteij Tt Attt Attt AtttAtttij TtAttt Attt Attt Attt

9 7t tit tt At tt tit tt Attt if Tt At tt At tt At tt AtttIf

P fy~\*L\l^r^fir\+z

f l s i z * £ « 5 i : J3iA4Zz:
~ *«"*J« tfltmfto It Stm&uut it gtih it tuttt

'< ':|,jt«« At /«t*Q»» /* i* fomj.

f
T« Attt Attt At it At tt.

iiiiipiiiiiaiiiiiiiSiiiili
It tt It it It tt hie It Dt it Ittt it it Ittt It Ttitltit ttttltit It tttttt tttttt tttt

tt Tt Attt Attt Attt At tt Tttttiitte uitu u Dt it it it it dt it it it ant ittt ittt ittt

27
 The introduction to volume two of dalla Casa's II vero modo di diminuir also provides
information on tonguings. Specifically, it explains the importance of maintaining a
steady tempo and performing with rhythmic accuracy:
Libro secondo
Del portar la minuta a tempo
Dico esser cosa difficile lo portar la
minuta a tempo, & questa e la
maggiore importanza ad ogn'uno, che
facci questa professione del diminuir
con tutte le sorti de stromenti.
Dunque ciascheduno avertsca nello
studio suo di batter il tempo, & di
non studiar mai senza questo ordine,
& habituarsi alia battuta; perche
facendo altrimenti non farebbe cosa
buona. Et avertisca delle quattro
figure, che la Semicroma (come si
sa) va portata il doppio della Croma,
che son otto, a sedici, & la Treplicate
vanno portate sedeci a vintiquattro,
che e il terzo di piu della Semicroma,
et le Quadruplicate vanno ancor esse
portate una volta piu, che sono dalle
vintiquattro, alle trentadua. Dove
ogn'uno avertira di accomodarsi con
il tempo, & batter la sua minuta a
nota per nota, cosi quelli di fiato,
come quelli che essercitano lo
stromento di tasti, & non correr di
sopra via come fano molti, che
essercitano lo stromento da fiato, che
corrono con la lingua morta senza
batter la lingua con la minuta, per
maggior sua facilita, & per non
poterla rafrenare, come la lingua
roversa che e difficile da rafrenar.
Dunque ogn'uno batti la minuta a
nota per nota, & porti le quattro
figure tutte con il suo tempo, se
desidera far buon profitto.
28
Book two
Of bringing the examples up to tempo
I declare that bringing the examples
up to tempo is difficult, and that is of
the greatest importance to everyone
who plays diminutions, regardless of
the particular instrument being played.
Let each player, then, be careful to
beat the time, and never to practice
without doing this, and accustom
yourself to the beat, because otherwise
it would not be correct. And let him
be careful of the four figures, that the
speed of the semicroma (as it is
known) be precisely the double of that
of the croma, which are eight, i.e.,
sixteen, and the treplicate be brought
from sixteen to twenty-four, which is
one-third more than the semicroma.
The quadruplicate also are brought up
one more time, that is from twenty-
four to thirty-two. Everyone must
adjust himself to the tempo, and beat
his example note by note, whether
playing a wind instrument or a
keyboard, and do not run di soprania,
as may do when playing a wind
instrument, playing with a dead
tongue, without tonguing the example,
to make it easier, because this is
impossible to control, as in the lingua
riversa, which too is difficult to
control. Therefore, let everyone beat
the examples note by note, and bring
these four figures up to the proper
tempo, if he desires to do well.
 While Ganassi refrains from showing any personal preferences for the various

tonguings (instead only categorizing them according to the strength of articulation), dalla

Casa rates the tonguings by quality. His first or soft type has three forms: ler[e] lerfej,

derfe] lerfej and terfe] lerfej. His second or medium type has one form: tere tere. His

third type (equivalent to Ganassi's hard tonguing) also has one form: teche teche. He

considers the third type to be a "lingua cruda [crude tonguing]," which evokes "terribilita

[terror]" and "non e troppo grata all'orecchio [is not especially gratifying to the ear]."

Dalla Casa finds the hard tonguing to be fast and difficult to control. But he also

indicates that this is true for the first type, which he prefers. That these tonguings were

challenging to control seems to be one reason why dalla Casa insisted that music always

be practiced and played up to tempo.

Dalla Casa explains that the first type, which he calls lingua riversa, is the

preferred because of its close imitation of a vocal technique called gorgia, used to realize

diminutions. The imitation of vocal technique was important for instrumentalists of our

time period, and most of the subsequent writers on wind-instrument playing refer to

imitating the human voice as the primary objective. The hard tonguing {teche) was

probably not preferred by dalla Casa because it did not fulfill the objective of vocal

imitation. Part of the issue may have to do with the fact that he played the cornetto.

Tonguings must be softer on this instrument than on other instruments, such as the

tromba; Fantini, a trumpet player and the last of our writers in the period, does not

recommend the lingua riversa except in a few small instances.

29
Thoinot Arbeau, Orchesographie: Metode, et teorie en forme de discours et tablature

pour apprendre a dancer, battre le tambour... (Langres, 1588; 3rd. ed. 1596), pp. 18-

20. 16

Jean Tabourot (1520-1595) published his Orchesographie under the pseudonym

Thoinot Arbeau, an acronym for his real name. The first printing occurred in 1588, with

re-prints following in 1589 and (posthumously) in 1596. All are identical except for the

first two folios. Today the Orchesographie is considered the most important dance

treatise of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The text is written in the form of a

dialogue between the student, Capriol, and his dancing instructor, Arbeau. In addition to

giving information on dance, Arbeau includes examples of rhythms for drumming along

with a few melodies for dancing. The first part of one of these melodies follows the

excerpt below. This battle piece would have been played on either the fife (small

transverse flute) or larigot (small recorder) and accompanied by drum:

Capriol. Donnez moy vne tabulature Capriol: Give me a tabulation of the

du fifre ou arigot comme vous m'auez music for the fife or pipe as you have
donne du tambour. of that for the drum.

Arbeau. Ie vous ay dit que la musique Arbeau: I have told you that the
du fifre ou arigot se compose au plaisir music of the fife or pipe is improvised
du ioueur: Toutes fois ie vous en at the player's pleasure. All the same,
donneray icy vng petit extraict que i'ay I will give you here a little extract that
retire de M Ysaac Huguet Organiste, I have obtained from M. Isaac Huguet,
lequel l'extend surson Espinette depuis the organ builder. Its compass, on his
C sol fa vt, ou B fa B my, iusques en spinet, extends from middle C, or the
Ela: Et pour Basse-contre en lieu de B below it, as far as E (a tenth above),
tambour, il tient du poulce de sa main To imitate the drum the spinet-player,
gauche C fa vt, & du petit doigt by way of making a bass, puts his left
16
Original text transcribed from Thoinot Arbeau, Orchesographie: Methode et theorie en forme de
discours et tablature pour apprendre a danser, battre le tambour, 3rd ed (Lengres: J. des Preyz, 1596);
facs. reprint (Geneva: Minkoff, 1972), 18-20. English translation by Robert Bates.

30
l'octaue en bas, lesquelz in touche par
rechange, S9auoir l'octaue en bas sur la
premiere minime blance, & C fa vt sur
la cinquieme, tenant tousiours feme le
doigt demonstrant sur le G vt, qui faict
l'accord parfaict d'vne quinte auec
ladicte octaue en bas, & d'vne quarte
contre ledict C fa vt.
thumb on C (octave below middle C),
his little finger on the C an octave
below it, and strikes them alternately,
the lower C on the first beat, and the
upper C on the fifth, keeping his first
finger on the G, which makes a perfect
fifth with the said lower C and a
fourth with the upper.

Capriol. II me semble [sauf vostre Capriol: It seems to me, saving your

correction] que par les reigles de correction, that by the rules of music
musique, ceste quarte n'est pas this fourth ought not to be used as a
receuable pour seruir en la Basse- bass.
contre.

Arbeau. Vous le pi enez fort bien, Arbeau: You are quite right, in so far
mais cela s'entend quand on veut faire as vocal music in four parts is
chanter quatre partie auecles voix: mais concerned, but in the present case we
en ce cas icy, il est question du son du are concerned with the sound of the
tambour, lequel ser de Basse-contre, & drum, which serves as a bass, and
parce qu'il n'a poinct de phtongue & because it has no definite pitch or tone
consistance, il est comme ievous ay dit it accords with everything as I have
a tous accords, & n'est pas mal faict told you, and it matters not that the
que l'Espinette le represente en ces spinet should represent it by these
discords accordants, & auant que de harmonious discords. But before I
vous en dormer la Tabulature, vous give you the example you must
vous sonuiendrez qu'il y a deux remember that there are two ways of
manieres de flutter, l'vne en tetant, playing the flute. In the former the
l'aultre en rollat, au premier la langue player's tongue goes te te te or tere
du Ioueur faict te te te, ou tere tere tere, tere tere; and in the latter, rele rele
& au second ieu rolle, la langue du rele. I warn you of this because the
Ioueur faict rele rele rele; le vous example I wish to write out for you
aduerty de cecy, parce que la must be played te te te and not rolled.
Tabulature que ie vous veulx escripte
doit estre fluttee en ieu te te, & non pas
en ieu rolle.

Capriol. Pour quelle raison la doit on Capriol: Why should you play te ter
plustost te ter, que roller? rather than the roll?

Arbeau. Pource-que la pronunciation Arbeau: Because the sound produced

du ieu te te est plus aigre & rude, & by the te te te is sharper and rougher
consequemment plus conuenable au and consequently more warlike than
son guerrier, que n'est celle du ieu the roll.
rolle.

31
Tabulature du Fifre, ou Arigot du Fife or Larigot Score in the Third
troisiesme ton. Tone

«m

iiliiiiiifi

32
 Arbeau indicates that flute players use two different types of tonguings: a harder

type with two forms (te and tere) and a softer type with one form (rele). Arbeau's text

suggests that the r is always rolled. What is fascinating is that the syllables of the softer

tonguing (rele) are a reversal of the Italian soft tonguing, called lingua riversa (lere). For

the given musical example, Arbeau instructs the player to use the harder tonguing

because the nature of a battle piece requires a more percussive sound. As Arbeau

mentions, the musical example was provided by the organ builder, Isaac Huguet. We

know of one instrument built by Huguet: an organ for the Church of Saint-Martin in

Saint-Valery-sur-Somme (Picardy). Upon completion of this organ in 1602, Huguet

produced a list of sample registrations, including one for "fifre et tabourin [fife and

tabor]" and another called "larigot." Probably organists played pieces similar to the

above harpsichord composition, written by Huguet and published by Arbeau.

Riccardo Rogniono [Rognoni], Passaggiper potersi essercitare nel diminuire...

(Venice, 1592), p. 4.17

Riccardo Rognoni (ca. 1550-ca. 1620) spent most of his life in Milan; he worked

as a viol player for the Duke of Teranova, Governor of Milan. His book on playing

passaggi and other ornaments on various instruments is in two parts. The first consists of

a series of exercises (none containing tonguings) of increasing difficulty. The second

part consists of ornamented versions of famous compositions, such as "Ung gay bergier."

The diminutions in these ornamented versions are more rhythmically detailed than those
7
Original text and English translation from Richardo Rogniono, Passaggi per potersi essercitare nel
diminuire terminatamente con ogni sorte d'istromenti (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti, 1592); facs. reprint with
English translations by Brace Dickey, Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, no. 154 (Bologna: Forni, 2002).

33
given by dalla Casa and other earlier authors. They include many dotted notes and other

rhythmic intricacies. Rognoni's discussion of wind-instrument tonguings follows:

Gli stromenti da fiato hanno Wind instruments have several kinds

diverse sorte di lingue, & ve ne son
due le quali si doprano fina alia
minuta di Croma la prima e questa
te te te te, la seconda de de de de;
questa seconda e piu dolce. Per le
Crome, & Semicrome, e Biscrome
sono diverse lingue, pero quasi tutti
i boni Sonatori, ch'ho sentito hanno
questa per la piu dolce ler ler ler ler,
& questa seconda der ler, der ler,
der, & ancora questa terza ter ler, ter
ler, ter; l'ultima ha un poco piu del
crudo: sopra il rutto non si debbe
lasciar Nota che la lingua dia il suo
colpo, & scontrar con le ditta
of tonguings, and there are two which
are used on divisions in eighth notes,
The first is this: te te te te, the second:
de de de de. This second one is
sweeter. For eighth notes, sixteenths
and thirty-seconds, there are various
tonguings, but almost all the good
players I have heard use this as the
sweetest: ler ler ler ler, and this second
one: der ler, der ler, der; and also this
third one: ter ler, ter ler, ter. The last
one is a little bit harsh. Above all you
should never play a note without giving
it its tongue stroke, together with the
fingers, and you should make a good

insieme, & far bono Istrumento. sound.

As with Agricola, Rognoni assigns a single syllable to slower notes and double

syllables to faster ones. Agricola recommended single syllables for note values equal or

longer than quarter notes, whereas Rognoni applies them to eighth notes as well. As with

dalla Casa and Ganassi, Rognoni uses the syllables ler ler. Ganassi explained that these

are simply abbreviations for lere lere.

Because Rognoni does not provide any examples with tonguings, it is unclear

how the tonguings were meant to be applied to the notes. One would suppose that since

only the last vowel was omitted from the syllables ler ler, the r was meant to be

articulated as much as possible. This meant that in a succession of fast notes, the syllable

le would be pronounced on one note and the consonant r on the next. However, if taken

literally that no vowel was to be pronounced in connection with the r, the breath would

momentarily be stopped in the throat, which when performing music as such would
34
create aggressive groupings of pairs of notes. Another problem is that a speaker of

American English might be tempted to pronounce the r by shaping the mouth rather than

as a dental r using the tongue. This would produce a single-syllable tonguing applied to

groups of two notes. Here the flow of air would not need to be cut off and the tonguing

would create a more-subtle articulation between pairs of notes. The problem with this

solution is that no evidence exists to indicate that the Italian r would have been

pronounced this way. Moreover, Rognoni clearly states (immediately after providing the

tonguings in question): "sopra il tutto non si debbe lasciar Nota che la lingua dia il suo

colpo [above all you should never play a note without giving it its tongue stroke]." All

evidence therefore leads us to the same conclusion: the lack of the vowel for the syllables

ler ler is not to be taken literally. Each note must be tongued without stopping the air in

the throat.

Giovanni Maria Artusi, L'Artusi Overo delle imperfettioni delta moderna musica

(Venice, 1600), pp. 2,4, 6.18

Artusi was a composer and theorist but not a performer. While in Venice, he was

a student and faithful follower of Zarlino. Like Arbeau's text, L'Artusi Overo is set as a

dialogue, with a teacher named Vario and a student named Luca. The two characters

discuss the imperfections of contemporary music caused by the inability of musicians to

tune instruments so they can all be played together in any desired key. Our excerpt

18
Original text from Giovanni Maria Artusi, L'Artusi overo delle imperfettioni della moderna musica
(Venice, 1600); facs. reprint, Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, no. 36 (Bologna: Forni, 1968). English
translation based on Malcolm Litchfield, "Giovanni Maria Artusi's L'Artusi, Overo, Delle Imperfettioni
Della Moderna Musica (1600): A Translation and Commentary" (M.A. thesis, Brigham Young University
Provo, 1987).

35
includes dialogues about playing the cornetto beautifully and a discussion on tonguing,
which is very similar to that of dalla Casa, to whom Vario refers near the end of the
excerpt:
[p.2] Vario. . . . Ma si ricerca in
questa attione di Concertare, quella
preportione, 6 vogliamo dire attione
d'uguaglianza fra do loro; di maniera
che uno non supera, 6 non sia
dall'altro superato, la qual uguaglianza
sta nel mezo posta fra lo eccesso, e lo
difetto, & ha natura di congiungere
insieme quella soprabondanza, che si
ritrova nello eccesso, & quel
mancamento che e nel difetto; il che si
fa aggiungendo alia piu debile parte, 6
levando dalla piu gagliarda la
differenza che quelle hanno alia
uguale.
Luca. Di questa sproporzionata
Musica, 6 vogliamo dire
disuguaglianza, voglio raccontarvi, la
impresa di due Sonatori, che l'uno ha
il corpo assai grande, & robusto, e
suona di Cornetto; & l'altro e di statura
comune, & di mediocre vita, ma di
natura gentile: quello fa il
protomastro, e si fa sentire alia
disperata; questo per esser di natura
piu tosto debile che gagliardo, suona
con molta leggiadria e politezza, &
con tanta bella gratia si fa sentire, che
alii ascoltanti da molto piacere; &
ambidui gli ho sentiti in una di queste
Citta famose, dove ogni sera si fanno
Concerti di varij Instromenti, ma
talhora per questo rispetto, con tanta
disgratia, e mala sodisfattione de gli
ascoltanti, che piu tosto genera
fastidio che piacere.
36
Vario: In this action of harmonizing
together one searches for that
proportion, or—we should say—the
action of equality among them, in a
manner that one neither surpasses nor
is surpassed by another—which
equality stays in the middle between
excess and defect—and has the nature
of conjoining the overabundance that is
found in the excess with the lack that is
in the defect, and this is done by adding
to the weak part or taking away from
the vigorous part the difference that
they have with equality.
Luca: I want to tell you about this
disproportionate music, or—we should
say—unequal music, the impression of
two players, one of which has a very
large and robust body and plays the
cornetto, while the other is of an
ordinary stature and has an average
waist, but is of a gentle nature. The
former wants to be the chief master and
recklessly makes himself heard; the
latter because he is of a weak rather
than vigorous nature, plays with much
lightness and politeness and makes
himself heard with such good grace
that he gives much pleasure to the
listeners. I heard both of these in one
of these famous cities where concerts
of various instruments are given every
evening but sometimes in this respect
with much displeasure and
dissatisfaction of the listeners, for it
generates annoyance rather than
pleasure.
 [p. 4] Vario. Questi Sonatori dicono, Vario: The players say that tonguing
che la lingua e quella, che piu affects the good and beautiful more
d'ogn'altra cosa, in questo essercitio than any other thing in the exercise of
del Sonare il Cornetto effettua il playing the cornetto, even though the
buono e '1 bello; se bene vi concorre il lip shares in this, which is very
labro, che e di molta importanza per important for producing the sound. It
proferire il suono: Bisogna dunque is therefore, necessary to know that
sapere che tre sono le lingue there are three principal tonguings.
principali. La prima e detta Rinversa, The first is called reversed and is the
& e la principale delle tre per essere a principal of the three because it is
simiglianza della Gorgia; & alcuni la similar to the gorgia, and some call it
chiamano lingua di Gorgia: Questa e gorgia tonguing. This is very fast and
velocissima, & difficile da rafrenare; difficult to stop; it beats on the palate
lo batter suo e al palato, & si and is uttered in three different ways:
proferisce in tre modi; il primo, ler, thefirst—ler,ler, ler—is sweet and
ler, ler; & e dolce & soave: il secondo, agreeable; the second—der, ler, der,
der, ler, der, ler, der, ler; & e ler, der, ler—is moderate; the third,
mediocre: il terzo, che e piu crudo de which is cruder than the others, is
gli altri si proferisce, ter, ler, ter, ler, uttered ter, ler, ter, ler, ter, ler. The
ter, ler. La seconda lingua second tonguing is called straight
s'addimanda, Lingua dritta; il suo tonguing; it beats on the teeth and is
battere e ne' denti, si proferisce; tere, uttered tere, tere, tere. This is praised
tere, tere: Questa e assai lodata da very much by players and is good for
Sonatori, & e buona per la minuta di the smallest chromas and semichromas
Croma, & della Semicroma; essendo inasmuch as it stops naturally. The
naturalmente rafrenata. La terza third tonguing beats on the palate close
lingua si batte nel palato appresso li to the teeth, is crude by nature, and is
denti, &e per natura cruda, si uttered teche, teche, teche. It is good
proferisce, teche, teche, teche; ella e for those who want to be boisterous and
buona per quelli, che vogliono fare to overdo, as does your friend. This
terribilita, e strafare, come fa quel tonguing is not pleasing to the ears, but
vostro amico. Questa lingua non e offends them; it is by nature very fast
grata alle orecchie, ma le offende; ella and difficult to stop. There are many
e per natura sua assai veloce, & others: one of which is uttered on the
difficile da raffrenare: Ve ne sono di teeth—te, te, te—and is used by the
moltre altre, una delle quali si player in uttering notes down to the
proferisce ne' denti, te, te, te, & se ne smallest chroma; the other is uttered de,
serve il Sonatore alia proferta delle de, de, and is not too fast but has some
note, fino alia minuta di Croma: l'altra laziness. Even though these are
si proferisce, de, de, de, & non e comfortably good, the first three are
troppo veloce, ma tiene alquanto della nevertheless the principal and those
pigritia: Queste se bene sono that are practiced and used by good
comodamente buone, tuttavia, le tre masters.
prime sono le principali, et quelle che

37
da buoni Maestri sono essercitate, &
adoprate.
Luca. Se bene, come dite, ve ne sono
di molte altre, deve pero il buon'
Artista, fare elettione delle migliori, &
in quelle essercitarsi; non restando
pero di sapere, & haver buona
cognitione dell'altre ancora, affmche
ritrovandosi, dove sono altri Sonatori,
che alle volte vogliono (per parer piu
savij de gli altri) fare, per dir cosi,
delle terribilita; egli ancora possi
rispondere, usando quella proportione
d'uguaglianza, che gia detta havete,
che si deve ritrovare ne' Concerti, &
unione de gl'Instromenti. Quanto mo
al fare buono Instromento, come lo
dichiarate? Nasce forse il bene, & il
male dallo Instromento, o dal
Sonatore? 6 dall'uno & l'altro insieme?
se lo Intromento, sara cattivo, & falso,
potra forsi il Sonatore fare, che diventi
buono, 6 appaia buono? & se lo
Instromento sara buono, potra il
Sonatore far si, che diventi, 6 appaia
cattivo?
Vario. Andate adagio Sig. Luca, voi
in poche parole ricercate la cognitione
di molte cose, & tutte importanti, alle
quali sodisfaro; pero vi dico, che tutto
questi disordini nascono dal Sonatore;
dal Sonatore dico, ogni volta che lo
Instromento sara buono, & fatto da
buon Maestro; che quando lo
Instromento fosse fatto da Maestro,
che non havesse molta cognitione di
questArte, sarebbe grave errore dalla
parte dello Instromento: Ma notate,
che questo Instromento e atto quanto
ogni altro ad imitare la voce humana;
e'l buono, & eccellente Sonatore
l'adopra forte, cioe lo fa sentire con
suono gagliardo, & con suono piu
38
Luca: Even though there are, as you
say, many others, the good artist must
therefore select the best and practice
these, not remaining therefore in
knowing and having a good knowledge
of still others, so that if he finds himself
among other players who from time to
time want to be, say, boisterous (to
appear smarter than others), he can yet
respond using the proportion of
equality and unity of instruments that
you have already said must be found in
concerts. As for being in good
instrument, how do you explain it?
Does the good and the bad arise
perhaps from the instrument or from
the player? Or from both together? If
it is the instrument that is ill-natured
and false, will the player be able to
make it become good or appear good?
If the instrument is good, will the
player be able to make it become or
appear ill-natured?
Vario: Go slowly, Luca. In a few
words you seek the knowledge of many
things, all important, about which I will
satisfy you. Therefore, I tell you that
these disorders arise from the player—
from the player, I say, every time the
Instrument is good and made by a good
master. When the instrument has been
made by a master who does not have
much knowledge of this art, there
would be a grave error on the part of
the instrument. But notice that this
instrument is as suitable as any other
instrument in imitating the human
voice, and the good and excellent
player uses it loudly—that is, he makes
it heard with a vigorous sound and with
 rimesso, alto, basso, & in ogni sorte di
tuono, come piu li piace, piu rimesso,
alto, basso, & in ogni sorte di tuono,
come piu li piace, piu e manco,
secondo la sua eccellenza. Bisogna
pero essercitarsi lungo tempo, a far
buono Instromento; actio si possi
guardare di non fare, che lo
Instromento habbi del corno, del muto,
overo del sfesso: lo tenere il labro
aperto lo fa havere del Corno, &
Muto: lo tenere il labro serrato piu del
bisogna, che il Sonatore dia
un'apertura al labro, che sia di mezo:
Vuole ancora esser Sonato con
discretione, & con molto iudicio; la
lingua vuol essere ne troppo morta, ne
troppo battuta; ma simile alia Gorgia:
& questo e il fare buono Instromento.
Quando il Sonatore entra nella minuta,
fara poca roba, ma buona: Talche per
concludervi questo particolare,
bisogna che il Sonatore attendi al
buono, & buono Instromento, alia
bella lingua, alia bella minuta, & ad
imitare quanto piu puote la voce
umana.
[p. 6] Vario. Veramente e
un'Instromento difficile, & di molta
fatica, e di gran studio; il quale per
Sonare una sola parte e di molta
dilettatione, quando pero il Sonatore
ha qualche eccellenza, come havea il
Cavaliero del Cornetto, ne' buoni
tempi; & M. Girolamo da Udine nella
Citta di Venetia, insieme con tanti altri
che in questa nostra Italia sono fioriti.
In other words, Girolamo dalla Casa.
a more responsive sound, high and low,
and in every sort of tone as pleases
him, more or less, according to his
excellence. It is therefore necessary to
practice a long time to be in good
instrument so that one can guard
against making the instrument have an
annoying, muted, or cracked sound:
keeping the lips open makes it have an
annoying, muted sound; holding the
lips closed more than necessary makes
the sound crack. Therefore, to be in
good instrument, it is necessary that the
player give an embouchure to the lips
that is in between. It must also be
played with discretion and with much
judgment: the tonguing must neither be
too lifeless nor too percussive, but
similar to the gorgia—and this is to be
in good instrument. When the player
gets into the figurations, he will make it
a trifle, but good. So, to conclude this
particular, it is necessary that the player
attend to the good and a good
instrument, beautiful tonguing,
beautiful figurations, and imitating the
human voice as much as possible.
Vario: It is truly a difficult instrument,
very fatiguing and requiring great
study, which, in playing only on part, is
of great delight—when the player has
some excellence, like the cavalier of
the cornetto in earlier times and
Girolamo of Udine19 in the city of
Venice, along with many others that
have flourished in our Italy.
 Like dalla Casa, Artusi gives three forms of soft tonguing: ler ler, der ler and ter

ler. His second type of tonguing has one form, tere tere, and as does his third, teche

teche. Artusi criticizes the use of the hard tonguing teche teche with similar descriptions

as those given by dalla Casa. Artusi's main topic is the tunability of instruments, which

influences what he says about beautiful cornetto playing. Vario is asked by Luca

whether it is the instrument or the performer that is at fault if things do not sound good.

Vario's response is that it could be one or the other or a combination of the two. If the

performer does not play with a competent technique, especially with regards to tonguing,

the music will sound bad even if the instrument is good. On the other hand, if the

instrument is not tuned properly or has other problems, even the best of performers

cannot make it sound good, especially when playing in an ensemble.

Francesco Rognoni, Selva de variipassaggi, Parte seconda, ove si tratta deipasaggi

dificili, per gl'instromenti del dar I'archata, portar delta lingua, diminuire di grado in

grado (Milan, 1620), pp. 4-5.20

The son of Riccardo Rognoni, Francesco was born in the second half of the

sixteenth century and died in 1626 or thereafter. Like his father, he spent most of his life

in Milan. In 1620 he was maestro di cappella of the Church of St. Ambrogio and

director of the instrumental ensemble of the ducal court of Sigismund III of Poland in

Original text from Francesco Rognoni Taeggio, Selva de varii passaggi, Parte seconda (Milan, 1620);
facs. reprint, Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, no. 153 (Bologna: Forni, 1970). English translation based on
Richardo Rogniono, Passaggi per potersi essercitare net diminuire terminatamente con ogni sorte
d'istromenti (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti, 1592); facs. reprint with English translations by Bruce Dickey,
Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis, no. 154 (Bologna: Forni, 2002).

40
Milan; Francesco dedicated his Selva to Sigismund. The Selva is likely an expanded

version of a treatise written by Francesco in 1614, now lost, called Aggiunta del scolaro

di violino & altri strumenti. The publication is in two parts: the first concerns matters of

the voice, while the second concerns performance on string and wind instruments. In the

following excerpt from the second part, Francesco talks about tonguing and provides a

tongued musical example:

Avertimenti per li Instromento da Instructions for Wind Instruments

fiato

La lingua e quella, che piu d'ogni
cosa, nell'esercitio de gl'instromenti
da fiato, e principalmente nel
cornetto, effettua il buono e '1 bello,
se ben vi concorre il labro, che e di
molta importanza, per proferire il
suono. Tre sorte di lingue sono in
uso, la prima e detta riversa, & e la
principale, per esser simigliante alia
gorgha della voce humana, questa e
velocissima, e difficile da rafrenare,
il batter suo e al palato, & si
proferisce in tre modi. II primo e, le
re le re le re le, lingua dolce, e
soave. II secondo e, de re de re de re
de, & e mediocre. II terzo e, de re te
re de re te, & e il piu crudo. La
seconda lingua s'adimanda dritta, &
il suo batter e fra i denti, & e di due
sorte, la prima e questa, te re te re te
re te, l'altra e, te te te te te te te;
queste due sorti di lingue, sono
lodate assai per la proferta delle
note, sino alia minuta di croma. La
terza lingua si batte nel palato
apresso a i denti, la quale e, te che te
che te che te, &e di natura crada, e
barbara, e di disgusto a gl'ascoltanti.
Pero la lingua riversa e la piu lodata,
& adoprata da buoni suonatori, in
Tonguing is that which, above all else,
produces a good and beautiful effect in
playing wind instruments, and
principally the cometto, although a role
is also played by the lip, which is of
great importance for producing the
sound. Three kinds of tonguings are in
use. The first is called reversed, and it
is the principal [kind] because of its
similarity to the gorgia of the human
voice. It is very fast and difficult to
restrain. Its striking point is at the
palate, and it is pronounced in three
ways. The first is le re le re le re le — a
soft and smooth tonguing. The second
is de re le re de re de, and is
intermediate. The third is de re te re de
re te, and is the hardest. The second
tonguing is called direct. Its striking
point is between the teeth, and [it] is of
two sorts. The first is this, te re te re te
re te; the other is te te te te te te te.
These two sorts of tonguings are well
recommended for articulating notes in
divisions up to eighth notes. The third
[kind] of tonguing is struck at the
palate near the teeth. This [kind] is te
che te che te che te, and is by nature
harsh, barbarous, and displeasing to the
listeners. However, reversed tonguing

41
 particolare la prima, le re le re le,
aggiongendo nel principio di
qualsivoglia figura, in cambio di le,
te, cioe te re le re le, come nel
contrascritto si vede.
II Cornetto, e un instromento, che
participa della voce humana piu
d'ogn'altro, e bisogna esercitarsi
lungo tempo a far buon'
instromento, actio che non habbi del
corno, & muto. Lo tenere il labro
serrato piu del bisogno lo fa havere
del sfesso, il tenerlo aperto, lo fa
havere del corno, & muto. Adonque
a far buon'instromento, bisogna che
il suonatore dia un'apertura al labro
che sia di mezzo; Vuol ancora esser
suonato, con discrettione, e
delicatezza, cercando d'imitar la
voce humana, e la lingua vuol'esser,
ne troppo morta, ne troppo battuta,
ma simile alia gorgha; e questo e il
far buon'instromento.
[The next page is a reproduction of Rognoni's example.]
42
is the most highly praised and most
generally adopted by good players, in
particular the first [pronunciation], le
re le re le, whereby at the beginning of
any figure, te is added in exchange for
le, thus: te re le re le, as can be seen
opposite.
The cornetto is an instrument which
partakes more in the [qualities of the]
human voice than does any other. It is
necessary to practice for a long time t
master it, so that it does not sound too
horn-like or muted. Holding the lips
closed more than necessary gives it a
shrill quality; holding them open
produces a horn-like or muted quality.
Therefore, you should play it with
discretion and delicacy, seeking to
imitate the human voice; and the
tongue should be neither too dead, nor
too [harshly] struck, but rather should
be similar to the gorgia. These are the
elements necessary for mastery of the
instrument.
 Modo di Dar la lingua al Corneto 6 Manner of Applying the Tongue to the
altro instrumento di fiato Corneto or Other Wind Instrument

It N w it I* nit it It it Ic re k

Francesco's indications are unique in that he places a space between each

tonguing syllable (e.g., te re te re rather than tere tere). While this helps to identify the

syllable that goes with each note, we do not see the pairing of syllables clearly. Like

previous authors, he presents three forms of the soft tonguing (lingua riversa): le re le re,

de re le re and de re te re. Note that his third form is subtly different from that given by

previous authors (tere lere).21 His second type of tonguing contains two forms: te re and

the single syllable repeated, te te. This second form is a departure from the previous

authors' intermediate forms. While not strictly double tonguing, Francesco treats it as if

it were. This form is the first from any of our writers to have the hard syllable {te) on the

weak part of the pair. This type of tonguing can be used for note values greater than or
21
The first syllable of his third form {de) might be a mistake for te, and the third syllable {te) might be a
mistake for le.

43
equal to the eighth note. Francesco's third type, teche teche, is the same as that give by

the other Italian authors; he includes descriptions of this tonguing that are similar to those

given by the others (harsh, displeasing to the listener, difficult to control, etc.).

The exercise at the end of the excerpt represents the earliest extant piece of music

containing tonguing syllables. Francesco employs the single tonguing te and two types of

double tonguing: the first and third forms of the lingua riversa (le re le re and [te] re [le]

re) and one form of the second type {te te). The tonguing given for the fifth note of the

example does not correspond to any of his guidelines. We expect the syllable re since the

previous note was tongued le; instead he writes te. Te may have been placed here

because of the leap downward from the previous note.

Other items in this example are also worth noting. The beginning consists

primarily of eighth notes, with the first group of four tongued differently from those in

the second group: the first group is tongued with the lingua river sa and the second with

the intermediate type te te, lending variety and freshness to the music. The fourth and

fifth half notes of the example are approached with similar tonguings (le re le) but given

different tonguing syllables (re and te). In the phrase that follows these, le is positioned

on a stronger part of the beat than t (a stronger syllable), with three-note groupings (in the

pattern te re le) passing from weak to strong.

44
Marin Mersenne, Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1637), book five, pp. 235 and 274-
22
275

Like Artusi, Marin Mersenne (1588-1648) was not a performer, though he was a

leading mathematician, philosopher, music theorist and savant. His location in Paris was

a meeting place for the intellectually curious. Mersenne maintained correspondences

with well-known intellectual figures such as Descartes, Gassendi, Hobbes and Fermat. In

his Harmonie universelle, Book Five, Propositions VII and XXIII, Mersenne discusses

wind instruments and writes the following about tonguings. We can not be sure where he

derived his information. The first excerpt concerns performance on the flageolet; the

second regards tonguings for the cornetto.

[p. 235] Secondement, il faut Secondly, it is necessary to note

remarquer qu'il y a deux manieres de
sonner de cet instrument, & des
autres qui ont des lumieres, dont
l'vne vient du seul souffle, ou du
vent que Ton pousse, & l'autre de
l'articulation & du mouuement de la
langue: celle la imite l'Orgue, &
cellecy represente la voix: celle-la
est pratiquee par les villageois & par
les apprentifs, & celle-cy par les
Maistres; & finalement celle-la
ressemble aux chosesmortes, ou
muettes, & celle-cy aux vivantes,
parce qu'elle suppose le mouvement
des organes, & particulierement
celuy du bout de la langue, & l'autre
peut se pratiquer avec un soufflet au
lieu de la bouche.
that there are two ways of playing
this instrument and others with
flues. One comes just from the
breath or the air that is blown, and
the other from articulation and the
movement of the tongue. The
former imitates the organ and the
latter represents the [human]
voice. The former is practiced by
villagers and apprentices, the
latter by masters. And finally, the
former resembles dead or mute
things and the latter living things,
for it assumes the movement of
the organs, particularly the end of
the tongue. The other can be
done with bellows in place of the
mouth.

22
Original text from Marin Mersenne, Harmonie universelle, contenant la theorie et la pratique de la
musique (Paris, 1636); facs. reprint (Paris: Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1965). English
translation by Robert Bates.

45
[pp. 274-75] PROPOSITION XXIII
Expliquer d'autres figures des
Cornets, et la maniere d'en sonner
en perfection, avec un example a
cinq parties.
Le Cornet a bouquin se peut
emboucher en trois ou quartre
facons, dont la premiere & la plus
facile, que Ton appelle coulante ou
muette, se fait simplement avec le
vent, comme il arrive aux tuyaux
d'Orgues.
La seconde se fait avec la langue &
la levre, & prononce Ta ta ra ra ra
ra ra ra pour descendre, ou pour
monter une Octave entiere en
diminution, comme Ton void dans
ces exemples.
Tatarara Tatarara Tatararara Tatararara Tata rata rata rata ratara.
46
PROPOSITION XXIII
Explanation of other figures for
the Cornets and the manner of
playing them with perfection,
along with an example in five
voices.
The Cornet a bouquin can be
played in three or four ways, of
which the first is the easiest and is
called coulante [flowing] or
muette [speechless]. It is done
just with wind, as occurs with
organ pipes.
The second is done with the
tongue and lips and is pronounced
Ta ta ra ra ra ra ra ra for
descending or ascending a full
octave in diminution [i.e.,
quickly], as seen in these
examples.
 La troisiesme maniere se fait
simplement avec la langue, & sert a
toutes sortes de notes, excepte aux
demies crochues, pour lesquelles on
use de la seconde facon precedente.
La quattriesme se fait avec la levre,
mais il ne faut dormer qu'un coup de
levre pour deux notes, comme Ton
void dans cet exemple, qui se fait
avec toute sorte d'emboucheure, &
qui sert pour faire voir en combien
de facons Ton peut varier le ieu du
Cornet. Mais il faut remarquer qu'il
s'embouche du coste droit par ceux
qui sont droitiers, & du coste qauche
par les gauchers, encore qu'il s'en
rencontre qui en iouent a droit, a
gauche, & par le milieu de la bouche
assez aysement.
< » j <
Tataa, t<tat<M
Or on fait des diminutions sur le Cornet
iusques a passer trente-deux notes a la
mesure, lors que Ton en sonne en
perfection. L'on faisoit autrefois la
Cadence auec des martelemens, qui
s'expriment par Tara tara, tara, ta, comme
Ton void en ces deux exemples.
LllcJL-dJ n " / i r t f f i l i j i j i H.
Tdratara
The third way is done just with
the tongue and it is used for all
note values except sixteenth
notes, for which the second
manner given above is used.
The fourth is done with the lips.
But only one movement of the
lips occurs for every two notes, as
seen in this example. This is
done for all types of playing and
is used to show how many ways
one can vary performance on the
cornet. It is necessary to note that
it is played on the right side of the
mouth by those that are right
handed, and on the left side by
those that are left handed,
although one encounters people
who play with the right, left and
middle of the mouth rather easily.
iHl
Ta
^—*a
ta
ITaataa
But diminutions are made on the Cornet
beyond thirty-two notes per measure when
one plays perfectly. Previously, the
cadence was made with martelements,
which are expressed by Tara tara, tara, ta,
as shown in these two examples:
tdrata.
47
 Mersenne writes that beginners use only their breath (i.e. not their tongue or lips

to create articulation). For experienced players, sixteenth notes and faster are tongued ta

ta ra ra ra ra.... His first example shows several musical patterns with corresponding

syllables. In the first two measures, he shows ascending and descending scales with a

tongue stroke on every other sixteenth note; this is a departure from all other systems

presented by previous writers. The tonguing creates a legato connection between every

other note. The other measures have dotted rhythms, with most dotted eighths tongued

with ra and most sixteenths with ta. For slow notes (eighth notes and longer)

Mersenne does not provide a tonguing syllable; but probably each note was intended to

be tongued. Mersenne's last way of playing the cornetto involves the use of the lips, with

one "coup de levre [movement of the lips]" for every two notes.

Girolamo Fantini, Modo per imparare a sonare di tromba tanto di guerra quanto

musicalmente in organo, con tromba sordina, col cimbalo, e ogn 'altro istrumento

(Florence, 1638), pp. 7-23.24

From 1631, Girolamo Fantini (1600-1675) was chief trumpeter for the Grand

Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II. His Modo per imparare a sonare di tromba is the lone

treatise on the trumpet from our period. It contains pieces for trumpet and continuo,

23
This tonguing is very similar to that used by French wind players such as Poncein and Hotteterre at the
beginning of the eighteenth century.
24
Original text from Girolamo Fantini, Modo per imparare a sonare di tromba tanto di guerra quanto
musicalmente in organo, con tromba sordina, col cimbalo e con ogn'altro strumento (Florence, 1638); facs.
reprint, Blair Academy Series (Nashville: Brass Press, 1972). English translation based on Girolamo
Fantini, Methodfor Learning to Play the Trumpet in a Warlike Way As Well As Musically With the Organ,
with a Mute, with a Harpsichord, and Every Other Instrument, trans, by Edward H. Tarr (Nashville: Brass
Press, 1975).

48
including eight sonatas for trumpet and organ. The first part of the treatise contains a

large amount of tongued examples and pieces including the following method chart:

Modo di battere la lingua puntata in Method of tonguing with a pointed

diuersi modi. tongue in different ways:

&rnn nnilnnnn
tia tia da la la k ra la la la le ra le ra la

Ma did da ta ra te re da ta ra te re te re da

lera lera la ti ri ti ri da tegbe teghe tegbe da

riiiitmitiUfflTTtttni
U la U ra le ra le ra teghe teghe tegbe teghe tiri ti ri tiri ti

tere te re te re te re le ra lera lera lera teghe teghe tegbe di

5^ ijgpp
te ra te ra H ru ti
^TTTTTH
J J J frrf
ta te ta ta ti ta ta

ti ri ti ri ti ri di la le ra la lata la

teghe tegbe tegbe di lot de ra de ra de ra

£
& ^ g^ TtinuirR
ta te ta te ta te ta le ra U rata ta te ta te ta

la rale ra lara la te gbetegheda te re te re da

49
 Although the vowels are changed much more frequently than in previous sources,

the consonants are the same as in earlier sources, except for the use of ghe, a softer

version ofche. The tonguing presented by Mersenne, taa, is also represented in Fantini,

but the vowel is variable in Fantini: tia or dia.

* * *

Our sources on wind tonguings show variations from one author to another, but it

is possible to summarize them as follows. Single tonguing applies only to relatively long

values, while double tonguing applies to moderate and short values. The sources suggest

that early wind players preferred softer consonants than is standard today. Double

tonguings often include two weak consonants, such as / and r (the r was in most, if not

all, cases a dental r produced by tonguing in the front of the mouth), or a strong

consonant and a relatively weaker one (e.g. t and r). The sources also explain tonguings

that produce quadruple articulations, which use three different consonants in alternation,

for example trlr. The sources do not provide information on tonguings that produce

triple articulations, although they probably existed at the time. All of this can be applied

to keyboard performance, but before doing so we must first study the primary sources on

keyboard fingerings, discussed in the next chapter.

50
 CHAPTER 2

PRIMARY TEXTS ON KEYBOARD FINGERINGS

INTRODUCTION

This chapter concerns texts on keyboard fingerings25 written during the period of

our discussion (1500-1650). These offer our only original-source explanations of the

articulatory nature of early fingerings. In addition to these texts, the reader is invited to

study fingered compositions, many of which are available in modern anthologies and

editions of keyboard music from this period. In particular, the English Virginalists

produced a relatively large amount of fingered music, though they left no written texts on

fingerings.

Ten early texts on fingerings (from nine authors) are extant: two from Germany,

five from Spain and three (from two authors) from Italy. The most detailed sources come

from the Spaniard, Santa Maria (1565), and from the Italian, Girolamo Diruta (1593). As

we shall see, some fingering trends were unique to a particular nationality or author,

while others were common among some or all of the nationalities. Previous scholars

have compiled and translated all nine sources in English. Julane Rodgers includes the

original texts and translations of seven of these in an appendix to her dissertation, "Early

25
In this paper, all fingerings are given with the modern system: thumb = 1, index = 2, middle = 3, ring = 4,
pinky = 5.
26
See, for example, Mark Lindley and Maria Boxall, Early Keyboard Fingerings: A Comprehensive Guide
(London: Schott, 1992).

51
Keyboard Fingering, ca. 1550-1620."27 Barbara Sachs and Barry Ife published

translations of five of these in their Anthology of Early Keyboard Methods. Since these

texts are readily available in these studies (and elsewhere) they are only summarized in

this chapter.

GERMANY

Overview

Two texts are extant from Germany, one by Hans Buchner, the other by Elias

Nicolaus Ammerbach. The following is an overview of the fingering systems given by

these writers.

Buchner (1483-1538):

RH asc. 2323 2323 RH desc.

LH desc. 2323 2323 LH asc.

Ammerbach (ca. 1530-1597):

RH asc. 2323 2323 RH desc.

LH desc. 2323 4321 4321 LH asc.

27
Julane Rodgers, "Early Keyboard Fingering, ca. 1520-1620," (D.M.A. diss., University of Oregon,
1971). She includes all die texts from the period 1500-1650 except for Adriano Banchieri's two texts,
Conclusioni nel suono dell'organo and L 'organo suonarino and Correa de Auraxo's Facultad Organica.
28
Barry Ife and Barbara Sachs, Anthology of Early Keyboard Methods (Cambridge: Gamut Publications),
1981. Sachs and Ife include neither the earliest Spanish source (Juan Bermudo) nor Correa de Arauxo's
text since the cut-off date for their study is 1620. They also provide neither a translation of Buchner nor
Ammerbach, although they do discuss their writings and include their musical examples. For a translation
of Correa's text, see Jon Burnett Holland, "Francisco Correa de Arauxo's Facultad Organica: A
Translation and Study of its Theoretical and Pedagogical Aspects," (DMA Diss. University of Oregon,
1985).

52
Hans Buchner: Fundamentum, sive ratio vera, quae docet quemvis cantum

planum...(en. 1520)

Buchner's Fundamentum is the earliest extant source on keyboard fingerings. It

was written around the first half of the sixteenth century, probably ca. 1520. However,

extant copies of the Fundamentum date from around mid-century. Buchner's discussion

of fingerings consists of a short section, "De commoda digitorum applicationo [On the

Suitable Application of the Fingers]," wherein he asserts that good fingering lends grace

and ease to a player's performance. This is followed by a "communemformam [a

common outline]" of nine rules for good fingering. Buchner also supplies a fingered

setting of the composition, Quern terra pontus.

The nine rules discussed by Buchner in his "communemformam " are summarized

as follows. The first rule states that the performer may recognize the proper fingering for

any note by looking ahead to the following note. This is reemphasized in rule nine,

where Buchner states that the finger that is to play the following key should be available

and ready "quantum fieri potest [as far as possible]." In rules two through five, Buchner

spells out fingerings for ascending and descending three- and four-note passages.

These fingerings are illustrated in Example 3. Rules six through eight concern interval

fingerings. Thirds are taken by fingers two and four; fifths and sixths by fingers two and

five; octaves by fingers one and five.

Johannes Buchner, Fundamentum, sive ratio vera, quae docet quemvis cantum planum (Germany, ca.
1520); microfilm reprint from Zurich, Zentralbibliothek, MS 284.
30
The autograph is not extant.
31
Rules two to four regard fingerings for the right hand. In rule five, Buchner tells the reader that the
fingerings given for the right hand can be transferred to the left by inverting the ascent and descent. Thus
they are in mirror image. Unlike all later authors on fingerings, Buchner does not provide guidelines for
passagework beyond four notes. One reason for this may be the brevity of the figurations found in the
music of the period, most made up of four-note patterns. Longer figurations are almost always consecutive
non-linear four-note groups that follow the contours provided by Buchner in his discussion.

53
Example 3. Hans Buchner, Fundamentum . Summary of Fingerings Rules 2-5

RH: 4 3 2 3 | 2 3 2 3 2 3 4 | 4 3 2

,—m, 0 , — II -m—•—*—
1 "T m + —0 • 1 •-—« 1

LH: 2 3 2 3 | 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 | 2 3 4

Buchner did not discuss the concept of strong and weak notes. Nevertheless, the

fingerings he provided both in his rules and fingered example, Quern terra pontus, make

it apparent that this concept did exist and was important. In his rules and example,

fingers two and four play on the metrically strong notes in nearly all figurations except

when an ornament is present.32 In fact, Buchner sacrificed the duration of long notes in

order to maintain the proper fingerings for passagework. Quern terra pontus shows that

fingerings for figurations trump interval fingerings: long notes usually cannot be held

their full value (and in many cases very little of their value). When a single hand plays

both a long note and a figuration at the same time, the prescribed fingerings force the

release of the long note before the end of its duration. Given the large number of such

occurrences, Buchner must have done this quite intentionally. For Buchner, the right

fingering was more important than sustaining long notes their full values.

32
Buchner, Amerbach and Diruta give the only extant early systems that place the right hand fingers two
and four on strong notes. In Buchner's fingered example, ornaments are always on the strong beat and
always use the third finger.

54
Elias Nicolaus Ammerbach, Orgel oder Instrument Tabulatur (1571)33

The fingerings given in Ammerbach's treatise from 1571 (revised 1583) confirm

the concepts found in Buchner's system. Ammerbach included several lines of notes

fingered for both the right and left hands. The fingerings used are similar to Buchner's.

However, for ascending passages in the left hand, Ammerbach sometimes employs the

thumb rather than cross the third finger over the second (Example 4).

In addition, Ammerbach is more apt to place the third finger of the right hand on strong

notes.35

33
Elias Nikolaus Ammerbach, Orgel oder Instrument Tabulatur (Leipzig: Jakob Berwalds Erben, 1571);
facs. reprint (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).
34
Lindley and Boxall, Early Keyboard Fingerings, 35.
35
Lindley and Boxall, Early Keyboard Fingerings, p. xi: "Ammerbach would use 3 just as readily for
strong as for weak notes."

55
SPAIN

Overview

Spanish sources on early keyboard fingerings comprise over half of the existing

texts from the period of our discussion. Santa Maria's is the most detailed, with Correa's

also giving a substantial amount of information. Others are less detailed, with many only

prescribing interval and scale fingerings (ascending and descending). An abundance of

Spanish texts exist, but surprisingly, no fingered pieces from Spain are extant, even

though some of the texts provide short fingered examples. Except for Correa's Facultad

organica, all of our Spanish sources were written around the middle of the sixteenth

century.

Bermudo (ca. 1510-after 1559):

R H asc. 1234 1234 4321 4321 R H desc

L H desc. 1234 1234 4321 4321 L H asc.

Venegas de Henestrosa (ca. 1510-1570):

4321 321
or
RH asc. 3434 3232 RH desc.
4321 321
or
LH desc. 3434 2121 LH asc.

Santa Maria (ca. 1500/10-1570):

RH asc. 3434 3232 RH desc.

LH desc. 3434 2121 LH asc.

56
 Cabezon (1541-1602):

RH asc. 3434 3232 RH desc.

LH desc. 1234 1234 4321 4321 LH asc.

Correa de Arauxo (1584-1654):

Ordinary:

RH asc. 3434 3232 RH desc.

LH desc. 3434 2121 LH asc.

Extraordinary:

234 234 432 432

or or
RHasc. 1234 1234 4321 4321 RH desc.
123 123 321 321
or or
LH desc. 1234 1234 4321 4321 LH asc.

Juan Bermudo, Comienca el libro llamado declaration de Instrumentos musicales

(1555)36

Juan Bermudo's text is the earliest of our Spanish sources (1555). His text on

keyboard fingerings is brief, mentioning only a few fundamental elements. The text

begins by explaining interval fingerings. The octave is taken with the first and fifth

fingers; sixths are taken by the first and fourth or second and fifth (he mentions that two

fingers are between each pair); thirds are played with the first and third or second and

fourth (he mentions that one finger is between the pair). Bermudo then provides the

reader with three "avisos [warnings]." In the first, he advises the performer to look ahead

36
Juan Bermudo, Declaration de Instrumentos Musicales (Spain, 1555); facs. reprint ed. by Macario
Santiago Kastner, Documenta Musicologica, vol. 11 (Kassel: Barenreiter, 1957).

57
when choosing the correct fingering. The second warning is for the performer to exercise

all fingers because any of them can be used as circumstances arise. In the third warning

he explains the fingerings for long passages: the right hand ascends with the first, second,

third and fourth fingers (repeating this four-finger pattern as needed) and descends with

the same fingers in the reverse order. The left hand likewise ascends with the fourth,

third, second and first fingers and descends with the same in reverse order. Both repeat

as needed. He says that these fingerings are to be used as much as possible. When one

hand must play a long note and a scale at the same time, the performer must use whatever

fingers are free, even if this means not following the normal fingering pattern.

Luys Venegas de Henestrosa, Libro de cifra nueva (1557)37

Some of Venegas' directions on fingering vary from those given by Bermudo.

Venegas tells the reader to play descending passages in the right hand and ascending

passages in the left hand with the following fingering: (5)4321 321.... The left hand can

also use fingers two and one. The fingering 1234 34... is used for ascending passages in

the right hand and descending passages in the left. Venegas tells the reader that he or she

should practice these fingerings on half notes, quarter notes and eighth notes until they

are played cleanly. Finally, he writes that experienced players have the option of using

fingerings different from the ones given if they find something more suitable.

Luis Venegas de Henestrosa, Libro de cifra nueva (Alcala, 1557); ed. by H. Angles, Monumentos de
miisica espanola, vol. 2 (Barcelona, 1944).

58
Fray Thomas de Santa Maria, Libro llamado arte de taner fantasia (1565)38

Santa Maria began working on his treatise in 1540, twenty-five years before its

publication date of 1565. While the author's primary aim is to teach the reader to

compose or improvise works based on fundamental rules and practices, the treatise also

discusses keyboard performance practices in some detail. The clavichord (monochordio)

is the keyboard instrument for which most of his performance rules are intended. The

treatise is composed of an introduction followed by two partes or books. The material

applicable to performing at the keyboard is contained in book one, sections XIII-XIX:

XIII Concerning the conditions required for playing with all perfection and
39
artistry
XIV Concerning the method of good hand placement
XV Concerning the manner of striking the keys
XVI Concerning the method of playing with purity and distinctness of tones
XVII The method of moving the hands in upward and downward runs
XVIII Concerning the method of playing with proper fingerings

XIX Concerning the method of playing in good rhythmic style

A discussion of Santa Maria's text as it compares with Diruta's text appears at the

conclusion of this chapter.

38
Tomas de Santa Maria, Libro llamado arte de taner fantasia (Valladolid: Francisco Fernandez de
Cordova, 1565); facs. reprint (Geneva: Minkoff, 1973).
39
Translation based on Thomas de Sancta Maria, Arte de taner fantasia: The art of playing the fantasia,
trans, by Warren E. Hultberg and Almonte C. Howell, Jr. (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Latin American
Literary Review Press, 1991).
59
Hernando de Cabezon, Introduction to Obras de musicapara tecla, arpayvihuela de

Antonio Cabezon (1578)

Hernando de Cabezon's introduction to Antonio Cabezon's Obras de musica of

1578 contains one short section on fingering, entitled "El orden que se ha de tenerpara

subiry baxar en la tecla [Rules that must be observed in order to ascend and descend on

the keyboard]." In it, he tells the reader that the right hand ascends with the third and

fourth fingers and descends with the third and second. The left hand ascends 4321 4321

and descends 1234 3434. Hernando also gives some interval fingerings. Fifths and

sixths are played with the first and fourth or with the first and third fingers. Thirds can be

played with the second and fourth, first and third, or third and fifth. Ornaments in the

right hand are played with the third and fourth or second and third. In the left hand, the

ornaments called quiebros are played with the third and second or second and first

fingers.

Correa de Arauxo, Facultad orgdnica (1626)41

Correa's Facultad orgdnica, published in 1626, is the latest text in our period.

More than any other Spanish author, Correa bases his directions for fingerings on playing

well on the accidentals. He presents an "ordinary" fingering system that is for beginners

and for passages with few accidentals; his "extraordinary" system is "for those who are

beginning to become masters" and for passages with accidentals:

40
Hernando de Cabezon, ed., Obras de musicapara tecla, arpayvihuela de Antonio de Cabezon (Madrid,
1578); ed. by H. Angles, Monumentos de musica espaiiola, vols. 27-29 (Barcelona, 1966).

Francisco Correa de Arauxo, Facultad orgdnica. Libro de tientosy discursos de musica practica (Alcala,
1626); ed. by M. Kastner, Monumentos de la musica espaiiola, vols. 6 and 12. (Barcelona, 1948 and 1952).

60
 Carrera ordinaria de subir con la
mano derecha, se haze con tercero y
quarto dedo, y de baxar, con tercero
y segundo. Carrera ordinaria de
subir con la mano izquierda, se
haze con Segundo y primero dedo,
y de baxar, con tercero y quarto. Y
aduiertase que carrera ordinaria
llamo, a la que le haze por teclas
blancas, y extraordinaria a la que se
haze por blancas y negras,
mezclando vnas con otras.
The ordinary ascending run with the
right hand is played with the third
and fourth fingers, and descending
with the third and second. The
ordinary ascending ran with the left
hand is played with the second and
first fingers, and descending with the
third and fourth. And it should be
noted that the ordinary run is what I
call the one which is performed on
the white keys, and the extraordinary
run that which is performed on white
and black keys, mixing one with the
other.

While ordinary runs are played with two fingers, extraordinary runs can be played

with three or four. Extraordinary runs for three fingers should be played in the right hand

using the three middle fingers, and in the left using the first, second and third fingers.

Here follows Correa's instructions for practicing an ascending extraordinary run in the

right hand.

Comencareis a subir co segundo You should begin to ascend with the

dedo de la mano derecha desde
fefaut graue retropolex, que es la
segunda tecla blaca que cae a
vuestra mano izquierda, y subireis
otra tecla con el tercero, y otra con
el quarto, y bolvereis a comencar
desde la siguiente, que es bemi
blaco, otra vez con el segundo: y
deste modo yaeis, subiendo hasta la
vltima, que es alamire agudissimo.
second finger of the right hand from
grave F retropolex, which is the
second white key for the left hand.
You should ascend another key with
the third finger, and another with the
fourth; then you should begin again
on the following note, which is B,
once again with the second finger.
In this fashion you should continue
to ascend until the last note, which is
the agudisimo a".

The instructions for other ascending/descending three-finger forms for the right and left

hands are similar. Correa tells the reader to practice these runs at first on white keys.

61
 Extraordinary runs can also be performed with four fingers. In either hand, one

uses the first, second, third and fourth fingers. In addition, mixed extraordinary runs,

which use a combination of two, three or four fingers in repetition are possible. These

are meant to be a starting point for experienced players:

Toda esta materia de trueque de All of this material about changing

dedos, pertenece ya para maestros, a finger positions is for masters, for whom
los quales basta abrirles este camino, all that is needed is the road to be
para que ellos con su ingenio lo opened, so that they, with their
acaben de perficionar, y suplan lo ingenuity, might perfect it, and
que a este tratado le falta. supplement what this treatise is lacking.

ITALY

Overview

Two Italians, Girolamo Diruta and Adriano Banchieri, wrote about fingerings

around the turn of the seventeenth century. The following is a summary of their systems.

Diruta (ca. 1554-afterMarch 1610):

RH asc. 4343 2323 RH desc.

LH desc. 2323 2323 LH asc.

Banchieri (1568-1634):

RHasc. 3434 3232 RH desc.

LH desc. 3434 3232 LH asc.

62
Girolamo Diruta, 77 transilvano dialog sopra il vero modo di sonar organi et istromenti

dapenna (1593, part one)42

Girolamo Diruta lived in Venice some years before publishing the first

comprehensive treatise on organ playing. He wrote the text in the form of a dialogue

under the title // transilvano, and published it in two parts (Venice, 1593 and 1609). Part

one, containing information on fingering, was published in Venice when Diruta was

organist of Chioggia Cathedral. In II Transilvano he codified the method of his teacher,

Claudio Merulo; two other teachers are mentioned: Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590) and

Constanzo Porta (ca. 1528-1601). The section of// Transilvano of greatest importance to

us is entitled, "Regolaper sonar Organi regolatamente con grauita e leggiadria [Method

for Correctly Playing the Organ in a Disciplined Way, with Dignity and Grace]." This is

followed by sections on arm and hand positions, fingerings and finger techniques, and

embellishments. Diruta's text will be discussed in more detail at the end of this chapter,

when his comments are compared to those of Santa Maria.

Adriano Banchieri, Conclusioni nel suono dell' organo (1608) 43 andL 'organo

suonario (1611)

Banchieri approved of Diruta's treatise but he presented contrasting fingerings. In

both the Conclusioni and L 'Organo suonarino, Banchieri presented the following

42
Girolamo Diruta, 77 Transilvano (Venice: Giacomo Vincenti, 1593 and 1609); facs. reprint with intro. by
Edward J. Soehnlen and Murray C. Bradshaw in Bibliotheca Organologica, general ed. Peter Williams, vol.
44 (The Netherlands: Frits Knuf Buren, 1983).
43
Adriano Banchieri, Conclusioni nel suono dell 'organo (Bologna, 1609); facs. reprint (New York: Broude
Brothers, 1975).
44
Adriano Banchieri, L 'organo suonarino (Venice, 1605); facs. reprint in Bibliotheca musica Bononiensis,
no. 31 (Bologna: Forni, 1969).

63
guidelines. Octaves are to be played with fingers one and five; sixths and fifths with one

and four, or two and five; thirds with two and four, one and three, or three and five. In

the right hand, ascending scales are played 3434 and descending scales 3232. In the left

hand, ascending scales are played 2121 and descending scales 3434.

A COMPARISON OF THE TEXTS OF SANTA MARIA AND DIRUTA

Santa Maria and Diruta provide us with the most comprehensive explanation of

keyboard fingerings and keyboard performance practices of any authors. Both discuss

many of the same topics relevant to keyboard performance, including fingerings, hand

shape, wrist, arm and body positions, articulations, and the use of the thumb. While one

might expect some differences in the authors' approaches to these topics, there is more

variety than expected. For nearly all topics, each author's view is different from, if not

the opposite of, the other's. Diruta's 77 transilvano of 1593 never refers directly to Santa

Maria's text, written twenty-eight years earlier, even though his comments make it clear

that he knew the technique described by Santa Maria. It is equally clear that Diruta

attempted to provide a new approach to keyboard performance—an approach he knew

was different from past and current practice, but which he felt was necessary for fluent

and graceful performance.

The first difference is how musicians thought of various keyboard instruments.

With only one passing exception, the Spanish authors, including Santa Maria, refer to

keyboard instruments in a generic sense. Santa Maria refers principally to the clavichord

(monochordio), though he did not exclude any keyboard instrument in his discussion. He

infers that his instructions may also be applied to the organ as far as appropriate. About

64
thirty years later, Diruta's text reveals a tendency towards specialization among

keyboardists. Concerned primarily with performance on the organ, he is the first to

provide a significant explanation of the difference between techniques for the organ and

stringed keyboard instruments. Players of stringed keyboard instruments, who specialize

in playing light dances, cannot be good organists, and visa versa:45

e di qui naste, che il Sonatore da So it arises that players of dances

balli, 6 non mai, 6 di rado, sonera
bene cose musicali ne gl'Organi,
&all'incontro gli Organisti mai
soneranno balli ne gl'istrumenti da
penna bene; perche la maniera e
rarely if ever play serious musical
pieces well on the organ. And in the
same fashion, organists will never
play dances well on quilled
instruments, because the manner is

differente, come vi ho detto. different, as I have told you.

The second difference stems from the new style of music that developed between

the time of Santa Maria and Diruta. Diruta refers specifically to the performance of

works by Claudio Merulo and other contemporary Italian musicians. This Italian style

featured long passages of diminutions over or under two-, three- or four-note chords. The

music of Santa Maria's time does include similar passages, but far less frequently, and

when they do occur they are much shorter.46

In general, Santa Maria's comments are focused on creating good tone and fluent

performance on the clavichord. Diruta's comments are reactionary in nature. He wants

people to perform in a new way. For instance, he insists that the arm guide the hand, not

vice versa as was done in the past. When he says that someone has a poorly-trained

hand, he no doubt refers to those who use the older technique of Santa Maria.

45
Girolamo Diruta, // Transilvano, 7r.
46
See for example Santa Maria's musical examples in the second part of his text. Music from other
countries also featured short figures. Sachs and Ife note, "German sixteenth-century music has short,
stereotyped figures." Sachs and Ife, Anthology, 57.

65
 Come il braccio deue guidar la How the Arm must Guide the Hand
mano.

Dir. Questo forse, esenza forse e il
piu importante di tutti gli altri, e se
bauete mai posto mente a questi che
banno mal habituata la mano, par
che siano stroppiati, poi che non si
vede loro se non quelle dita, con
quali toccano i testi, e gli
altrianascondano, tenendo anco il
braccio tanto basso, si, che sta sotto
alia tastatura, e guidata dal braccio,
come si deue. Onde non e
merauiglia se questi tali, oltre la
fatica'che pateno'nel sonare, non
fanno'cosa che sty bene. Ma s'io vi
potessi dipingere vna mano, che
facesse questo effetto di leggiero
intendereste, come debba esser
guidate dal braccio, & ancora come
se incoppi la mano, & se inarchino
le dita.
Diruta: Without a doubt this is the
most important of all the rules. If
you have ever noticed those who
have poorly-trained hands, it seems
as if they were lame, because one
can only see those fingers which
strike the keys, the other fingers
being hidden. They also hold the
arm so low that it is under the
keyboard, and it seems that the
hands are hanging from the keys.
All this comes about because the
hand is not guided by the arm as it
ought to be. So it is not remarkable
that performers such as these, in
addition to the fatigue they suffer
while playing, never do play well.
But if I could depict a hand for you
that would have this effect, you
would understand easily how it
should be guided by the arm, and
also how the hand should be shaped
like a cup and the fingers curved.

One of the most significant differences between the information presented by

each of the two authors concerns hand position. In the passage quoted above, Diruta

indicates that the hand should be cupped. Santa Maria tells the reader to create a paw-

like hand position instead .47

La segunda condicion, que es poner Good placement of the hands

bien las manos, consiste en tres consists of three points. The first is
cosas. La primera es, que las manos to crook the hands like the paws of
se pongan engarauatadas, como a cat, in such a way that between
manos de gato, de tal manera que the hand and the fingers there

47
Santa Maria, Libro llamado arte, ch 14. Translation based on Arte de taner fantasia, Warren E. Hultberg
and Almonte C. Howell, Jr. (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Latin American Literary Review Press, 1991).

66
entre la mano y los dedos, en
ninguna manera aya Corcoba
alguna, mas antes el nascimiento de
los dedos ha de estar muy hundido,
de tal manera que los dedos esten
mas altos que la mano puestos en
arco.
La seguda cosa, es traer las manos
muy cogidas, lo qual se haze alle
gado los quatro dedos de ambas
manos, que son segundo, tecero,
quarto, y quinto, vnos a otros,
especialmente pegando el dedo
segundo al tercero, lo qual se puede
hazer mejor con la mano derecha, q
con la yzquierda, y esto haze mucho
al caso para tafier co suauidad y
dulcera. Assi mesmo ha de andar el
dedo Pulgar muy caydo, y muy mas
baxo que los otros quatro, pero ha
de andar doblegado para detro, de
suerte que el medio dedo dela
coyuntura adelante, ande de baxo
dela palma, y el dedo pequeno que
es el quinto, ha de andar encogido
mas que todos los otros, de tal
manera que casi llegue ala palma.
La tercera cosa es, que de tal
manera se pongan las manos, que
los tres [next page] dedos de cada three [37v.] fingers of each hand,
mano que son segundo, tercero, y
quarto, anden siempre sobre las
teclas, assi quando mere menester
herir las, como quando no, y de mas not; and that furthermore the second
desto, el dedo segundo,
specialmente el de la mano derecha, must be a little elevated, or higher
ha de andar vn poquito mas
leuantado, o mas alto que los otros
tres, que son tercero, quarto, y
quinto.
should be no sort of hump
whatever, but rather that just before
the juncture with the fingers there
must be a depression so that the
fingers will be higher than the hand,
and will form a bow.
The second point is that the hands
should be very contracted, which is
done by bringing closer to one
another the four fingers of each
hand—that is, the second, third,
fourth, and fifth. Especially should
the second cling to the third, which
can be done better in the right than
in the left hand; and this is very
pertinent to playing in a smooth,
sweet manner. At the same time,
the thumb must maintain a more
downward position, much lower
than the other four, but it must bend
inward so that the half of it beyond
the joint goes beneath the palm.
The little finger or fifth finger has to
be contracted more than any of the
others, to such an extent that it
almost reaches the palm.
The third point is that the hands
should be placed in such a way that
the second, third and fourth, are
always over the keys, both when
they need to strike them and when
finger, especially of the right hand,
than the third, fourth, and fifth.
67
Santa Maria explains how to execute an ascending ran with the right hand:
Para correr las manos ala parte
superior, y ala parte inferior... sea
de aduertir, que para esto se
requieren quatro cosas. La primera
es coger mucho las manos, dela
manera que antes fue notado.
La segunda cosa es trastornar vn
poquito las manos hazia la parte que
se cortieren mayormente quando se
taneren Corcheas, o Semicorcheas.
La tercera cosa, es quando se
corriere hazia la parte superior, y
fuere co la mano derecha, que
communmente se sube con los dos
dedos, que son tercero y quarto,
leuantar el dedo tercero cada vez
que ouiere herido la tecla mas que
el quarto, y el quarto no leuantarle
mas de quanto se aparte o despeque
dela tecla, de suerte que parezca que
va arrastrando por las teclas, y de
mas desto este dedo quarto ha de yr
hiriendo al cabo de las teclas, y el
dedo tercero mas adetro, y el dedo
segundo ha de yr vn poco en
cogido, y mas alto que el tercero, Y
desta manera puesto este dedo
segundo, ha de yr pegado al dedo
tercero, y assi lleua mucha fuerca la
mano, sin lo qual todo es imposible
subir los puntos con perfection, y
por tanto es necessario tener grand
cuenta con esto sobredicho del dedo
segundo, como de cosa muy
importante. Si al subir se corriere
con la [39] mano yzquierda sea de
leuantar el dedo quarto, cada vez
que ouiere herido la tecla mucho
mas que el dedo tercero que es el de
en medio. Y quando se subiere con
el dedo primero y segundo sea de
Santa Maria, Libro llamado arte, ch 17.
For the movement of the hands in
runs toward the upper and lower
registers . . . four requirements
should be observed. The first is to
keep the hands well contracted in
the way already indicated.
The second requirement is to turn
the hands slightly in the direction of
the run, particularly when playing
quavers or semiquavers.
The third requirement is that in
making ascending runs with the
right hand toward the upper register
(which ascent is commonly
executed with two fingers, the third
and fourth), to raise the third finger
more than the fourth after each
stroke of the key, and not to raise
the fourth more than is sufficient to
separate or detach it from the key,
so that it will appear as though it
were being drawn along the keys.
Moreover, the fourth finger must
strike the tips of the keys, with the
third further in, and the second
finger must remain somewhat
contracted and more elevated than
the third. With the second finger
held in this fashion, it must adhere
to the third finger, and thus the hand
achieves more force. Without all
this it is impossible to produce
ascending notes with perfection,
and therefore it is necessary to pay
close attention to what was said
above concerning the second finger,
as a matter of great importance. In
ascending runs with the [39] left
hand, the fourth finger must rise
much more than the third or middle
finger after each stroke of the key,
 leuantar el segudo cada vez, que
ouiere herido la tecla mucho mas
que el primero, Y el primero no sea
de leuantar mas de quanto se aparte,
o despegue delas teclas. De suerte
que parezca que va arrastrando por
ellas.
and in ascending runs with the first
and second, the second must rise
more than the first after each stroke
of the key. The first must not be
raised more than is sufficient to
separate or detach it from the keys,
so that it appears that it is being
drawn along them.

Example 5 is a chart summarizing the authors' positions on several topics. The

differences in their approach result in contrasting effects on articulation. Santa Maria

prefers a greater differentiation between strong and weak beats. His lowered wrist and

use of finger 2 as support for 3 in the right hand produces a heavy strong beat. Diruta's

approach creates less differentiation and produces softer articulations.

69
Example 5. Comparison of the Texts of Santa Maria and Diruta on Several Topics

Santa Maria Diruta

principal
monochordio (clavichord) organ
instrument

cat paw; "supporting linger"

curved fingers; one not curved
hand shape raised and in contact with
more than another
principal finger

strong
fingers RH: 3; LH: 2 asc, 3 desc RH & LH: 2 & 4
(scalar
passages)

wrist
below the keyboard level with the hand
position

arm
position
(repeated elbow shifted away from the hand and arm perpendicular to
notes and direction of the passage the key being played
scalar
passages)

avoid—LH asc. fingering is 2323

thumb on avoid—but LH asc. fingering is
to avoid the possibility of the
black keys 2121, even if 1 is on a black key
thumb playing a black key

balanced legato ("one raises and

structured legato (the finger is
lowers the fingers at the same
articulation raised completely before the next
time"); notes are held their full
finger plays)
value and not shortened

clarity of tone achieved by

do not strike keys; hold key for
tone striking the key and holding it
the full value of the note
down firmly

70
 * * *

The sources in this chapter vary considerably regarding the choice of fingers.

However, they overwhelmingly agree on certain fundamentals. For long note values, a

single finger plays consecutive notes. For moderate and short note values, two fingers

alternate. The authors also discuss the use of three and four fingers in repetition. Santa

Maria and Diruta, who represent two different styles of performance, provide us with the

most detailed discussions on fingerings. The fingering systems discussed in this chapter

are analogous to the tonguing systems presented in Chapter 1, as we shall see in our final

chapter.

71
\

CHAPTER 3

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN WIND TONGUINGS

AND KEYBOARD FINGERINGS

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we explore the connections between woodwind and keyboard

instruments, and between wind tonguings and keyboard fingerings. First, we examine the

connections between the physical properties of the recorder49 and flue pipes of the organ.

When playing with early fingerings, it is important to keep in mind that the two

instruments are physically very similar. Then we examine the connections between the

human body, specifically as it pertains to playing the recorder, and the key action, chests

and bellows of the organ.

This chapter continues by showing connections between articulations produced by

wind tonguings and keyboard fingerings. First we examine wind tonguings and keyboard

fingerings that produce uniform articulations. Second we examine wind tonguings and

keyboard fingerings that produce double articulations. In this section we study two forms

I use the recorder in this discussion because I play the instrument and because it is the woodwind
instrument closest in physical construction to the organ flue pipe. However, the cornetto was probably the
most used woodwind instrument in professional and church circles during the time period under discussion.
The cornetto does not have a mouth apparatus like the recorder, but rather uses a mouthpiece similar in
nature to that of brass instruments. Even so, the salient features are in common among all woodwind
instruments: a resonating body with holes for changing the pitch and a human body that provides air flow
and valve devices (principally the tongue).

72
of double-syllable tonguings (called "double tonguing" in modern terminology) and two

forms of keyboard technique employing alternating fingers. Third, we touch on triple

articulations, which are rare in the fingering sources and non-existent in the extant

sources on wind tonguings. Finally, we explore the relationships between quadruple

tonguings and fingerings using repeating groups of four fingers.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE INSTRUMENTS

Structure of the Pipes

A few illustrations and tables along with an accompanying explanation will serve

to explain the physical similarities between organ flue pipes and the recorder. Example 6

shows the construction of characteristic wood organ pipes and the top portion of a

recorder. Organ flue pipes and the recorder both have a channel for wind flow with a

block to direct the wind, a mouth where the sound is created, and a tube beyond the

mouth that acts as a resonating body. When wind flows into the windway of an organ flue

pipe or into the windway of a recorder, a thin sheet of wind is produced. At the mouth,

sound is created by the interaction of the sheet of wind with the upper lip. Essentially, if

one turns the recorder upside down and replaces the beak of the recorder with a suitable

toe, the result is an organ flue pipe.

73
Bellows and Lungs

The second connection concerns the winding and articulating components of the

instruments. Example 7 shows the inner mechanism of a small chamber organ.50

Example 7. Pin Action in a Renaissance Chamber Organ

ffombtHowi

50-
Peter Williams and Barbara Owen, The New Grove Organ (New York: W.W. Norton, 1988), 10.

74
 For the organ to produce sound, it is first necessary to create wind. This is done

by filling reservoirs, called bellows, with air. Weights on the bellows apply pressure to

the air, which is channeled to the pallet box. When a key is depressed, the connecting

action unseats the pallet or valve, which allows wind to flow out into the groove. From

there it flows into the toe holes at the bottom of the pipes and finally into the pipes

themselves.

A similar process works for playing the recorder. In the human body, wind

pressure is created by the force of the lungs and muscles upon inhaled air. When air

flows up into the mouth, the tongue acts as a valve for the emission of wind. When air is

allowed to flow out of the mouth by means of a "tongue stroke" (a movement of the

tongue affecting the flow of air), the wind enters the recorder. Example 8 is a chart

showing parallels between the organ mechanism and the human body.

Example 8. Parallels between the Organ Mechanism and the Human Body

Organ mechanism Human body

Pallets and key mechanism Tongue

Pallet box and bellows Lungs and stomach muscles

In spite of the similarities between the organ and recorder, there is one important

difference. Fingering on the recorder controls pitch only and does not control

articulations.51 On the organ keyboard, however, the fingers do control articulations. As

51
The covering and uncovering of key holes does create a transient. Thus it is not ever truely possible to
create an over-legato articulation on the recorder.

75
we have seen, each key on the organ (along with its corresponding pallet and connecting

mechanism) has the same function as the tongue on the recorder. Keyboardists of earlier

times achieved appropriate articulations by developing a fluent tonguing technique—a

tonguing executed by the fingers. In the next section of this chapter, we examine their

"keyboard tonguings."

ARTICULATIONS

All tonguing sources use consonants as a way of describing the various tonguings.

In the earliest known written source on tonguings, Silvestro Ganassi's treatise on the art

of playing the recorder (Venice 1535), the most commonly used consonants are broken

into three categories: those in which the tongue acts at the front of the mouth (lingua di

testa), those in which it acts at the back of the mouth or throat (lingua di gorza), and

those in which the tongue is not used at all. In the last category, the lips alone control the

breath.52 Later authors similarly divide their tonguings into these categories.

The sources feature two types of tonguings: single and compound. In single

tonguing, a single movement of the tongue manipulates breath flow. In compound

tonguing, more than one consonant is employed. Double tonguing uses alternating

consonants, and has three basic forms (discussed in detail later). Triple tonguing is used

by modern performers and must certainly have existed in earlier times, but is not

Ganassi, Opera, ch. 8. The kind of tonguing wherein the lips control the breath is not applicable on the
recorder since the recorder beak is inserted between the lips. However, instruments such as the fife,
transverse flute and various instruments using a mouthpiece (such as the cornetto and trombone) could use
this technique. Also note that this technique of bypassing the tongue is not transferable to the organ since
opening organ pallets is required in order to release wind into the pipes.

76
mentioned in the sources. Quadruple tonguing features the use three different

consonants, with the second and fourth always being the same.

Sources on keyboard technique describe fingerings that correspond to both single

and compound tonguings. The first uses a single finger to play consecutive keys. The

second uses two or more fingers. The use of only two fingers in alternation corresponds

to double tonguing. The use of three fingers corresponds to triple tonguing, although

such tonguing is not mentioned in our sources. Finally, the use of four fingers

corresponds to quadruple tonguing.

Even Articulations

On wind instruments, even articulations are created in two ways: by single

tonguing and by one of the three forms of double tonguing. In the realm of keyboard

fingerings, a single finger used on consecutive keys naturally creates even articulations.

Single Tonguing/Single Fingering

All tonguing sources recommend single-tonguing with consonants formed in the

front of the mouth, which Ganassi called lingua di testa. Ganassi recommended t or

alternately its softer neighbor d. These are the same as what modern performers use. The

t was formed, according to Ganassi, in the front of the mouth just behind the teeth.53 He

said that the two consonants could be associated with any vowel: "It should be obvious

that you can change the...consonant, so that you get for instance ta te ti to tu."54

Ganassi, Opera, ch. 8 : " . . . the breath is released by the tongue striking the palate near the teeth."
Ganassi, Opera, ch. 6. See Ganassi's practice chart, Example 11 of the present study.

77
 Some of the tonguing sources also give guidelines for when single tonguing is to

be employed. In his text of 1545, Agricola illustrated half notes and quarter notes

tongued with a single syllable, given in Example 9. The top staff features half notes and

is tongued with a single syllable (de). In the second staff, which contains only quarter

notes, he gives the reader a choice between single and double tonguings. Faster notes are

double-tongued, as shown in the third staff.

Example 9. Martinus Agricola, Paradigm for Application of the Tongue55

i
fF3 i J • J J1 h^1
/ IL f * » f f t • f f T » t ^:

The maneuver on the organ analogous to single tonguing is playing successive

notes with one finger. Santa Maria mentions the appropriate places to use "single

tonguing" at the organ:

Quando se taneren Semibreues con la
mano derecha, todos se han de herir
con el dedo de en medio, excepto
quando otra boz lo impidiere, quando
se taneren con la mano yzquierda se
pueden herir el vno con el dedo
segundo, y el otro con el dedo
tercero, y desta manera procediedo, o
When whole notes are played with
the right hand, all must be struck
with the middle finger except
when another voice prevents it. In
playing them with the left hand,
one may strike one [whole note]
with the second finger, the next
with the third, and so forth; or all

55
Martinus Agricola, Musica instrumentalis deutsch, fol. 34r

78
 todos con el dedo segundo, o con el
dedo tercero, segun mejor viniere
conforme al arbittio del buen juzio,
lo qual se entiende quando otra boz
no lo impidiere.
Con estos sobredichos dedos de
ambas a dos manos con que se hieren
los Semibreues, se han de herir
tambien las Minimas, aunque
tafiendo las con la mano derecha, al
baxar se pueden herir, vna con el
dedo tercero y otra con el dedo
segundo, y desta manera procediendo
quando ouiere muchas, o todas con el
dedo de en medio segun mejor
quadrare.
with the second or with the third,
whichever best accords with the
dictates of sound judgment [again]
providing that no other voice
prevents it.
Half notes likewise must be
played by the fingerings in each
hand given above for playing
whole notes, although when the
right hand plays many of them in
descending passages, the one can
be struck with the third, the next
with the second, and so forth, or
all with the middle finger,
whichever is most suitable.

Example 10 shows some of Quern terra pontus, probably fingered by Hans

Buchner and given in his Fundamentum of ca. 1520.56 Circles show some instances in

which single tonguing is involved— i.e., where one finger plays two or more notes

successively (used for quarter notes or longer).

56
This is the oldest known fingered piece of music and dates from before 1550. It was likely fingered by
Buchner or someone in his circle.

79
Example 10. Hans Buchner, Quern terrapontus57
3 S
8 3 8 3 8 3 2 3 4 3 4 3 8 3 8 4 3 4 3 8 3

£
WS^ rr c/EKr r r puff VA- \
IT2
c^f ^r^-f F SEL
8 8 4
m ^
a
^
a
p 8 3

6 5 43838
' 8-+- •*•

« 8 3 3 4 3 8 3
8 3 4 8 8 38 3 8 3 /v
aT3J. J'JIB jar

§
^LU
d <ij> ^ ^
7^ ^ r
T r W KM
i?r >
i f=
J322U
i ii 3 3 3 8 8
4 5 8 4 8 3 8 5 S

16 8 3 4 4 4 3 8 3 8 3 4 8
8 3 8 3

^
^
Qzf /^
* Jmj
8 1 8
4 5 4 8

?f 3 3 8
" 3
3=?E1E=3ESE
8 v

^m
3 4 88 "
?z: u=±
\
¥-^l
'-
g\
rnfTJQ'
* r T
t=^
r T
A y^E=id
'r r p
8 3 * 1 4 8 8 3 4 3 8 8 3 1 8 ' 1 f U ! 1
B 6 4 S 5 '4 8 3

57
Lindley and Boxall, Early Keyboard Fingerings, 34-5.

80
 The use of single tonguing on wind instruments and a single finger for

consecutive notes on the organ limit the speed at which one can play before loosing

control of articulation and accuracy. These were generally limited only to relatively long

notes.

Hard Double Tonguing

As we have seen, single tonguing, which produces even articulation, was

normally used only for relatively long notes. A special form of double tonguing was

devised to enable the performance of even articulations on short notes. This is one of

several forms of double tonguing, which the Italians narrowed down to three forms.

Sylvestro Ganassi, the earliest of the Italian writers provided a chart of these three forms

(Example 11).58 The first of these is the hard double tonguing, used for even

articulations.

Example 11. Ganassi's Double Tonguings

/ Teche teche teche teche teche

1. fW C Tacha teche tichi tocho tuchu
^ dacha deche dichi docho duchu

/ Tere tere tere tere tere

/ Tara tere tiri toro turu
2- t*\€rr*<A\*b.x* dara dare dari daro daru
\ chara chare chari charo charu

/ Lere lere lere lere lere

s. *% + \ Lara lere liri loro luro

Ganassi, Opera, ch. 7. Ganassi's chart was meant for practice to help the student determine the
most suitable vowel to use with the consonants. He tells the reader to practice pronouncing the various
syllables listed on the chart and then select the ones that best suit him or her. The choice of vowel does not
seem to affect the articulation and selection is primarily one of comfort and technical preference.

81
 This hard form is identical to the most common double tonguing used today,

which employs t followed by k. The consonant k is produced at the back of the mouth, at

the top of the throat. In today's pedagogy, this form of double tonguing is generally used

on short note values, but is intended to sound the same as single tonguing. This is

possible because both the t and k strokes produce strong articulations and are equivalent

in strength. Early woodwind sources consider this form to be hard because both

consonants create a relatively wide pre-articulation followed by a percussive onset of

breath flow. It seems likely that performers intended it to sound similar to what we hear

today. It should be mentioned, however, that the Italian t and ch are not as percussive as

the modern English or German equivalents (t and k). In any case, the early authors do

not seem to have preferred this hard tonguing. The lone German among our authors

(Agricola) does not even mention it. Italian writers described it as harsh and crude;

difficult to control; difficult for the listeners' ears; and barbarous. Early keyboardists did

not create a system that produced articulations for short notes analogous to the hard

double tonguing—which seems not to have been used very often on woodwinds in any

case.

Double Articulations

As we have seen, the hard double tonguing mimics single tonguing. Two other

forms of double tonguing—the intermediate and soft varieties—create double

articulations. Two different forms of keyboard fingering produce similar articulations.

Both of these use two alternating fingers, but are distinguishable from each other based

on where the crossover of fingers occurs. Fingerings that feature a crossover before the

82
beat or beat division fall into the category of what Harald Vogel terms "paired"

fingerings. Those that feature a crossover right after the beat fall into his category of

"step-over" fingerings.59 A parallel exists between these two forms of fingering and the

intermediate and soft double tonguings. The intermediate form of tonguing was preferred

in most of Europe, where keyboardists liked the paired fingering systems. The soft form

of tonguing was preferred in Venice (and perhaps southern Germany), where they liked

step-over fingerings.

Review of Intermediate and Soft Double Tonguings on Wind Instruments

The seven Italian writers discussed in Chapter 1 mention the intermediate form of

double tonguing (t, d or ch followed by r) but tend to prefer the soft form (/ followed by

r). The two French sources on wind tonguings show the intermediate form (Mersenne

gives t followed by a; Arbeau gives t followed by r, and r followed by /). 60 The one

German source shows the intermediate form (d followed by r). Thus the intermediate

form was prefered in all of Europe except in Venice.

Review of Intermediate and Soft Double Tonguings at the Keyboard

Most of the keyboard systems described or depicted by early keyboardists

incorporate both paired and step-over fingerings. In both the paired and step-over forms,

the fingers that are used vary from hand to hand and system to system. Example 12

Vogel, "Keyboard Playing Techniques," 146. Vogel takes his term from C.P.E. Bach who explains in his
Versuch how one finger may cross over another.
60
Arbeau gives rele as one form of tonguing. This tonguing produces a different effect than the soft form
of the Italians, which features the same consonants (/ and r) but in revearse order.

83
shows a summary of the fingering systems.61 In the columns with numbers, each group

of four boxes shows fingerings for the right and left hand, ascending and descending. In

the right hand, most systems ascend with fingers 3 and 4 or 2 and 3, and descend with 3

and 2. In the left hand, most descend with either 3 and 4 or 2 and 3, and ascend with 2

and 3 or 1 and 2.

61
The fingerings presented in this chart show trends in general. Many exceptions exist in the fingered
music. Furthermore, not all systems encountered in scores are included in the chart. For example, the
Coppenhaggen manuscript of 1541, which features paired fingerings, is not included.

84
E x a m p l e 1 2 . " C o m p o u n d T o n g u i n g " i n E a r l y K e y b o a r d F i n g e r i n g Systems

Parameters: RH asc. RH desc.

all step-wise motion LH desc. LH asc.
first is strong
one direction Right hand
7Tn
"prefixes'Vsuffixes" are not
-±M4
provided. Left hand
9 ^m "Paired" or
"Step-over" fi ngering

Girolamo Diruta 4343 2323 step step

[1593] 2323 2323 pair step

Christian Erbach 4343 2323 step step

[1573-1633] 2323 2323 pair step

Hans Buchner 2323 2323 pair step

[1483-1538] 2323 2323 pair step

Elias N. Ammerbach 2323 2323 pair step

[c.1530-1597] 2323 4321 4321 pair pair

English 3434 3232 pair pair

[Virginalists] 3434 1212 pair step

Spanish 3434 3232 pair pair

[Mid 16th-century] 1234 1234 4321 4321 pair pair
54321 321 n/a
3434 2121 pair pair
1234 1234 4321 4321 pair pair
54321 321 n/a

Adriano Banchieri 3434 3232 pair pair

[1605] 3434 3232 pair pair

Jan P. Sweelinck 3434 3232 pair pair

[1562-1621] 2323 2121 pair pair

85
 The groups of boxes on the right show how these fingerings fall into the paired

and step-over categories. For clarity, the systems are listed according the number of

paired and step-over fingerings used: those with the greatest number of step-over

fingerings are given first. The chart shows that many of the systems include some of

both forms, and several only use the paired form. Paired fingerings are used in most

sources, and exclusively by the Spanish, Banchieri and Sweelinck; the English and

Ammerbach used paired fingerings except for one direction in one hand. We may

classify these five as "paired fingering systems." Diruta and Erbach on the other hand

used step-over fingerings for all but the left-hand descending. (Diruta was in Venice

while Erbach was organist at the cathedral in Augsburg in Southern Germany.) We may

classify these as a "step-over fingering system."

Stong to Weak: Intermediate Tonguing and Paired Fingering

Understanding the characteristics of the various consonants used in the

intermediate form of double tonguing is critical for achieving correct articulations. The t,

d, and ch strokes cause a complete but momentary stoppage of the flow of wind. This

creates an articulation before a note. The r that follows also interupts the flow of wind,

but less so. Most scholars believe that the early Italians used a dental r produced not in

the throat, but rather by tapping the tongue against the palate behind the teeth. The

closest English equivalent is the stroke of the t's found in the word "butter."62 Because of

the strength of articulation produced by the first consonant (t, d or ch) relative to that

Bradford Arthur, "The Articulation of Hotteterre's Tu-Ru," The American Recorder 14:3 (August 1973):
80.

86
produced by the second (r), the intermediate form yields an articulation pattern of strong

to weak. Modern scholar, David Lasocki, calls this form a "tongued slur."

Paired fingering features articulations before the beat or beat division due to the

placement of the crossover. This yields the same strong to weak pattern produced by the

intermediate tonguing. The amount of articulation between the non-crossing fingers must

be determined by the performer. He or she might open up the articulation, creating an

effect closer to single or hard double tonguing. At the other extreme, it is possible to slur

the notes in groups of two. The intermediate tonguing provides an ideal model for

articulation at the keyboard—one that is situated between these extremes. Every

concerned player of early keyboard music should listen to this form of tonguing

performed by competent musicians on early woodwinds in order to achieve the proper

balance of strong and weak articulation.

Weak to Strong: Soft Double Tonguing and Step-over Fingering

The soft tonguing uses the consonants / followed by r. The tongue stroke

associated with the consonant / does not completely stop the flow of air and thus does not

create a pure articulation like t, d, ch or r. Although one hears the /-stroke because it

effects breath-flow, it does not stop the airflow completely. On the other hand, the r

stroke does briefly halt the air flow (already discussed for intermediate double tonguing).

The lack of very much articulation from the /-stroke followed by a small articulation from

the r-stroke is enough to create very subtle articulations from weak to strong. Something

analogous occurs with step-over fingerings, which feature a crossing after the beat or beat

63
Hotteterre, Jacques. Principles of the Flute, Recorder and Oboe, ed. by David Lasocki (New York: F.A.
Praeger, 1968), introduction.

87
division. This crossing promotes a keyboard articulation similar to the r of the soft

tonguing.

A misunderstanding among modern keyboard scholars concerns the articulations

of step-over fingerings. They sometimes see these as forming patterns that are "against

the grain" of the rhymic flow. One only needs to listen to the soft tonguings played by a

wind player to realize that they do not convey such awkward patterns. Instead, the sound

is a wonderful sort of forward-extending eloquence and grace that is not acheived

through the other forms of double tonguing. A keyboard player can match this feeling

using the step-over fingerings given in Diruta's and Erbach's sources. Special care must

be taken to avoid unduly shortening the notes that are on the beat or strong part of the

beat, since doing so places too much weight on the offbeats.

Diruta is the only author who provides an explanation of step-over fingerings.

Perhaps for lack of adequate terminology he does not ever say that these are step-over

fingerings, but he does recognize that his system is different from others. He asserts that

contemporary woodwind compositions can not be played well at the keyboard unless one

uses his manner of playing, which elicits grace, eloquence and dignity. Diruta is clearly

calling for a cantabile type articulation. Kimberly Marshall agrees:

Diruta suggests a slightly closer connection between notes than that advocated by
Santa Maria: Diruta says, "Remember that the fingers clearly articulate the keys
so that one does not strike another key until the finger rises from the previous one.
One raises and lowers the fingers at exactly the same time." This articulation,
where the release of one key and the attack of the next overlap, is..."balanced
legato."64

Marshall, "The Fundamentals," 101.

88
It is surprising that Harald Vogel in his recent edition of Sweelinck's keyboard works

insists that Italianate step-over fingerings be played with a very open articulation.

Vogel's reason for suggesting the open articulation is to minimize "against the grain"

groupings. His open articulations are probably closer to the single or hard double

tonguing than to the soft double tonguing advocated by Diruta.

Triple Articulations

Tonguing sources from the period do not mention triple tonguing so it is not

possible to establish a firm connection between tonguings and fingerings for triple

articulations. The most common form of modern triple tonguing is tekete tekete, which

produces essentially equal articulations. The early keyboard sources on fingerings

include a few instances of might be regarded as "triple tonguing." In Chapter 2, we saw

Correa de Arauxo's repeating groups of three fingers, using two, three and four in the

right hand. Elias Ammerbach uses the same three fingers in his fingering exercise:

Example 13. "Triple Tonguing" in Ammerbach's Fingering Exercise

t\ 4 3 2, 4 3| 2. 4| 3, 2 4, 3, 2 4, 3, 2 4, 3 2 4, 3 2 4 3 2
1 1
4 r r J r - J -- J'j ^ J J : J- J' J J J ^ J- J>J J J j ;
*J 2 '3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 *

Q * 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 4 3 4

J J j
$ ' -frJ j j «N" U j J J I J> j J J j 1 JU J J J «
2 34 2 3 4 2 3 » 2 3 W 2 3 S 2 3 3 2 » S 2 2 ? T

Harald Vogel,
Sachs and Ife, Anthology, 59.

89
Santa Maria gives fingers one, two and three in the right hand for groups of three notes.

One might presume a stronger articulation before the first note of each group in all of

these fingering sources, though this is debatable. The extent to which these fingerings

relate to any presumed triple tonguings is also very uncertain.

Quadruple Articulations

The Venetian wind player, Girolamo dalla Casa, presented extensive exercises

showing quadruple tonguing.68 Quadruple tonguing was a extension of the lingua riversa

or soft form of double tonguing. Instead of the consonants / and r contiually alternating,

d or t replaces some of the /'s to form the pattern trlroxdrlr {terelere or derelere

when a vowel is placed after each). Example 14 is a summary of dalla Casa's examples.

Since d or t produces stronger articulations than / or r, this type of tonguing yields groups

of four.

Example 14. Summary of dalla Casa's Compound Tonguings

v—* * — * — •
Gt
t

Lingua riversa double tonguing: le re le re le re le re le

Lingua river sa quadruple tonguing: de r e l e r e de r e l e r e le
Lingua riversa quadruple tonguing: te re le re te re le re le

Intermediate double tonguing: te re te re te re te re te

Hard double tonguing: t e ke t e ke t e ke t e ke t e

67
Hultberg and Howell, The Art, 103.
68
See the text by Girolamo dalla Casa in Chapter 1 of the present study.

90
 Of our keyboard texts, only the Spanish sources provide keyboard fingerings

indicating quadruple articulations, and Santa Maria's explanation of this is typical. As a

variant to standard paired fingerings, he says that eighth notes and smaller may be played

with fingers one, two, three and four, repeating.69 Though described only in texts of

Spanish origin, this type of fingering can be seen in keyboard compositions throughout

Europe, including those of the English and Sweelinck.

SUMMARY

Example 15 shows a summary of single, double and quadruple tonguings and

their corresponding keyboard fingerings.

Example 15. Parallels between Early Tonguings and Early Fingerings

Tonguing Fingering

tor d One finger playing two or more notes in succession (used

for slower note values; guarantees an articulation between
notes)

teche Open articulation using either paired or step-over fingering

or using 4321 4321 or 54321 321

tere Paired fingering

lere Step-over fingering (very smooth and elegant)

tere lere 1234 1234 or step-over fingering with more emphasis on

the first note of groups of four

69
Hultberg and Howell, The Art, 103.

91
 * * *

As we have seen from this study, single tonguing, the three forms of double

tonguing and quadruple tonguing all have analogous fingerings on the organ. Any

organist interested in performing the keyboard repertoire of 1500 to 1650 should become

aware of these connections. Pallets control the flow of wind in organs. They function as

"large tongues," which organists should learn to manipulate with "keyboard tonguings."

In doing so, organists can learn to reproduce the effects achieved by players of early wind

instruments.

92
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98