GNS 102 Original Clean

OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY,
OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE,

AGO-IWOYE
GNS 102: Study Skills and ICT

COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Dr. Fatai A. Hammed. – Subject Expert
Dr. Jaiyesinmi M.A. – Subject Expert
Dr. Odunewu O. Abiodun. – Subject Expert
Prof. B.A Agunbiade – Course Reviewer
Mrs Osinulu Lolade F. – Course Reviewer
Prof Taiwo Edun – Course Reviewer
Dr Olayemi Oluwakemi T – Language Editor
Prof. Oyesoji Aremu – ODL Expert
Mr. A.O. Ogundein – Instructional Designer
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FOREWORD
VICE Chancellor’s Message
Core Values
In the context of share Vision and collective Mission, couple with the aspiration to assist Olabisi
Onabanjo University to attain and remain at the cutting edge of research, learning and higher
education in Nigeria and in the international arena, the following values will guide the work
performance during this plan period and beyond.
1. Commitment, Competence, Teamwork and Self-motivation,

2. Initiative, Hardwork and Sacrifice
3. Loyalty and Sincerity
4. Integrity and Honesty,
5. Excellent Professional Service,
6. Client (Learners Government, other Stakeholders)
7. Satisfaction and Delight;
8. Fool-proof Professional conduct;
9. Resources fullness and initiative;
10. Superior productivity;
11. Gender Consciousness and Sensitivity;
12. Transparency, Accountability and Due process;
13. Innovativeness and Positive Change;
14. Good Corporate Governance
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Introduction
GNS 102: Study Skills and ICT is a three-unit course designed for Learners who are on a first
degree programme in the University. The course, which is divided into twenty one (21)
sessions, provides learners with the basic needs required for Study skills, ICT and Library
usage. The aim is to facilitate a mastery of the needed skills for studying and information and
technology as well as library for effective communication in all spheres of human life.
The course guide provides an overview of the textbooks and other relevant materials to be
referenced. Learners are guided on how to effectively utilise the course materials.
Recommended Study Time
GNS 102 is divided into twenty (21) study sessions. Learners are advised to spend at least 3
hours in studying the content of each study Unit.
What Learners are about to Learn in this Course
This course introduces learners to Note-taking, Importance of Note-Taking, the use of ICT
and library
Course Aim
This course aims to improve learners’ use of note taking, ICT and library The intention is to
facilitate the avoidance of inappropriate structures and promote effective communication
Course Objectives
In each session, there are specific objectives. Learners are advised to understand the
objectives of each session before proceeding to subsequent sessions. There is need to always
revise the objectives of each session to ensure that by the end of the session, what is required
has been done.
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Working through this course
In order to have a thorough understanding of the course units, you will need to read,
understand the contents and practise what is discussed in this Session.
This course is designed to cover approximately fifteen weeks and this will require your
devoted attention. You should do the exercises in the Tutor-Marked Assignments and submit
to your tutors via the LMS.
Course Materials
The major components of the course are:
1. Course Guide
2. Printed Lecture materials
3. Text Books
4. Interactive DVD
5. Electronic Lecture materials via LMS
6. Tutor Marked Assignments
Printed Lecture Materials
The printed lecture material consists of 21 study sessions broken down into sub-sessions;
Recommended Texts
The following texts and Internet resource links will be of enormous benefit to you in learning
this course:
Adetugbo, A.1993. English Phonetics: A Course Text. Lagos: Department of English. The
University of Lagos, Lagos.
Akindele, F. and Adegbite, W. 1999. The Sociology and Politics of English in Nigeria: An
Introduction. Ile-Ife: OAU Press.
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Bamgbose, A. 1999. African Language Development and Language Planning. Social

Dynamics. 25 (1).
Dairo, A.L. 1998. A Text on Oral English: Segmental and Suprasegmental Features. Ibadan:
AKT Ventures LTD.
Eko, E. 1987. Effective Writing. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.
Gimson, A.C. 1980. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: ELBS AND
Edward Arnold.
Jowitt, D. 2001. Nigeria's National Language Question: Choices and Constraints in

Bamgbose et al. (Ed.) New Englishes: A West African Perspective. lbadan: Mosuro.
Olayemi, O.T. 2007. The ‘Go between’ in speech: A study of the Current Trends in the
Spoken English of Selected Nigerian Undergraduates. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum
Studies. Vol. I4(3).
Olayemi, O.T. 2014. ‘Like’ as a Substitute for Content Words in Nigeria English Usage.
Awka Journal of English Language and Literary Studies. Department of English
Language and Literary Studies, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra. 5(1):
83: 97.
Olayemi, O.T. 2017.’ I was like’ as a Quotative Device: Implications for Indirect or Reported
Speech in Nigeria English Usage. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research.
Lyceum of the Philippines University, Batangas City, Philippines. 5(2): 94 -103.
Olayemi, O.T. (ongoing). Misuse of English Language Prepositions in Children Literature by

Nigerian Authors.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. 2000. Comprehensive Grammar of
English
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Language. London: Longman.
Ubahakwe, E. 1990. Fundamental Issues in the Use of English Course Curriculum Design. A
Keynote Address Delivered at the 2nd National COMSKIP workshop, Ibadan, October
14 16.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, there are tutor-marked
assignments and second, the written examination. Therefore, you are expected to take note of
the facts, information and problem solving gathered during the course. The tutor-marked
assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance to the
deadline given. The assignment submitted will account for 40% of your total score.
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination. This
examination will account for 60% of your total score. You will be required to submit some
assignments by uploading them to GNS 102 page on the LMS.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
There are TMAs in this course. You need to submit all the TMAs. The best 10 will therefore
be counted. When you have completed each assignment, send them to your tutor as soon as
possible and make sure that it gets to your tutor on or before the stipulated deadline. If for
any reason you cannot complete your assignment on time, contact your tutor before the
assignment is due for submission for the possibility of extension. Extension will not be
granted after the deadline, unless on extraordinary cases.
Final Examination and Grading
The final examination for GNS 102 will last for a period not more than 2hours and has a
value of 60% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions which
reflect the Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs), In-text Questions (ITQs) and tutor marked
assignments that you have previously encountered. Furthermore, all areas of the course will
be examined. It would be better to use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for
the examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your TMAs
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and comment on them before the examination. The final examination covers information
from all parts of the course. Most examinations will be conducted via Pen-On-Paper (POP)
and Computer Based Testing (CBT) mode.
Tutors and Tutorials
There are few hours of face-to-face tutorial provided in support of this course. You will be
notified of the dates, time and location together with the name and phone number of your
tutor as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your
assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might
encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must submit your tutor
marked assignment to your tutor well before the due date. At least two working days are
required for this purpose. They will be marked by your tutor and returned as soon as possible
via the same means of submission.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail or discussion board if you need
help. Contact your tutor if:
 You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings.
 You have difficulty with the self-test or exercise.
 You have questions or problems with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on
an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.
You should endeavour to attend the tutorials. This is the only opportunity to have face-to-face
contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any
problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from the
course tutorials, have some questions handy before attending them. You will learn a lot from
participating actively in discussions.
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Table of Contents
Core Values ............................................................................................................................ 3
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 9
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2 .............................................................................. 57
2.1 Note-Taking and Note-Making Skills ....................................................................... 58
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1 ........................................................................................... 58
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1 ............................................................................................. 59
2.2 Importance of Note-Taking ....................................................................................... 59
In-Text Question (ITQ) 2.2 .............................................................................................. 59
In-Text Answer (ITA) 2.2 ................................................................................................ 59
2.3 Guidelines for Effective Note-taking ........................................................................ 60
2.4 Major Points in Note-Taking..................................................................................... 61
2.5: Forms of Note-Taking ........................................................................................... 62
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2.6 Reducing and Streamlining Notes. ............................................................................ 63
In-text Question (ITQ) 2.6 ............................................................................................... 64
Summary of Study Session 2 ............................................................................................... 65
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2. ................................................... 66
SAQ 2.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.1) .......................................................................... 66
Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................ 67
Study Session 3: Remembering and Forgetting .................................................................... 68
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 68
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3 .............................................................................. 68
3.1: The Concepts 'Remembering' and 'Forgetting' .......................................................... 69
3.2: Processes of Memory ................................................................................................ 70

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3.3: Causes of Forgetting .............................................................................................. 72
3.4: Minimising Forgetting ........................................................................................... 74
In-Text Answers (ITA) 3.4 .............................................................................................. 75
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 3 ................................................ 76
Study Session 4: Memory Improvement Techniques ........................................................... 78
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 78
Learning Outcomes for Study Section 4 .............................................................................. 78
4.1: Kinds of Memory................................................................................................... 79

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4.2: Process of Memory ................................................................................................ 80
4.3: Memory Improvement Techniques ....................................................................... 81
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 4 .................................................... 86
Study Session 5: Reading and Writing Skills........................................................................ 88
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 88
Learning outcomes for Study Session 5............................................................................... 88
5.1: Reading Defined .......................................................................................................... 89
5.2: Common Pitfalls to be avoided in Reading ........................................................... 90

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5.3: Reading Rates/Types of Reading .......................................................................... 91
5.5: The Sentence and Types of Sentence .................................................................... 96
5.6: The Purpose of Sentences ...................................................................................... 99
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 5.6 ......................................................................................... 100
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 5.6 ........................................................................................... 100
Summary of Study Session 5 ............................................................................................. 101
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5 .................................................. 102
SAQ 5.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 5.1) ........................................................................ 102
Glossary of Terms .............................................................................................................. 103
Study Session 6: Types of Examination Questions and Answering Techniques ................ 104
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Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 104
Learning outcomes for Study Session 6............................................................................. 104
6.1: Answering Examination Questions ..................................................................... 105
6.2: Types of Questions .............................................................................................. 106
6.3: Computer-Based Test .......................................................................................... 115
6.4: General Answering Techniques........................................................................... 118
In-Text Question (ITQ) 6.4 ............................................................................................ 119
In-Text Answer (ITA) 6.4 .............................................................................................. 119
6.5: Good Examination Conduct ................................................................................ 120

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Study Session 7: Importance of Continuous Assessment in the University ....................... 126
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 126
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 7 ............................................................................ 126
7.1: Definition of Concepts: Assessment and Continuous Assessment ..................... 127
7.2: The Importance of Continuous Assessment ........................................................ 130
In-Text Question (ITQ) 7.2 ............................................................................................ 131
In-Text Answer (ITA) 7.2 .............................................................................................. 131
7.3: Attributes of Continuous Assessment.................................................................. 132
7.4: Areas of Continuous Assessment ........................................................................ 133

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7.5: Assessment Techniques and Mode of Continuous Assessment .......................... 135
SAQ 7.3 (Test Learning Outcome 7.3) .......................................................................... 140
Study Session 8: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) ............................... 142
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 142
8.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) .............................................. 143
8.1.2 What Is ICT? .................................................................................................... 143
In-Text Answer (ITAs) 8.1 ............................................................................................ 145
8.2 History of ICT ......................................................................................................... 145

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8.3 ICT Tools ................................................................................................................ 146
8.3.1 Computers ........................................................................................................ 146
8.3.2 Internet ............................................................................................................. 146
8.4 Importance ICT assigned in Nation Building ......................................................... 147
8.4.1 Information and Communication Technology for Nation Building (ICT4nb) 148
8.4.2 Benefits of ICT to Nation Building ................................................................. 148
8.5 Challenges of ICT in Nation Building .................................................................... 149
SAQ 8.2 (Tests Learning Question) 8.2......................................................................... 150

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Study Session 9: Data & Information ................................................................................ 151
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 151
9.1 Data & Information ................................................................................................. 152
9.1.1 Data Processing Cycle ..................................................................................... 152
9.2 Bits .......................................................................................................................... 153
Study Session 10: Brief History of Computers .............................................................. 157
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 157
10.1 The First Problem – Counting ............................................................................. 158
10.1.1 Mechanical Devices – Counting and Calculating ............................................ 158
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.1 ....................................................................................... 160

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In-Text Answer (ITAs) 10.1 .......................................................................................... 160
10.2 Electro Mechanical Computers ........................................................................... 160
10.4. Electronic Computers .......................................................................................... 161
Summary of Study ............................................................................................................. 164
SAQ 10.1 (Tests Learning Question) 10.1..................................................................... 167
Study Session 11: Generations of Computers ................................................................ 168
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 168
11.1 First Generation ................................................................................................... 169
11.2 Second Generation of Computers (1955 to 1964) ............................................... 171

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11.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971) .......................................................... 172
11.4 Fourth Generation Computers ............................................................................. 174
11.5 Fifth Generation Computers ................................................................................ 175
Summary of Session 11 ..................................................................................................... 177
Study Session 12: Classification of Computers .................................................................. 180
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 180
12.1. Desktop computer ..................................................................................................... 181
12.2. Tower System ........................................................................................................... 181

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12.3. Laptop Computer ...................................................................................................... 181
12.4. Palmtop/Handheld Computer.................................................................................... 181
12.5. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) .......................................................................... 181
12.6. Classification of computers based on Types ....................................................... 182
12.6.1 Classification of Computers Based On Size .................................................... 184
 Micro Computers..................................................................................................... 185
Micro Computers ........................................................................................................... 186
 Super Computers ..................................................................................................... 186
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 12.6.1 .................................................................................... 186
In-Text Answer (ITAs) 12.6.1 ....................................................................................... 187
12.7. Classification of Computers Based On Brand ..................................................... 187
12.7.1 IBM PCs........................................................................................................... 187
12.7.2 Apple Macintosh Computers ........................................................................... 188
12.7.3 Compatible Computers .................................................................................... 188
SAQ 12.1 – 12.5 (Tests Learning Question).................................................................. 189
SAQ 12.6.1 (Tests Learning Question) 12.6.1............................................................... 189

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Study Session 13: Organization of Computer System ........................................................ 190
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 190
13.1 Computer System ................................................................................................ 191
Input Unit Devices ......................................................................................................... 192
Processing Unit .............................................................................................................. 192
ALU ............................................................................................................................... 193
CU .................................................................................................................................. 193
Output ................................................................................................................................ 193
Storage Unit ................................................................................................................... 194
Storage Unit Hard Disk .................................................................................................. 194
Summary of Study Session 13 ........................................................................................... 196
Study Session 14: Computer Software ................................................................................ 200
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 200
14.1 Computer Software Concept ............................................................................... 200

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14.2 Types of Software ................................................................................................ 201
14.2.1 System Software ................................................................................................. 201
Utility Software .............................................................................................................. 206
14.3 Application Software ........................................................................................... 207
14.3.1 Types of Application Software .................................................................... 207
14.3.2 Customized Software ...................................................................................... 208
Firmware ........................................................................................................................ 209
Cache Memory ............................................................................................................... 209
Summary of Study Session ................................................................................................ 211
Study Session 15: Hardware Concept ................................................................................. 215
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 215
15.1. Hardware Component of Computer System ........................................................ 216
In-Text Questions (ITQs) (ITQS) 15.1 .......................................................................... 216

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Study Session 17: History of Libraries in Nigeria .............................................................. 218
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 218
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 17 .......................................................................... 218
17.1 The Library: A Definition.................................................................................... 219
In-Text Question (ITQ) 17.1 .......................................................................................... 219
In-Text Answer (ITA) 17.1 ............................................................................................ 219
17.2 Brief History of University Libraries in Nigeria ................................................. 220
17.3 Libraries and Education ...................................................................................... 221
17.4 Types of Libraries ............................................................................................... 223

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SAQ 17.1 (Test Learning Outcome 17.1) ...................................................................... 227
Study Session 18: Organisation of Olabisi Onabanjo University Library .......................... 228
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 228
8.1 Organisation Of Olabisi Onabanjo University Library ........................................... 229
18.2 Types of Library Materials ................................................................................. 231
Study Session 19: Organisation and Arrangement of Library Materials ............................ 238
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 238

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19.1 Organization and Arrangement of Library Materials .......................................... 239
19.2 What Is A Library Catalogue? ............................................................................ 239
19.3 The Function of a Library Catalogue .................................................................. 239
19.4 The Physical Forms of Library Catalogue ........................................................... 240
19.4.1 Book Catalogue ................................................................................................ 240
19.4.2 Card Catalogue................................................................................................. 241
19.4.3 Online Catalogue/Automated Library Catalogue ............................................ 242
19.5 Finding Books and Other Library Materials on the Shelf Using Title Author and
Subject Catalogue .............................................................................................................. 243
19.5.1 To Search for a Book Using Author Catalogue ............................................... 243
19.5.2 To Search for a Book Using the Title Catalogue ............................................. 243
19.5.3 To Search Using Automated Library Catalogue .............................................. 243
19.5.4 Online Public Access Catalogue ...................................................................... 244
19.6 What Is Classification in Libraries? ................................................................... 245
19.6.1 Classification Schemes .................................................................................... 246
19.6.2 Library of Congress Classification Scheme ..................................................... 246
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Study Session 20: Copyright Issues and Its Implications ................................................... 252
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 252
20.1 Copyright Issues and Its Implications ................................................................ 253
20.1.1 What is Copyright? .......................................................................................... 253
20.1.2 Copyright Infringement ................................................................................... 253
20.1.3 Plagiarism ........................................................................................................ 254
Study Session 21: Library E-Resources and Databases ...................................................... 258
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 258

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21.1 Library E-Resources and Databases ................................................................... 259
21.2 Electronic Library ................................................................................................ 265
21.3 Bibliographic Citations and Reference ................................................................ 268
References .......................................................................................................................... 275
Study Session 8: Information and Communication Technology (ICT)Error! Bookmark not

defined.
Introduction .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 8 .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Error! Bookmark not defined.
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8.1.2 What Is ICT? ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 8.1 ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
In-Text Answer (ITAs) 8.1 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.2 History of ICT ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.3 ICT Tools ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.3.1 Computers .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.3.2 Internet ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.4 Importance ICT assigned in Nation Building ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.4.1 ICT for Nation Building..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.4.2 Benefits of ICT to Nation Building ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.5 Challenges of ICT in Nation Building ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Summary of Study Session 8 ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 8 .... Error! Bookmark not defined.
SAQ 8.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 8.1) .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
SAQ 8.2 (Tests Learning Question) 8.2........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Glossary of Terms ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Study Session 9: Data and Information ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction .............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 9 .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.1 Data & Information ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.2 Data Processing Cycle ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.3 Bits ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Summary of Study Session 9 ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 9 .... Error! Bookmark not defined.
SAQ 9.2 (TESTS LEARNING QUESTION) 9.2 ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Study Session 10: Brief History of Computers .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction .......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 10 ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.1 Early Counting ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.1.1 Mechanical Devices – Counting and CalculatingError! Bookmark not

defined.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 10.1 ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
In-Text Answer (ITAs) 10.1 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.2 Electro Mechanical Computers ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.3. Electronic Computers ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Summary of Study Session 10 ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 10 .. Error! Bookmark not defined.
SAQ 10.1 (Tests Learning Question) 10.1....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Study Session 11: Generations of Computers ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.1 First Generation ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.2 Second Generation of Computers (1955 to 1964) . Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971) ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.4 Fourth Generation Computers ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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11.5 Fifth Generation Computers .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Study Session 17: History of Libraries in Nigeria ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
12.1 The Library: A Definition...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
In-Text Question (ITQ) 12.1 ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
In-Text Answer (ITA) 12.1 .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
12.2 Brief History of University Libraries in Nigeria ... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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12.3 Libraries and Education ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
12.4 Types of Libraries ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
SAQ 12.1 (Test Learning Outcome 12.1) ........................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Study Session 13: Organisation of Olabisi Onabanjo University LibraryError! Bookmark

not defined.
13.1 Organisation Of Olabisi Onabanjo University LibraryError! Bookmark not

defined.
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13.2 Types of Library Materials ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Study Session 14: Organisation and Arrangement of Library MaterialsError! Bookmark

not defined.
14.1 Organization and Arrangement of Library MaterialsError! Bookmark not

defined.
14.2 What Is A Library Catalogue? .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.3 The Function of a Library Catalogue .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.4 The Physical Forms of Library Catalogue ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.4.1 Book Catalogue .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.4.2 Card Catalogue................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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14.4.3 Online Catalogue/Automated Library CatalogueError! Bookmark not

defined.
14.5 Finding Books and Other Library Materials on the Shelf Using Title Author and
Subject Catalogue ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.5.1 To Search for a Book Using Author Catalogue . Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.5.2 To Search for a Book Using the Title CatalogueError! Bookmark not defined.
14.5.3 To Search Using Automated Library Catalogue Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.c.4 Online Public Access Catalogue ........................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.6 What Is Classification in Libraries? ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.6.1 Classification Schemes ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.6.2 Library of Congress Classification Scheme ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Study Session 15: Copyright Issues and Its Implications ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
15.1 Copyright Issues and Its Implications .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
15.1.1 What is Copyright? ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
15.1.2 Copyright Infringement ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
15.1.3 Plagiarism .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Study Session 16: Library E-Resources and Databases ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
16.1 Library E-Resources and Databases ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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16.2 Electronic Library .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
16.3 Bibliographic Citations and Reference .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1 ................................................ 278
SAQ 1.1.......................................................................................................................... 278
SAQ 1.2.......................................................................................................................... 278
SAQ 1.3.......................................................................................................................... 278
SAQ 1.4.......................................................................................................................... 278
SAQ 2.1.......................................................................................................................... 279
SAQ 2.2.......................................................................................................................... 279

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SAQ 2.3.......................................................................................................................... 279
SAQ 2.4.......................................................................................................................... 279
SAQ 2.5.......................................................................................................................... 279
SAQ 2.6.......................................................................................................................... 280
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 3. ............................................... 280
SAQ 3.1.......................................................................................................................... 280
SAQ 3.2.......................................................................................................................... 280
SAQ 3.3.......................................................................................................................... 280
SAQ 3.4.......................................................................................................................... 281
SAQ 4.1.......................................................................................................................... 281
SAQ 4.2.......................................................................................................................... 281
SAQ 4.3.......................................................................................................................... 282
SAQ 5.1.......................................................................................................................... 282
SAQ 5.2.......................................................................................................................... 282
SAQ 5.3.......................................................................................................................... 282
SAQ 5.5.......................................................................................................................... 283
SAQ 5.6.......................................................................................................................... 283

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SAQ 6.1.......................................................................................................................... 283
SAQ 6.2.......................................................................................................................... 284
SAQ 6.3.......................................................................................................................... 284
SAQ 6.4.......................................................................................................................... 284
SAQ 6.5.......................................................................................................................... 285
SAQ 7.1.......................................................................................................................... 285
SAQ 7.2.......................................................................................................................... 286
SAQ 7.3.......................................................................................................................... 286
SAQ 7.4.......................................................................................................................... 286
SAQ 7.5.......................................................................................................................... 287
Notes on Assessment Questions ........................................................................................ 287
SAQ 8.1.............................................................................................................................. 287
SAQ 8.2.............................................................................................................................. 287
SAQ 8.3.............................................................................................................................. 288
SAQ 8.4.............................................................................................................................. 288
SAQ 8.5.............................................................................................................................. 288
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for study Session 9 ................................................. 289
SAQ 9.1.............................................................................................................................. 289

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SAQ 9.2.............................................................................................................................. 289
SAQ 9.3.............................................................................................................................. 289
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 10 .............................................. 289
SAQ 10.1............................................................................................................................ 289
SAQ 10.2............................................................................................................................ 290
SAQ 10.3............................................................................................................................ 290
Notes on self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 11 ............................................... 290
SAQ 11.1............................................................................................................................ 290
SAQ 11.2............................................................................................................................ 291
SAQ 11.3............................................................................................................................ 291
SAQ 11.4............................................................................................................................ 291
SAQ 11.5............................................................................................................................ 292
References .......................................................................................................................... 292
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Study Session 1: Learning and Studying
Introduction
The major goal of education is to facilitate learning through exposure to various experiences. This is because
human civilization is mostly dependent on acquisition of knowledge. People must acquire knowledge and
imbibe the culture of their society in particular and the global culture in general. Through learning, human
beings have been able to improve their living in all spheres of life including housing, communication,
transportation, agriculture, architecture, government and even socials.
Learning must be seen as a serious business. In addition to regular attendance at lectures,

learning can only be effective when it is accompanied with effective studying. Studying is a
kind of specialized skill which must be acquired in order to learn effectively. Although, no
two people study the same way, and there is little doubt that what works for one person may
not work for another, there are some general techniques that seem to produce good results.
This study session examines the concepts of learning and studying. Particular attention is paid
to the major phases of learning and the factors that affect learning. The session also identifies
poor study habits and suggests tips for cultivating good study habits.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1
At the end of this session, you should be able to:
1.1 Define the term ‘learning’;

1.2 Identify and describe the major phases of learning;
1.3 List and explain the factors that affect learning;
1.4 Explain the concept of ‘studying;
1.5 Identify some poor study habits; and
1.6 Highlight tips for good study habits.
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1.1 Learning
Learning can be defined from various perspectives. To a layman, learning is simply

acquisition of knowledge through a specialized process involving the teacher and the learners
in a learning environment. However, this definition provides a narrow view of learning and it
is therefore not generally acceptable to experts in the field. To a psychologist, learning is a
relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience and practice. This provides
a broad view of learning focusing on the expected outcomes from learning experiences.
The essence of learning is to effect behavioural change. When one undergoes a learning
experience, there must be observable changes between the pre and post learning behaviour of
the individual. If at the end of the learning experience the target behaviour remains
unchanged, then learning has not taken place. If, however, noticeable changes can be seen in
the behaviour of the individual, then learning has taken place. For instance, when a child who
enters a pre-primary school without prior knowledge of the English alphabet undergoes
learning experiences and is able to identify and pronounce some letters of the alphabet, that
ability is a noticeable change that has taken place.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1
i. Attempt a definition of learning.

ii. When is learning assumed to have taken place?
In-Test Answers (ITAs) 1.1
i. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience and

practice.
ii. Learning is assumed to have taken place when there are observable changes between
pre and post learning behaviour of an individual.
1.2 Phases of Learning
Basically, learning involves three phases - acquisition phase, retention phase and retrieval
phase.
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a) Acquisition Phase
This is the first phase of learning involving perception, sensation and acquisition of
information using the sensory organs of seeing, hearing, smelling, touching and
feeling. The individual may perceive the presence of a stimulus through any of the
sensory organs depending on the nature of the stimulus. Visual objects are perceived
by the sensory organ of seeing. Sound or auditory objects are perceived by the hearing
organ, and odour will be perceived by the sensory organ for smelling. The individual
can also perceive physical object through touching and environmental conditions
through feeling. Perception often leads to sensation and alertness of the nervous
system which in turn directs body organs to take necessary actions. Information
received at the acquisition stage is raw and kept in the working memory where it
fades away or is transferred to the short-time memory and from there to the long-time
memory for further processing at the retention stage.
b) Retention Phase
The information received is processed at the retention stage where it is first broken
into pieces through a process of catabolisation. It is grinded thoroughly and then put
together again into meaningful form through the process of anabolisation before the
information attaches itself to an existing memory. It is also at this stage that the
information passes from the short-time memory to the long-time memory from where
it may be recalled for future use.
c) Retrieval Phase
Information which made it to the long-time memory may be retrieved for use from
time to time. Retrieval may take place in form of recall, recollection, recognition or
relearning. However, retrieval may be hampered when the information did not make it
to the long-time memory or when it got there, it failed to attach itself to the memory
or when it attached itself to the memory, it faded away as a result of disuse.
Therefore, to facilitate retrieval, learning must be made meaningful at the acquisition
stage through the use of concrete objects and by pointing out the similarities or
differences between learning materials. Learners must be actively involved during
lessons and they must learn and use effective study techniques and learning strategies
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in order to facilitate retrieval of materials learnt. Constant practice will help to prevent
fading which constitutes an impediment to retrieval.
i. Mention the three phases of learning.

ii. List the forms in which retrieval may take place.
In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.2
i. a. Acquisition stage
b. Retention stage
c. Retrieval stage
ii. Retrieval may take place in form of:
a. recall
b. recollection
c. recognition
d. relearning.
1.3 Factors That Affect Learning
Several factors may affect learning and acquisition of sound education. These factors include
some that are resident in the learners (the organismic factors) and those that are
environmentally induced (the phenotypic factors).
1.3.1 Organismic Factors
The organismic factors include intelligence, memory and personality features of the learner.
i. Intelligence: It is instructive to note that each person's intelligence is determined at

the time of conception. The child inherits some traits in form of chromosomic
donations from each of the two parents. It is, therefore, possible to see parents with
high intelligence quotients giving birth to children with very high I.Q. The reverse
may also be true. Apart from heredity, intelligence is also affected during the pre-
natal period by the quality of nourishment which the mother takes or diseases present
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in the mother or even some of the drugs which the mother takes during pregnancy. It
is also an established fact that smoking mothers do some damages to the intelligence
of the child in their wombs. Therefore, it is advised that pregnant mothers should
avoid smoking, enjoy good ventilation, eat nourishing foods and avoid drugs except
under the direct supervision of a qualified physician. Even after child birth, parents
should desist from beating the child on the head or hitting the child's head on hard
surface. This may do a lot of damage to the child's brain.
ii. Memory: This deals with retention and recall of information. It is also a function of
the brain. Memory consists of the short term memory and the long term memory.
Most of the things said about intelligence are also applicable to memory. It is,
therefore, the duty of parents to desist from anything that may have adverse effects on
the child's memory as explained under intelligence.
iii. Personality Factors: In this group are factors like age, sex, attitude, aptitude, interest
and emotion. It is good to pursue education at the right age and with the right frame of
mind. Psychologists affirm that the early years of life (1-8) are very crucial to
learning. Whatever the child acquires at this period goes a long way to determine their
progress or personality in later life. Sex, attitude, aptitude, interest and emotion also
constitute influential factors in learning. Hence, the school guidance programme
should be designed to put these factors in proper perspective in order to facilitate
students' learning.
1.3.2: The Phenotypic (Environmental) Factors
The phenotypic factors are the environmental elements that affect learning. Some of them are
discussed below:
1. The School
The nature and type of school affect learning in a considerable way. Some schools are noted
for sound academic and moral achievement and students come in with the notion of being
part of great achievers. They, therefore, work hard to succeed academically. Similarly,
schools where premium is not placed on academics and sound moral development tend to
produce students who cannot compete favourably with their peers from sound schools.
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Of utmost importance is the leadership style in school. A school with good leadership where
emphasis is placed on business (learning) and welfare would facilitate learning more than a
school with a laisser-faire leadership. The school leadership must be committed to the goals
of education, otherwise serious academic activities will not take place in the school and the
goals of education would be difficult to realise.
Learning requires various audio-visual aids and conducive, well-ventilated classrooms. In the
school, there is need for well-equipped laboratories for science subjects and languages,
modern libraries, studios for arts and music, workshops for technological subjects and a range
of other materials. The availability or non-availability of these materials would affect
learning.
In addition to facilities is the availability of students' support services. These are services
designed to facilitate learning in schools and universities. The availability of services such as
guidance and counselling, health centre, bursary, gymnastic stands, and relaxation centre in a
school would facilitate learning while those without them would not. Educational guidance
and counselling is that component of the counselling services designed to take care of all the
factors that may affect learning. It assists students to adjust as they are transiting from the
secondary school to the university. To the fresh students, the university is an entirely different
environment with its many complex programmes and activities. Some of them are probably
leaving their homes for the first time in their lives. Settling down to serious academic work in
this entirely new and strange setting may prove difficult. Such students may develop
emotional and other problems associated with peer pressure. Guidance and counselling
services assist such students immensely to overcome these problems and others. It is,
therefore, important that such services should be provided in every school and university.
2. The Teacher
It is stated in the National Policy on Education that "no education system can rise above the
quality of its teachers.” The teacher exerts great influence on learning. Teacher's
qualification, work experience and skills influence learning. Since teaching is an art that must
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be learned, any teacher who is not trained or poorly trained in the art of teaching cannot
deliver instructions effectively.
Teachers’ personality and attitude are two other variables that affect learning. The innate
traits of the teacher as expressed in his attitude towards work leading to students' perception
of him affect learning. If students perceive him as competent, skilled and lovable, learning
will be facilitated. Otherwise, learning will be hampered.
Teachers’ motivational attitude also affects learning. There is no gainsaying the fact that
teachers’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivations affect learning. A teacher with intrinsic
motivation enjoys teaching especially when he perceives that learners are positively
responding to his lesson. Extrinsic motivation in various forms would also affect learning in
the school. For instance, a teacher whose spectacular effort is commended would tend to do
more just as Skinner emphasises reinforcement in learning.
3. The Peer Group
Peers also exert great influence on the students' learning. Peers, who are well disposed to
learning and appreciate academic prowess, would promote good attitude towards learning
among themselves more than peers who abhor learning activities. Peer pressure exerts great
influence on adolescents' behaviour, including attitude to learning.
Similarly, a learner's social relationship with their peers would influence their learning.
Asagwara and George (1996) explained that a learner who relates well with their peers would
enjoy their support and find it easy to request for their assistance in clarifying topics that are
not clear to them.
A cordial relationship with peers in the school or university is crucial to achieving academic
success. A good social relationship has positive effect on the health and well-being of the
learner and this is necessary for active learning in school. Group discussion is an effective
method of study possible only among cordial peers or mates.
4. The Family
The family, as the primary social unit of the society, plays prominent roles in facilitating or
hindering learning. The socio-economic status of the family determines promptness in
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payment of students’ school fees, the learning materials they have, and the family support
they receive. An economically buoyant family that pays school fees as at when due enhances
learning while economically low families that cannot do this affect learning negatively.
The value attached to education by the family also affects learning. Some families place
premium on education and do everything within their means to facilitate their wards'
learning. Of particular significance to learning is the stability of the learner's family. A happy
cordial family would provide the student with the right frame of mind to learn while a chaotic
family tends to create emotional problems the student and obstructs his learning at the school.
A student from a broken home or bereaved family or who has just witnessed a situation
where the mother was severely beaten by the father would be too emotionally disturbed to
learn in the school. Thus, parental care, support and pleasurable home situation are relevant
to the student's rate of learning in schools and university.
5. The Society
The society consciously or unconsciously exerts great influence on learning. If the society
places premium on learning, students would be eager to learn. But, if the society's value is
placed on ephemeral things such as questionable wealth or the likes, learners would lose
interest in scholastic activities. The economic situation in the society affects the school, the
students and the learning process.
6. The Government
As the grand custodian of education in the society, almost every action or inaction of the
government affects learning. Her good or bad disposition to education, the selection of
education managers (ministers, commissioners, vice-chancellors and so on), the allocation
and release of funds for education, the provision of facilities and personnel, all have direct
bearing on school learning.
Political stability or instability and the attendant consistent or inconsistent educational

policies affect learning in different ways. In Nigeria, the impact of political instability and
policy fluctuation on learning is quite visible to all. Even, government's attitude toward
education can easily be quantified from the usual poor allocation to education in the national
budget, the accumulated unpaid salaries of teachers and the attendant incessant strikes and
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closure of schools. Sometimes, learners spend more days out of school than in the school
during an academic term. This affects learning considerably.
7. The Mass Media
The mass media, comprising both the print and the electronic media, exert some influence on
learning. The attitude of the media to education influences learning. The media can promote
learning through proper coverage of educational matters and programmes and by giving
credence to great achievers in education just as they do for sport heroes. This will definitely
influence learning. In addition, the type and timing of programmes aired in the media affect
learning. Rich educational programmes aired at the appropriate time will facilitate learning
and serve as refresher or remedial course for students.
i. Factors that affect learning can be broadly categorized into two. These are … and …
factors.
ii. Mention three examples of organismic factors.
iii. List the phenotypic or environmental factors that you have read about in this study
session.
i. Organismic and phenotypic or environmental factors

ii. a. Intelligence
b.Memory
c.Personality Features
iii, a.The school
b.The teacher
c.The peer group
d.The family
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e.The society
f.The government
g.The mass media.
1.4 Studying
Studying is an integral part of learning. It is a means through which learners acquire ideas,
refresh the materials already learnt and facilitate greater comprehension that may allow for
easy recall of facts and application of materials learnt in various situations. Effective study
skills are more than mere understanding. Effective study skills must be practised in order to
improve one's academic performance. It is not enough to simply "think about" studying; one
has to actually do it, and in the process use information studied to get better (Kiltiz, 2008). To
make studying effective, there is need for learners to avoid poor study habits, get a good
study place, develop good study habits and learn good study techniques and learning
strategies.
Poor Study habits
The following are some of the common poor study habits as identified by Owoyele (2008).
i. Lack of study time-table or proper planning.

ii. Lack of adequate study materials e.g. notes, textbooks, maps.
iii. Distractions in the study environment e.g. pictures, television programmes, cartoons,
and music.
iv. Bad postures e.g. lying down or standing while studying.
v. Poor concentration.
vi. Poor memory.
vii. Inability to identify important points in the study materials.
viii. Wrong time-schedule.
ix. Poor jotting and note-taking.
x. Divided interest.
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Study Space
The following tips are suggested by Northedg (2000) and (Kiltiz, 2008) with regards to study
space:
Tip: The study space should be as quiet and comfortable as possible. Avoid studying in noisy
places such as cafeterias, recreation rooms, or lounges, and sporting arenas.
Tip: When studying, keep a waste basket handy so that you find somewhere to drop
unwanted or used pieces of paper so that they would not constitute distractions.
Tip: Have a consistent place for everything, and above all, keep it there!
Tip: Have everything needed for study handy beforehand. Don't waste valuable time looking
for books, notes, or other materials. After you have assembled the items you need, put them
where you can reach them easily.
Study Habits
The following tips are suggested by Cottrel (1999), Northedg (2000) and Kiltiz (2008) with
regards to study habits:
Tip: Begin to study no less than 30-90 minutes after a meal.
Tip: Never study within 30 minutes of going to sleep.
Tip: Prioritise! Make a list of what you intend to study. Prioritise the list, and stick to it.
Tip: If possible, study no more than 30-40 minutes at a stretch. Many students retain more
by studying for short periods with breaks in between. It all depends on what you are
trying to study. But generally, after a period of study, take a break.
Tip: Take study breaks away from your desk or wherever you are studying. Let the break
be a time to think about other things. Use the break time to reflect, not constantly
review what you have just studied.
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i. List four poor study habits you know.

ii. Mention three good study tips.
i. (a. Lack of study time-table or proper planning.
(b. Lack of adequate study materials e.g. notes, textbooks maps.
(c. Distractions in the study environment e.g. pictures television programmes,

music and cartoons.
(d. Bad postures e.g. lying down or standing while reading.
ii. (a Never study within 30 minutes of going to sleep.
(b Make a list of what you intend to study, prioritise the list and stick to it.
(c Take study breaks away from your desk or wherever you are studying.
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Summary of Study Session 1
1. The major goal of education is to facilitate learning through exposure to various

experiences.
2. The essence of learning is to effect behavioural change.
3. Learning is presumed to have taken place when there are observable changes between
the pre and post learning behaviour of the individual.
4. There are three phases of learning – acquisition phase, retention phase and retrieval
phase.
5. The information freshly received is processed at the retention stage where it is first
broken into pieces through a process of catabolisation.
6. Such information is grinded thoroughly and put together again into meaningful form
through the process of anabolisation.
7. There are internal factors, also known as organismic factors, that affect learning.
These are intelligence, memory and personality features.
8. Environmental factors that affect learning (also known as phenotypic factors) include
school type, the teacher, the peer group, the family, the society, the government, and
the mass media.
9. Studying is an integral part of learning through which learners acquire ideas, refresh
the materials already learnt and facilitate greater comprehension that may allow for
easy recall of facts and application of materials learnt in various situations.
10. Poor study habits include not having study time table or proper planning, lack of
adequate study materials (notes, textbooks, maps), lying down or standing while
studying, allowing distractions (pictures, television programmes, music, cartoons,
phone calls) in the study environment, poor jotting and note-taking, lack of
concentration and divided interest.
11. For effective studying, students should ensure that the study space is quiet and
comfortable and that everything needed for study is available beforehand. They are
advised not to waste valuable time looking for books, notes, or any other material.
12. Students are also advised (i) never to begin studying 30 minutes of going to sleep; (ii)
to prioritise what they intend to study, and (iii) if possible, to study no more than 30 –
40 minutes at a stretch.
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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1
Having completed this study session, you can measure how well you have achieved its
learning outcomes by answering the following questions. You can check your answers with
the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Module.
SAQ 1.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 1.1)
1. Explain the term 'Learning.'

2. The essence of learning is to effect change in behaviour. TRUE/FALSE.
1. Describe the three phases of learning.

2. Information which made it to the long-term memory may be retrieved from time to
time. TRUE/FALSE
1. Define memory.
2. Explain briefly how peer group exerts influence on students’ learning.
1. Explain the term 'Studying’.

2. 'Study space is an essential ingredient of effective studying.' Highlight the various tips
for study space to justify the above assertion.
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Glossary of Terms
Learning: Relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience.
Catabolisation: Process of breaking down information into pieces and grinding it

thoroughly.
Anabolisation: Process of putting grinded information together again into meaningful form.
Memory: This deals with retention and recall of information.
Studying: Means through which learners acquire ideas, refresh the materials already learnt
and facilitate greater comprehension that may enhance easy recall.
Teacher’s Personality: The innate traits of the teacher as expressed in his attitude to work
leading to students’ and colleagues’ perception of him.
Personality Factors: These include factors like age, sex, attitude, aptitude, interest and
emotion.
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Study Session 2: Note-Taking Skills
Introduction
Note-taking is an important aspect of the educational process that could make or mar the
process of learning. It is the process by which students jot down or document the important
points during a lecture using their own words. Note-taking and note-making are very
important academic activities that every student, especially in tertiary institutions of learning,
must engage in. Attending and listening to lectures are integral elements of the learning
process. Students are expected to take down notes while listening to lectures for future
referencing. They are also expected to make notes from the books and other materials they
consult in the libraries and from the notes they had jotted from lectures.
This study session focuses attention on note-taking and note-making. Specifically, the session
explains the concepts of note-taking and note-making, examines the importance of note
taking to learners, and discusses the major points and guidelines for effective note-taking. It
also examines the various forms of note-taking and suggests several ways to achieve brevity
– reducing and streamlining – in note-taking.
1.1 Define the concepts of ‘note-taking’ and ‘note-making;’

1.2 Enumerate and discuss the importance of note-taking;
1.3 Itemize and discuss the major points to note in note-taking;
1.4 Enumerate and discuss the guidelines for effective note-taking;
1.5 List and discuss the different forms of note-taking; and
1.6 Mention and discuss the various ways of reducing or streamlining note-taking.
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2.1 Note-Taking and Note-Making Skills
Note taking is the systematic documentation of lecture notes by the learners for future
referencing. It is the process of recording learning contents or reading materials step-by-step
by the learners for easy revision and registration of important points. Note-taking is an
essential part of educational endeavours. Without it, learning is incomplete. The ability of the
Learners to make his or her notes legible, readable and meaningful is a credit to such
Learners. Though the use of abbreviations is allowed in note taking, it is advisable to use the
one invented by the Learners on their own for easy referencing and legibility.
Note-taking is referred to by Pat Young (1996) as "a process of recording facts from different
sources to expand human knowledge." He goes further to differentiate between note-taking
and note-making. To him, note making is when the facts recorded from different sources are
later developed into more comprehensive and meaningful forms for future use. No doubt,
note-taking and note-making are essential requirements for success in any educational
endeavour. Hence, Learners/learners should take these exercises seriously. Any Learner that
fails to develop good note-taking and note-making abilities will find it difficult to utilize or
apply the learning experiences adequately to pass examination or perform well in the world
of work. In other words, without good note-taking and note-making skills, the rate of transfer
of learning would be affected because the basic principle of the phases of learning would
have been fundamentally disrupted.
Learning experiences can never be meaningfully utilized if the three phases of learning are
not well applied. These phases are acquisition, storage and retrieval. Acquisition is the
process of assimilating or acquiring new information or new learning experience. Here, note-
taking and note-making are very essential in order to fast-track the retention/storage of such
learning experience(s). Note making is developed from note-taking. Thus, Learners must
always attend lectures so that they can create their personal notes for easy and proper
understanding and good storage. Retrieval is the process of bringing into use the learning
experience(s) previously acquired whenever such experiences are required. This aspect of
education is sometimes referred to as transfer of learning. Therefore, for proper transfer and
retrieval, Learners must take note-taking and note-making serious.

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i. Explain the process of note-taking.

ii. What is note-making?
i. Note-taking involves the recording of learning contents or reading materials step-by-

step by the learners for easy revision and registration of important points.
ii. Note making is when the facts recorded from different sources are later developed
into more comprehensive and meaningful forms for future use.
2.2 Importance of Note-Taking
As earlier mentioned, effective note taking from lectures and readings is an essential skill for
university and college studies. Good note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a
register of relevant points that you can integrate with your own writing and speaking. It also
helps one to distinguish where his/her ideas come from and how you think about those ideas.
More importantly, note-taking has the following advantages for those that handle it very well. Quite often, a
large percentage of our Learners sit or attend classes without taking notes. Perhaps they feel that what is
important is attendance. No wonder, the performances of such Learners are not always impressive. Good note-
taking, among other reasons, is important because:
a) It triggers the basic lecturing processes and helps one to remember what is being taught and other
relevant information;
b) It helps one to concentrate in class since concentration is the key to good note-taking;
c) It helps one to prepare adequately for tests and examinations;
d) One's notes are often a source of valuable clues for what information the instructor/teacher thinks most
important;
e) One's notes often contain information that cannot be found elsewhere; and
f) Note-taking improves Learners' vocabulary, since note-taking leads to note-making.
In-Text Question (ITQ) 2.2
i. Give three reasons why note-taking is important to Learners.
In-Text Answer (ITA) 2.2
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i. It triggers the basic lecturing processes and helps one to remember what is being taught and other
relevant information.
ii. It helps one to concentrate in class since concentration is the key to good note-taking.
iii. It helps one to prepare adequately for tests and examinations.
2.3 Guidelines for Effective Note-taking
For proper and effective note-taking, it is advised that the guidelines below be followed:
a) Learners must always learn to recognize the main ideas in the classroom and in any reading materials.
b) Learners must also learn to be attentive in the lecture room so that they can get the important messages
being communicated.
c) Mental alertness is also needed for effective note-taking i.e. learners must always strive to study and
understand the mood of the speaker so as to note the most important and relevant parts of the lecture.
d) Concentration is another important factor in note-taking. Hence, learners must learn to concentrate on
the lecture or on the reading materials.
e) Ability to be consistent in note-taking is an essential ingredient to good note-taking.
f) Learners must also learn to take note selectively, i.e. Learners should avoid writing down every word
mentioned by the teacher.
g) Legibility is also very important in note-taking. Learners must always be conscious of
their handwriting, since notes are useless if one cannot read them later.
h) Less attention should be paid to spelling and grammar when taking notes. However,
Learners must find time to crosscheck their notes at home to be able to cross "Ts" and
dot "Is."
i) Ability to translate ideas into one's own words is another requirement for effective
note-taking.
j) Brevity is also very important in note-taking. Learners must learn to write down only
the major points and important information.
k) It is also important for Learners to cultivate the habit of organising notes into some
logical forms for easy note- making.
l) Speed is also required in note-taking. Learners must learn to be fast in taking notes so
that the important points are not left out.
i. Write three guidelines for effective note-taking and note-making.

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i. a. Recognising the main ideas in the classroom and in any reading materials.
b. Being attentive in the lecture room so that one can get the important messages being
communicated.
c. Brevity is very important in note-taking. Learners must learn to write down only
the major points and important information.
2.4 Major Points in Note-Taking
For proper and meaningful note making, Learners must note the following:
a) Learners should learn to always pause before or after an idea so that the ideas could
be properly documented.
b) Use of repetition to emphasise the important points is also essential.
c) It is also important for Learners to always use introductory phrases to precede an
important idea.
d) Ideas should also be written in a conspicuous space.
e) Open-mindedness is very important on issues or points that one disagrees with.
Hence, Learners should always discuss or raise questions on areas that appear
ambiguous or dizzy.
f) Learners should also learn to be attentive during lectures so that they can capture the
important points. This will also help to reflect continuity in the note-taking exercise.
g) Learners should also learn to follow the lecturer’s style of presenting major points,
while efforts should also be geared towards understanding the minor points as well.
i. Mention three major points Learners must note in note-taking.
i. a. Learners should learn to always pause before or after an idea so that the ideas
could be properly documented.
b. Use repetition to emphasize important points.
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c. Learners should always use introductory phrases to precede an important

idea.
2.5: Forms of Note-Taking
Note taking can be done in so many forms so as to maintain its originality. Some of
these ways are:
a) Outlining: This is the process of itemizing the major topics or main ideas that provide
information about the subject being discussed. However, the sub points that describe
the major points should also be noted for the note-taking to be meaningful and
interesting.
b) Patterning: This is the structuring of notes to suit the writers' style of writing for easy
referencing. Each Learner should adopt a note-taking style that could easily be
understood and recognized.
c) Flowcharts and Diagrams: This is the use of graphic representations or diagrams
showing the sequential presentation of both the major and minor points during the
note-taking exercise.
d) Listing/Highlighting: This is the process of highlighting or listing the important
points for easy referencing or itemizing the important points to make reproduction
very easy.
e) Column Formation: This assists Learners to distinguish the source of information
and one's thoughts while reading.
f) Use of colour to highlight important or major sections is also very helpful in note-
taking.
i. List six forms in which note-taking can take.
i. a. Outlining
b. Patterning
c. Flowcharts and diagrams

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d. Listing/Highlighting
e. Column formation
f. Use of colour
2.6 Reducing and Streamlining Notes.
1. Eliminate small connecting words such as: is, are, was, were, a, an, the, would, this,
of. Eliminate pronouns such as: they, these, his, that, them. However, be careful NOT
to eliminate these three words: and, in, on.
2. Use symbols to abbreviate, such as:
+, & for and, plus » for equals - for minus # for number
.x for multiplications or times
> for greater than, more, larger than < for less than, smaller, fewer than w/ for with w/o
for without w/in for within
—> for leads to, produces, results in
<— for comes from / for per
For example:
"The diameter of the Earth is four times greater than the diameter of the Moon." Becomes
Drop so" Earth = 4x > diameter of Moon."
3. Substitute numerals with symbols, for instance:
Substitute "one" with 1. Substitute "third" with 3rd.
4. Abbreviate:
Drop the last several letters of a word. For example, substitute "appropriate" with "approp."
Drop some of the internal vowels of a word. For example, substitute "large" with "lrg.”
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In-text Question (ITQ) 2.6
i. List four ways by which you can reduce or streamline notes.
i. a. Eliminating small connecting words.

b. Using symbols to abbreviate.
c. Substituting numerals with symbols.
d. Abbreviating.
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1. Note-taking is the systematic documentation of lecture notes by the learners for future
referencing.
2. Note-taking is the process of recording learning contents or reading materials step-by-
step by the learners for easy revision and registration of important points.
3. Note-making is when the facts recorded from different sources are later developed
into more comprehensive and meaningful forms for future use.
4. Good note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant
points that you can integrate into your own writing and speaking.
5. Note-taking helps one to concentrate in class, to prepare for tests and examinations,
and to improve Learners’ vocabulary.
6. A Learner’s note often serves as a source of valuable clues for what information the
lecturer thinks most important, in addition to containing information that may not be
found elsewhere.
7. Learners must be mentally alert, learn to recognize the main ideas in the classroom
and in any reading material, avoid writing down every word mentioned by the
teacher, and be able translate ideas into their own words.
8. Learners must learn to always pause before or after an idea so that the ideas could be
properly documented, use repetitions to emphasise important points, use introductory
phrases to precede an important idea, and follow the lecturer’s style of presenting the
major points.
9. Note-taking can be done in so many forms such as outlining, patterning, flowcharts
and diagrams, listing or highlighting, column formation, and using colour to highlight
major points.
10. Brevity is of utmost importance in note-taking. As such, Learners can eliminate small
connecting words, use symbols to abbreviate, substitute numerals with symbols to
streamline their notes.
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Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2.
Having completed this study session, it is necessary that you assess how well you have
achieved its Learning Outcomes by attempting the following questions.
1. Distinguish between ‘note-taking’ and ‘note-making.’

2. Note-making is developed from note-taking. TRUE/FALSE.
1. Give two reasons why note-taking is important to Learners.

2. Note-taking leads to Learners losing concentration in a lecture. TRUE/FALSE.
1. List two guidelines for effective note-taking.
1. Mention two major points Learners must note for proper and meaningful note-taking.
1. Mention three forms of note-taking.

2. What is ‘outlining?’
1. Give two ways of streamlining note-taking.
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Glossary of Terms
Note-taking: Systematic documentation of lecture notes for future referencing.
Note-making: Developing recorded facts into more comprehensive and meaning forms for
future use.
Outlining: process of itemizing the major topics or main ideas that provide information
Patterning: The structuring of notes to suit the writer’s style of writing for easy referencing.
Flowcharts: Graphic representation showing the sequential presentation of both the major
and minor points during the note-taking exercise.
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Study Session 3: Remembering and Forgetting
Introduction
Learning is not useful unless it is retained, recalled, transferred, and used for the purpose of
understanding and development. Even if a teacher allows for Learners' maturity, understands
their characteristics and puts learning theories and principles into practice in
teaching/learning activities, he will still be confronted with two basic problems that always
haunt both teachers and Learners in the process of achieving effective teaching and learning.
The two problems are remembering and forgetting.
If an individual cannot remember today the materials he or she learned yesterday or last
week, that learning is considered wasted. Understanding the processes of remembering
entails the search for the variables that account for retention and what causes forgetting.
This study session takes a look at the concepts of remembering and forgetting, describes the
process of memory, and examines the relationship between remembering and learning. It also
discusses the factors that cause forgetting and suggests ways by which forgetting can be
minimised.
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
3.1 Define the concepts of 'remembering' and ‘forgetting ‘and other related concepts;
3.2 Explain the process of memory;
3.3 Recognise the relationship between remembering and learning;
3.4 Explain the causes of forgetting; and
3.5 Suggest ways of minimising forgetting.
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3.1: The Concepts 'Remembering' and 'Forgetting'
Remembering, forgetting and other related concepts can be best understood within the
context of the term memory. Memory entails the search for the variables that account for
retention and what causes what has been learnt to be forgotten.
Remembering is a process of recall in which an individual produces or reproduces materials

on his or her own without the support or assistance of other people (Eweniyi & Ogunsanya,
2006). It occurs when an individual is able to find the desired material within his or her own
store of memory. It is through the process of remembering that Learners are able to recall
materials for use, be it in classroom tests, examinations or in reciting a poem or formulae
learnt. If Learners are unable .to remember either in part or whole what has been learned,
then no learning has taken place. Remembering entails retention, recall and recognition.
Retention involves what has been stored after a learning process which can still be recalled.
Retention can be known by measuring the difference between what was originally learned
and what is remembered. This concept may be affected by factors such as the length of time
something has been learned, the extent of interference, the strength of original learning and
the meaningfulness of the materials learned.
Recall is a process of remembering which involves an individual producing or reproducing

materials on his or her own. That is, an individual's ability to find the desired materials within
his or her own store of memory.
Recognition may be regarded as the flash of knowledge that an individual gets on seeing
something or someone the individual has learned about before. It is the ability to look at
several things and select the one that one has seen or learned about before. It is often
influenced by the span of years of a person's life. It is also a more sensitive measure of
retention than recall.
Forgetting, on the other hand, is the loss, whether temporary or long-term, of the materials
that have previously been learned (Western, 1996). When an individual forgets something, it
is unavailable to them when they are trying to remember it. A forgotten item is not
necessarily permanently lost but one is unable to retrieve it at the time one wants it. The loss
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of materials at this point may be due to some form of interference in which the other
materials that we have learned compete with the item we are trying to remember.
The influence of the factors of remembering and forgetting is very crucial to learning.
Educators, teachers and Learners must understand the factors that can aid remembering and
as well tackle those things that cause forgetting in pupils and Learners.
i. What is memory?
ii. What is recall?
iii. What is forgetting?
i. Memory is the power of the mind to search for the variables that account for retention
and what causes what has been learnt to be forgotten.
ii. Recall is a process of remembering which involves an individual producing or
reproducing materials on his or her own.
iii. Forgetting is the loss, whether temporary or long-term, of the materials that have
previously been learned.
3.2: Processes of Memory
Memory, as a concept, refers to the power of the mind to hold, to bring back and to recognize
past experiences (Falaye, 2001). It is the past and it includes recognizing a thing for what it
really is. Memory is crucial in any discussion concerning remembering and forgetting. In
fact, it is the key factor. This is because an individual's ability to remember or his inability to
recall is dependent upon his memory. Therefore, an understanding of the processes of
memory involves the search for the variables that account for retention (remembering) and
what causes what has been learned to be forgotten (Biehler, 1974).
The process of memory involves how memories are established, organised, stored and how
they are retrieved from storage. In this regard, there are three types of memory. These
include:
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a) Rote Memory: This is otherwise known as "by heart" memory. This is taught to
children to commit something into their hearts. Constant repetition helps this kind of
memory and this type is most useful at the early stages of learning.
b) Logical Memory: This depends on thorough understanding of the things to be
memorised. It is better to train a child's logical memory so as to enable him or her to
remember through understanding.
c) Intellectual Memory: In this type of memory, abstract things or ideas are committed to
heart on the basis of thorough understanding of such ideas which include democracy,
beauty, joy, holiness, honesty, liberty, freedom etc.
Memory generally involves the ability to retain, recall and recognise ideas and concepts. It is
at the basis of all learning and it is the determinant of individual level of recall and
recognition. The process of memory or information processing pass through three basic
phases. These are:
1. Working Memory: This aspect of memory is saddled with receiving information and
commencing the processing of the information so received.
2. Short-term Memory: This aspect of memory retains briefly information that has
been processed.
3. Long-term Memory: This stores the information.
Whatever the processes memory passes through, it remains a serious factor in the topic of
remembering and forgetting.
Relationship between Remembering and Learning
A strong relationship exists between learning and remembering or retention. There is nothing
really to remember unless learning has taken place. In the same vein, learning becomes
meaningful only when it can be retained and, of course, recalled. However, one basic fact in
the issue of learning is that well-learned materials are retained and easy to recall than poorly
learned materials. In view of this, all the variables that favour efficient learning equally affect
retention. Noting the following points will positively influence effective recall of learned
materials:
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1. Learning materials must be meaningful since meaningful materials are usually much
better understood than meaningless materials.
2. Effective distribution of practice improves retention.
3. Cramming of materials should be discouraged.
4. Learner's rate of learning is also positively related to retention and recall of learning
materials.
5. Generally, making lessons interesting to Learners and encouraging them to study
independently can facilitate remembering.
i. Mention the types of memory that you have learnt in this session.
ii. The process of memory or information processing pass through three basic processes.
Name them.
i. a. Rote memory
b. Logical memory
c. Intellectual memory.
ii. a. Working memory
b. Short-term memory
c. Long-term memory.
3.3: Causes of Forgetting
Forgetting is a problem for both Learners and teachers. Learners are almost always bedevilled
by forgetting every time they take examinations. Also, when teachers are teaching, the
amount of forgetting they encounter in the Learners sometimes makes them feel that the
troubles taken to make Learners learn did not worth it. Therefore, unless concerted effort is
made to attack forgetting, it can actually wipe out much of what both Learners and teachers
have accomplished in the teaching/ learning situation. But in plotting this attack, it is
important to answer the question: why do we forget?
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The causes of forgetting are many and varied. However, a few of them will be discussed in
this session. They include:
i. Disuse: This denotes that people forget when the brain trace, which is the physical
record of memory, fades away. This happens when the brain trace is not used.
Although nobody has explained what goes on in the brain when we learn, it is just
logical that a thought, or idea or a bit of knowledge that is used frequently becomes
more strongly implanted in the brain than that which is only briefly considered or
used. Another explanation is that what is learnt may become weaker as time passes. It
has been said that decay is a normal characteristic of the neural tissues (that constitute
the brain trace) in which the changes occur.
ii. Distortion: This is a description of what happens to memories. The passage of time
may cause distortion in recall making what has been recalled significantly different
from what has been originally learned and stored in the memory. It is usually a
product of misperception rather than trace distortion.
iii. Repression: This is a key concept in psychoanalysis that explains a mechanism in
which unpleasant events are deliberately forgotten. Learners or people may forget
some things because they are unpleasant.
iv. Interference: This refers to disruptions at the time memory is being retrieved. That
is, interference focuses on the retrieval failures that occur because of materials that
interfere with what is to be remembered. It may result from what is occurring before,
during or after learning. Whatever is happening at the time of the learning may be a
source of competing association interfering with both learning, and later, retention
and recall (Western, 1996). Interference may be proactive or retroactive. In proactive
inhibition, the interfering activity occurs before learning. That is, the individual's
learning and retention of new materials are inhibited by a material learned earlier.
Such a person's associations become confused and thus the interference causes
difficulty in retrieving parts of both the old and the new materials. In retroactive
inhibition, the interference occurs after learning. That is, the individual's learning and
retention of old materials is inhibited by materials learned newly. The person's ability
to recall is inhibited in proportion to the amount of interference.
v.
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i. List the causes of forgetting.

ii. Explain disuse.
i. a. Disuse
b. Distortion
c. Repression
d. Interference
ii. Disuse is when the brain trace, which is the physical record of memory, fades away
and is not used.
3.4: Minimising Forgetting
Recognising the cause(s) of a problem is a positive step towards finding solutions to such a
problem. Thus, having recognised the causes of forgetting, it is important to try to remove
such obstacles or at least minimise their influence on learning. The following are some
suggestions on how to minimise or remove forgetting and thereby promote good memory.
i. To combat disuse, Learners are enjoined to use repetition, recitation and review. They
should be attentive in class and try to understand whatever is taught very well. They
should repeatedly revise and practise whatever concept they have been taught.
ii. To prevent distortions, Learners should search for meaning in what they are being
taught. They should relate the meaning in lessons to their daily experiences. And as
such, it is easier to retain and recall such materials. Learners should avoid rote
memorization and useless repetition.
iii. To combat repression, Learners should approach their lessons with readiness, great
enthusiasm and interest. This way, they will find the lessons enjoyable, pleasant and
memorable. This will tackle the problem of repressing learning materials.
iv. To minimize interference, Learners should participate actively in the lesson to help
their recall of the events of the lesson.
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i. How can disuse be combated?

ii. How can repression be prevented?
In-Text Answers (ITA) 3.4
i. To combat disuse, Learners are enjoined to use repetition, recitation and review.
ii. To prevent repression, Learners should approach their lessons with readiness, great
enthusiasm and interest.
1. Learning becomes meaningful only if the materials learned can be recalled and made
use of in appropriate contexts.
2. When a learner is unable to recall what has been learned or when what has been
learned is partially or completely forgotten, the trouble taken to acquire such learning
becomes useless.
3. Forgetting is a phenomenon to be tackled in the teaching/learning situation while
remembering is one to be fostered as much as possible.
4. The importance of structure or some sort of pattern or framework for aiding learning
should be emphasised in the teaching/learning process.
5. Teaching specific topics or skills without making clear their contexts in the broader
fundamental structure of a field is useless for the following reasons.
6. Such teaching makes it exceedingly difficult for the Learner to generalise from what
he has learned to what he will encounter later.
7. Learning that has fallen short of a grasp of general principles has little reward in terms
of intellectual excitement;
8. Knowledge one has acquired without sufficient structure to tie it together is
knowledge that is likely to be forgotten.
9. Whether Learners will be able to remember a learned topic, idea or event or forget
what they have learned altogether depends on the teaching skills of the teacher, the
efforts of the Learners themselves, as well as their memory level.
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Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have
accomplished its Learning Objectives by answering the following questions.
1. Attempt a definition of the concepts ‘remembering' and ‘forgetting.'

2. What is retention?
1. List the three types of memory.

2. What are the three basic processes of memory?
1. Mention and explain the causes of forgetting.
1. How can a teacher tackle or minimise forgetting?
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Glossary of Terms
Remembering: Process of recall in which an individual produces or reproduces materials on

his/her own without the assistance of other people.
Retention: This involves storing some materials after a learning process which can still be
recalled.
Recognition: Flash of knowledge that an individual gets on seeing something or someone

he/she has seen or learned about before.
Forgetting: The loss, whether temporary or long-term, of the materials that have been
learned previously.
Rote Memory: This is otherwise known as ‘by heart’ memory, and a process of committing
materials to memory usually without understanding.
Logical Memory: Thorough understanding of the things to be memorised.
Intellectual Memory: When abstract things or ideas are committed to the heart on the basis
of thorough understanding of such ideas – freedom, democracy, beauty, joy, honesty etc.
Working Memory: This aspect of memory is saddled with receiving information and commencing the
processing of the information so received.
Short-term Memory: This aspect of memory retains briefly information that has been
processed.
Long-term Memory: This stores the information on a long-term basis.
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Study Session 4: Memory Improvement Techniques
Introduction
Memory could be described as storage and retrieval of information. It is also defined as the
processes by which information is encoded, sorted, and retrieved (Rathus, 1982). Memory
allows people to maintain or retain information over a passage of time. Without memory,
there can be no past experience and learning cannot take place.
This study session will explain further the meaning of memory. It will discuss the various
stages of memory and acquaint you with the various techniques that can be employed to
improve memory.
Learning Outcomes for Study Section 4
When you have studied this section, you should be able to:
4.1 Explain the meaning of memory;
4.2 Identify and explain the various stages of memory; and
4.3 Mention and discuss ways by which memory can be improved.
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4.1: Kinds of Memory
Memory, as a concept, has been discussed in the previous study session where three kinds –
rote, logical and intellectual – were identified. It is also possible to categorise memory into
three types: Episodic memory, Semantic memory and Procedural memory.
Episodic Memory: This is the memory of what has happened to an individual directly or
what the individual has experienced because it happened in their presence. It is true that one
can remember personal experiences or what one has witnessed better than what was reported
to one.
Semantic Memory: This is the type of memory that is general in nature. Recalling this type
of experience has to do with the meaning attached to the item one is trying to recall. Also, the
recall cannot be as detailed as in episodic memory. For example, if we were aware that
President Mohammed Buhari was at the 59th Coronation Anniversary of the Awujale of Ijebu
land, Oba Sikiru Kayode Adetona, the person who was not there when President Buhari
arrived would not be able to remember what he did at the venue. Even if the person heard of
it, it would not be as detailed as those of the people who witnessed it. Any kind of
information given here is regarded as semantic, that is general report such as "President
Buhari was at Oba Adetona’s coronation anniversary," which could not be regarded as
detailed enough.
Procedural Memory:
This is also known as "skill memory." It involves the knowledge of how to do things. It has to
do with things that one has learnt how to do but not doing it. For example, a child may have
learnt how to ride a bicycle but he/she has not been riding it. What we are saying here is that
the fact that the child is not riding a bicycle does not mean that they have forgotten how to
ride it. Anytime you call on the child to ride, even after almost a year of not riding, they
would still be able to ride it. This type of recollection is known as procedural memory.
Procedural memory concerns skills that cannot be readily described in words. For example,
one might not be able to describe concretely to another person how a baby was saved from
slipping from his/her hands.

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i. Mention the three kinds of memory discussed in this session.

ii. What is episodic memory?
iii. Procedural memory is also known as …
i. a. Episodic memory
b. Semantic memory
c. Procedural memory
ii. It is the memory of what has happened to an individual directly or what the individual
has experienced because it happened in his/her presence.
iii. Skill memory
4.2: Process of Memory
Memory involves three main processes which are: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding: After receiving information from one's environment, the first stage of information
is encoding and processing so that it could be placed in memory. This is a means by which an
individual converts the information received from the outside world into psychological
formats that can be mentally preserved and presented.
Storage: The second phase of the process is storage or the retaining of the information over a
period of time. This is done mostly by engaging in maintenance rehearsal which involves
mental repetition of the information or saying it to oneself until it gets stuck into one's
memory. The information at this level will first go into the short-term memory. The
information is retained in this faculty for a little while before it is forgotten. Forgetting it
could be due to the fact that the information was not well stored or coded. It could also be due
to interference of other items.
Information received from the outside world could also be saved in the long-term memory. In
a situation whereby information is retained in the brain for over a long period of time,
ranging from days, weeks, and months to years, the information is transferred from the short-
term memory to the long-term memory. The process explained here is known as storage.
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Retrieval / Recall: The third stage is the retrieval or locating the stored information and
bringing it back to consciousness. Retrieval is not difficult with well-known information such
as one's name, birthday, an address or position in the family. However, it is not the same
when one tries to remember information that one is not too familiar with or of massive
quantity. With this, the retrieval could be very tedious and may not always be successful.
If the stored information could not be retrieved or brought into focus, then such information
could not be used. For example, if a Learner could not remember what he/she has earlier
learnt in order to answer examination questions, he will fail and this will make the learnt
materials not useful to him/her at the time of need. His inability to retrieve information stored
in the memory could be embarrassing and frustrating. It is, therefore, expedient to find a way
by which memory could be improved so that the learnt materials could be made available for
use at the points of need. The processes whereby we develop the memory are otherwise
known as memory improvement techniques. Section 4.3 of this study session will discuss
such techniques.
i. What is the first stage of information processing?

ii. What is encoding?
iii. The processes whereby we develop the memory are known as …
i. Encoding and processing

ii. This is a process by which an individual converts the information received from the
outside world into formats that can be mentally preserved and presented.
iii. Memory improvement techniques.
4.3: Memory Improvement Techniques
There are various methods or techniques through which memory could be improved. Some of
these techniques are discussed here.
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 Flashbulb Method: People tend to remember more vividly what they learn under
unusual or emotionally arousing situations. For example, it is possible for one to
remember clearly what he/she was doing when the news of Chief M.K.O. Abiola's
death was broken. The death of Abiola, in this circumstance, is a flashbulb incident
that would make one remember what happened around the time. The implication of
this is that one could link what he/she wants to remember to a particular occurrence
within one's environment. This type of method is also known as "link method," that is,
linking or associating new information or materials to be learnt to already known or
an important episode that happened around the time of learning.
 Simplification or Elaboration: This is a memory improvement technique that is
based on the principle that says the more meaning you give to the material to be
remembered, the easier it is to retrieve such material. This means that the information
to be learnt or the information to be acquired should be simplified into a more
meaningful form, such as breaking it down to simplified steps. Words or names could
be converted into a meaningful word that sounds similar and familiar. The
information could be linked to humorous or other memorable events or episodes.
 Breaking-up: With this method, the information is broken up to manageable sizes
that can be easily learnt or remembered. At the point of storage, too much information
should not be taken at once. What this means is that a task should be learnt at a time,
and we should ensure proper storage before moving to another one.
 Rehearsal Method: This is mentally repeating the information or vocalizing it to
oneself. It is also known as maintenance rehearsal. Immediately new information or
material is seen or heard, then one should try to rehearse it in the brain, wait for some
minutes and check again and again. Through this method, the information will stick to
the brain, and it will be easy for the person to recall the information at the point of
need.
 Cue Method: This is a method through which symbolic representations of the
information to be remembered are made. As soon as the cue is seen, then the real item
will be remembered. For example, placing a tea bag on the table where it could be
easily seen could remind you of the drug you have to take with tea. Some of the cues
could be as asterisk on a date in a calendar, appropriate use of timer and memos etc.
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 Proper Organisation: Information in human memory is not just piled up but well
organised. This implies that if the learnt materials are properly organised, then it
could aid recall. Items of similar structures and components are to be learnt together.
For example, information about animals could be stored together and information
about plants could be stored together. The implication of this is that one's ability to
recall any of the information stored together will facilitate the remembrance of others.
The materials to be learnt should, therefore, be arranged to encourage sequential
organisation of the materials in the brain.
 Physical Exercises: One of the basic methods for memory improvement is engaging
in physical exercises. Exercises are good for the body. We could infer that what is
good for the body is as well good for the brain and would thus improve one's memory
most especially when one is advancing in age (40 years and above) There is a close
link between a healthy heart and a healthy brain. This is an indication that exercise is
good for brain development. It is, therefore, necessary for an individual that wants to
guide against memory loss to constantly and consistently engage in physical
exercises.
 Formation of Mind Maps: Mind maps help to play out the structure of a topic as a
clear 'shape' that you can remember easily. By seeing this shape in your mind, you can
prompt yourself to remember the information coded with it.
 The Use of Mnemonics: Mnemonic are like acronyms formed from the first letter of
some words, names or factors that one wishes to remember so that these first letters
put together would form a readable word which when referred to would remind one of
each relevant point studied. For example, coining the word 'PUSH" to remind one of
Pray until Something Happens. Another example to remember are the personal factors
affecting learning. Coining the word ASEREAS would quickly remind one of the
following seven factors: Age, Sex, Extroversion/Introversion, Reflection/Impulsivity,
Attitude and Self-Concept.
 The Use of Study Techniques: Study becomes more effective when a good study
technique is used. This makes retrieval of information learnt easy. Some study
techniques are Robinson's SQ3R, Summarization, Pauk's OK4R, Concept Mapping,
and Unoh's 3S3R. All these will aid your memory.
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i. Make a list of all the memory improvement techniques discussed in this study
session.
ii. What is cue method of memory improvement?
iii. The flashbulb technique of memory improvement is also known as …
i. a. Flashbulb method
b. Simplification or elaboration
c. Breaking-up
d. Rehearsal method
e. Cue method
f. Proper organization
g. Physical exercises
h. Formation of mind maps
i. Use of Mnemonics
j. Use of study techniques.
ii. This is a method through which symbolic representations of the information to
be remembered are made.
iii. The link method.
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1. Memory could be described as storage and retrieval of information. It is also defined

as the processes by which information is encoded, sorted, and retrieved.
2. Memory allows people to maintain or retain information over a passage of time.
Without memory, there can be no past experience and learning cannot take place.
3. There are three kinds of memory: episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural
memory.
4. Episodic memory is the memory of what has happened to an individual directly or
what the individual has experienced because it happened in his/her presence.
5. Semantic memory is the type of memory that is general in nature. Recalling this type
of experience has to do with the meaning attached to the item one is trying to recall.
6. Procedural memory is also known as "skill memory." It involves the knowledge of
how to do things. It has to do with things that one has learnt how to do, but one is not
doing them.
7. After receiving information from one's environment, the first stage of information is
encoding and processing so that it could be placed in the memory.
8. The second phase of the process is storage or the retaining of the information over a
period of time. This is done mostly by engaging in maintenance rehearsal, which
involves mentally repeating the information or saying it to oneself until it gets stuck
into one's memory.
9. The third stage is the retrieval or locating the stored information and bringing it back
to consciousness.
10. If the stored information could not be retrieved or brought into focus, then such
information could not be used.
11. There are many techniques that can be used to improve our memory. Some of these
are flashbulb method, simplification or elaboration, breaking-up, rehearsal method
and cue method.
12. Other memory improvement techniques are proper organisation, physical exercises,
formation of mind maps, use of mnemonics, and the use of study techniques.
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Having completed this study session, it is important that you examine how well you have
achieved its Learning Outcomes by attempting the following questions.
1. Make a list of the types of memory discussed in this session.

2. What is procedural memory?
1. Discuss the processes that are involved in memory.

2. Which is the third stage of the process of memory?
1. What type of memory improvement techniques would you recommend to a Learner

that is close to you?
2. Explain the cue method of memory improvement.
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Glossary of Terms
Episodic Memory: This is the memory of what has happened to an individual directly or
what the individual has experienced because it happened in his/her presence.
Semantic Memory: This is the type of memory that is general in nature and it has to do with
the meaning attached to the item one is trying to recall. Also, the recall cannot be as detailed
as in episodic memory.
Procedural Memory: This is also known a "skill memory" and it involves the knowledge of
how to do things.
Encoding: This is a means by which an individual converts the information received from
outside world into psychological formats that can be mentally preserved and presented.
Storage: This is done mostly by engaging in maintenance rehearsal which involves mentally
repeating the information or saying it to oneself until it gets stuck into one's memory.
Cue Method: This is a method through which symbolic representations of the information to
be remembered are made.
Mnemonics: These are like acronyms formed from the first letter of some words, names or
factors that one wishes to remember so that these first letters put together would form a
readable word.
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Study Session 5: Reading and Writing Skills
Introduction
The four basic language skills - listening, speaking, reading and writing - can be divided into
two broad categories. Listening and reading are categorized as receptive skills because
through them, the individual receives information, knowledge and ideas while speaking and
writing are categorized as expressive skills because they are employed to
communicate/express information, knowledge or ideas (Edun, 2007).
Another language skill that is of utmost importance to you as a Learner is writing. Writing is
the highest of the four language skills. Although speech is the primary mode of
communication in a language, writing has gained prominence in literate societies. The ability
of a university Learner in a course is measured almost entirely by a 2 to 3 hours of written
examination at the end of the semester.
The aim of this study session is to acquaint you with different definitions of reading, describe
the various types of reading and reading rates according to specific functions. You will learn
about different pitfalls in reading and how to avoid them. You will also learn about the
sentence, and the different types of sentences both according to structure and purpose.
Learning outcomes for Study Session 5
1.1 Define reading;

1.2 Identify bad habits that slow down reading and know how to avoid them;
1.3 Describe different types and rates of reading to achieve specific purposes;
1.4 Improve your reading and comprehension rate;
1.5 Define a sentence and give examples of different types of sentences according to
structure; and
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1.6 List and explain the types of sentences according to purposes and give examples of each
type.
5.1: Reading Defined
Clay (1985) defines reading as a process by which an individual extracts a sequence of cues
from printed texts and relates these, one to another, so that he understands the precise
message of the texts. Venkateswaran, (1995) sees reading as the understanding, interpreting
and making sense of a given text, the process during which all other possible meanings of
reading include themselves. It is the amalgamation of visual and non-visual experience or
behaviour. Two processes are involved in this amalgamation. The first is the physical process
of seeing groups of words on a page, while the second is the mental process of recognizing
and comprehending what is seen.
As rightly noted by Banjo and Bisong (1985), success at the university is directly related to
reading ability because reading covers a major part of your study time. Unfortunately, most
university Learners do not know that they are poor and inefficient readers because they have
not received formal instruction in reading skill before this level. Much of the poor
performance of Learners at the tertiary level of education can, therefore, be blamed directly
or indirectly on poor reading skill. It is instructive to note also that reading and writing are
two sides of the same coin. A Learner who reads with understanding is on a sure path to
writing well and effectively.
i. What is reading?
ii. What are the two processes involved in reading?
i. Reading can be defined as a process by which an individual extracts a sequence of

cues from printed texts and relates these, one to another, so that he understands
the precise message of the texts.
ii. The first is the physical process of seeing groups of words on a page, while the second
is the mental process of recognizing and comprehending what is seen.
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5.2: Common Pitfalls to be avoided in Reading
It is important to identify some of the bad habits that inhibit reading efficiency and learn how
to avoid or overcome them.
i. Head Movement: It is common for poor readers to move their heads from one side to
the other when they read. Such a movement is quite unnecessary and it merely
distracts the reader and slows down reading speed. The best way to overcome this
problem is to make a conscious effort to stop it or hold the head between the two
hands while reading until mastery is attained. The only muscles that should be in
operation while reading are the eye muscles.
ii. Finger Tracing or Pointing to Words: One other practice which slows down
reading considerably is tracing words with finger, ruler or pen as one reads. This is
unnecessary since the eyes move much faster than hands. The assimilation of thoughts
and ideas is also distorted because the reader cannot take in phrases and sentences by
pointing to individual words. Once a reader is aware that they indulge in this
unwholesome habit, they should just stop it and rely only on their eyes for faster
reading.
iii. Vocalization and Sub-vocalization: Vocalization is the practice of pronouncing
words silently to yourself with lip movement. Sub-vocalization is sounding the words
in your throat while reading. Both habits are caused by concentrating on individual
words at a time instead of capturing group of words at a glance. These habits can be
reversed by keeping the lips tightly closed while reading and by speeding up the eye
movements so that it becomes impossible for the speech organs to keep up.
iv. Regression: This is returning to what has already been read. The major causes of this
problem are poor vocabulary, poor concentration, lack of confidence and fatigue. It is
important here for the reader to concentrate and force himself/herself to move forward
all the time. Once the reader notices that he/she is too tired to continue, he/she should
take a rest instead of wasting time and relishing in the bad habit.
i. Draw a list of the common pitfalls that slow down reading and must be avoided.
ii. What is regression in reading?
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i. The common pitfalls that reduce reading efficiency are:

a. Head movement
b. Finger tracing or pointing at words
c. Vocalization and Sub-vocalization
d. Regression
ii. Regression is returning to what has already been read.
5.3: Reading Rates/Types of Reading
a. The purpose for which a text or material is being read will determine the pace or rate
at which the material is read. Basically, there are five rates or types of reading which
are distinguishable by the speed employed by the reader.
b. Scanning: This is an extremely fast pace of reading employed for the purpose of
locating a particular piece of information. The individual here is not actually reading
the material carefully, but rapidly moving his/her eyes back and forth over the
material to locate specific information. The reader knows what he/she is looking for
and ignores any other thing such that when the name, number or word is discovered,
they may not be able to make out the meaning of the text.
c. Skimming: This is also a fast form of reading a particular text in order to determine
its main idea or the general gist of the text. The reader can get an overview of the text
by looking at chapter headings, summaries, opening paragraphs or identifying the
topic sentences in each paragraph and ignoring others. The main purpose of skimming
is to determine the relevance/usefulness of the text and set the scene for a more
concentrated effort later.
d. Light Reading/Rapid Reading: This is a medium fast pace of reading which is
employed to read for relaxation or to review a familiar material.
e. Study Reading/Comprehension Reading: This involves reading a text carefully so
that you can understand the material more effectively or in depth. This is the type of
reading that you are supposed to employ to prepare for examination in a course. It
aims at a comprehensive understanding of the minutest details of the text for the
purpose of answering questions on it to show knowledge. There are a number of
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strategies that you may choose from for the purpose of studying for examination. It
must be understood here that reading strategy is not the same thing as reading type.
Whereas reading type refers to the speed at which a material is read, reading strategy
refers to the techniques you employ to study the material.
i. What is scanning?
ii. What is skimming?
i. Scanning is an extremely fast pace of reading employed for the purpose of

locating a particular piece of information in a text or material.
ii. This is a fast form of reading a particular text in order to determine its main
idea or the general gist of the text.
5.4: Reading Strategies/Techniques
The procedure or steps adopted by an individual to study a text for optimum result is known as reading strategy
or technique. There are a variety of strategies you can choose from to study. The type of resource/ material you
are studying at a particular time, the purpose for which the material is being studied and the peculiar
characteristics of the individual will determine your choice of strategy.
i. REDW
Read, Examine, Decide and Write (REDW) is primarily intended for reading materials that you are having
difficulty understanding. Thus, use it for textbooks or other materials that you cannot easily understand even
when you have read the material very slowly and carefully. It consists of four separate steps. First, read the
paragraph or passage and attempt to identify the main idea or what the passage is actually
saying. Once the main idea of the passage has been identified, you should .examine each
sentence in the passage and write down few words that explain the main idea of each
sentence. Then decide which words best (explain the main idea of the passage and which
words are just describing details that support the main idea of the paragraph or passage.
Finally, write down the main idea of the passage/paragraph and any key supporting details
that seem important in your note and move on to the next passage or paragraph. This will
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allow you to break down the material into the smallest parts possible and take notes on each
part for effective understanding.
ii. SQ3R
Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review (SQ3R) is perhaps the best known and the most
frequently used reading strategy. It is a strategy primarily intended for studying a text that is
unfamiliar but not necessarily confusing. It is used for textbooks that an individual is reading
for the first time to determine the most important points/ details.
SQ3R consists of five steps. First, you will quickly survey the chapter for titles, headings,
sub-headings, review questions, captions, chapter summaries, and any other easily
identifiable indications of the points of the chapter. Next, you should take each of these items
and turn them into questions to be answered when you eventually commence actual reading.
Once the pertinent questions have been identified, the next step is to read the chapter and to
try to find answers to each of the questions. Each time a paragraph or section of the chapter is
completed, you should stop recite any questions that the individual can answer and then recite
the answers to the questions. If you cannot answer some questions, you should go back to the
text as often as necessary and do not go on to the next section until you can recite all the
answers. Finally, once you have read the entire chapter and answered all the questions, you
should begin the process of review by refining your mental organization and building
memory. This review can be by re-reading the document, building/expanding notes,
discussing the material with someone or teaching it to someone.
iii. SQ4R
The SQ4R is a further extension of the SQ3R technique. It adds one more "R" by inserting
"Record" before Review to read "Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Record and Review." The
"Record" step involves marking the textbook or material to increase understanding for
present and future reference. Key words and sentences are underlined to make them stand out
in the mind. You may use a double underline for main ideas and a single underline for
supporting points, a bracket to enclose several consecutive lines that are important, or a box
or circle around key terms. Marginal notes and summaries in your words could also be made
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to extract possibly all that the book has to offer to be used for review in the present and the
future without having to re-read the material all over again. The disadvantage of the SQ4R is
that the Recording can only be made in personal books and neither in library books nor other
borrowed materials which most Nigerian Learners depend on.
iv. SQRW
The SQRW is a technique developed to combat some of the disadvantages of the SQ3R and
the SQ4R. First, it can be used where reciting information aloud may not be allowed or where
you do not have enough time to use the complete SQ3R method. Second, it can also be used
for library books and other borrowed materials since the material will not be defaced with
underlining or marginal notes.
The SQRW technique - Survey, Question, Read and Write is primarily designed to help you
to take notes from textbooks or other materials that are being read for the first time. Four
steps are involved in this technique. First you should quickly survey the chapter for titles,
headings, subheadings, captions, chapter summaries and any other easily identifiable
indications of the main idea of the chapter. Next, you should take each of these items and turn
them into questions to be answered while reading the text. You then read each section of the
chapter and find the answers to the questions earlier raised. Finally, you should write down
each question and the answer in your notes as you complete each section. The major
difference between the SQRW and both SQ4R is that SQRW does not include the recite step,
and the review step is assumed to be something you do after SQRW has been completed
instead of being considered part of the method.
v. KWL
The Know, What and Learned technique (KWL) is most suitable for a group of individuals,
such as a study group, that is attempting to learn or understand any text or material. Three
steps are involved and they are carried out by filling in a chart that consists of three columns,
namely, "I Know," "I want to know/learn," and "1 learned" columns. The individuals within
the group should begin by identifying everything that they already know about the topic
covered by the material and write a series of brief phrases that describe what they already
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know in the "I Know" column. This allows each member of the group to gauge individually
exactly how much knowledge they already have about the topic/subject and how much
knowledge they need to learn. Next, the individuals make a list of questions or topics in the "I
want to know/ learn" column that they hope to find the answers to or learn about, while
reading the material. Finally, the individual should write down a phrase, term or other brief
description of every key point that they learned while reading the material in the "I learned"
column. At this point, the individuals will compare what they have learned with what they
want to know with other members of the group in a discussion. This will help the group to
determine what they need to learn in more detail individually and collectively.
vi. Element Mapping
Element mapping is a technique that is strongly recommended for literature Learners reading
a novel, play or poem. It helps the individual break down a work of fiction into its component
parts.
The technique requires the reader to search for five different literary elements from the work.
First, you should make a list of all characters and distinguish between main and secondary
characters. Second, you should write a brief description of the setting of the story. The third
step is to describe the conflict in the story before proceeding to the listing of the events in the
story that are linked to the conflict. Finally, you should identify the climax of the story
relating to how the conflict is resolved.
vii. Question Method
The Question Method is another potent technique for the reading of literary works such as
essay, poem, short story, play or novel. It helps you to analyze the inner meaning of the text
beyond the literal meaning of the material. The method simply consists of one step that you
should repeat over and over again for each line sentence, paragraph or passage. Once you
commence reading, you should write questions about anything within the text that you think
may have another meaning. These questions may include: "Does this actually mean this?"
"Why did the author use that word instead of another word?" "Could this mean something
else to the author?" "What is the author actually saying here?" The goal is not to find obvious
meanings but deeper meanings which will initiate the reader into the context of the work.
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i. What is the meaning of SQ3R?

ii. Explain the difference between SQ3R and SQ4R
i. Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review.

ii. The SQ4R is an extension of SQ3R which one more ‘R’ by inserting ‘Record’ before
‘Review’ to read “Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Record and Review.”
5.5: The Sentence and Types of Sentence
The Sentence: Venkateswaran (1995) defines writing as a skill with which one produces a
sequence of sentence arranged in a particular order or linked together in certain ways to
express thoughts, ideas, feelings or answer questions. The importance of the sentence as a
unit of language is captured by the grammarians' definition of it as the smallest unit of
language which makes complete sense (Banjo & Bisong, 1985).
We shall, therefore, describe a sentence as a group of words that expresses a complete

thought. Thus, if a group of words does not express a complete thought, it is not a sentence
but a fragment of a sentence.
Example
Sentence: The big boy jumps up and down.
Fragments (i) The big boy
(ii) Jumps up and down
Often, fragments seem to be saying something but do not finish what they are saying. A
question is usually left in the mind. "The big boy" leaves one wondering who the big boy is
and what he does. This fragment needs, at least, an action or linking verb to complete its
thought. In the same vein, "Jumps up and down" needs, at least, a noun, noun group or
pronoun to complete its thought.
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The above illustration shows that a simple sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.
The subject of a sentence is who the sentence tells about or the performer of the action. From
the example above, "The big boy" is the subject. The predicate of a sentence is the verb and
the related words that tell about the action of the subject or what the subject is. "Jumps up and
down" is, therefore, the predicate in the example above.
Types of Sentence
There are basically four types of sentences in English namely; simple, compound, complex
and compound-complex. Each one is determined by the type and number of clauses in it.
(i) A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
Example of a simple sentence or an independent clause: Mr. Agbabiaka presided over the
meeting.
Note that both a sentence and a clause must have a subject and a predicate. Only an
independent clause can, however, be a sentence because its thought is complete. A dependent
clause needs an independent clause to complete its meaning.
Example of a Dependent Clause:
Since the chairman is absent
(ii) A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a comma or a

coordinating conjunction. Sometimes, a semi-colon replaces the conjunction to show that the
two clauses are closely related to each other. The most common coordinating conjunctions
are: and, but, or. Sometimes, correlative coordinating conjunctions (either ... or, neither ...
nor, not only ... but) also can be used.
Examples
1. Mr. Agbabiaka presided over the meeting and drafted the communique.
2. Mr. Agbabiaka presided over the meeting, drafted the communique and addressed the
press.
3. Mr. Agbabiaka was very assertive; the meeting ended promptly.
4. Mr. Agbabiaka either chairs the meeting or asks another person to do so.
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(iii) A complex sentence is made up of one or more dependent clauses combined with an
independent clause. The independent clause in a complex sentence can stand alone as a
simple sentence, whereas the dependent clause cannot. The dependent clause is joined to the
independent clause by a subordinating conjunction. The most often used subordinating
conjunctions are: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before,
if, since, so, that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, wherever, and while.
Examples of Complex Sentence
1. Mr. Agbabiaka chaired the meeting while Mrs. Tafa took the minutes.
2. Mr. Agbabiaka chaired the meeting because the president was absent.
3. Whenever the president is absent, Mr. Agbabiaka chairs the meeting.
(iv) A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses. It is a combination of a compound sentence and a complex sentence.
Examples of Compound-complex Sentence:
1. Mr. Agbabiaka chaired the meeting and Mrs. Tafa took the minutes because elected
officers were absent.
2. After the meeting, Mr. Agbabiaka drafted the communiqué and addressed the press.
i. List the four types of sentences in English according to structure.

ii. What is a compound sentence?
i. a. Simple sentence
b. Compound sentence
c. Complex sentence
d. Compound-complex sentence.
ii. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a comma or
a coordinating conjunction.
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5.6: The Purpose of Sentences
Each sentence one writes serves a purpose. There are four kinds of sentences to fit four
purposes. These are the declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.
(i) A Declarative Sentence states a fact, opinion or feeling.
Example: Engineer Seyi Makinde is the new Governor of Oyo State.
The declarative sentence is usually followed by a full stop (.)
(ii) An Interrogative Sentence asks a question.
Example: Who is the new Governor of Oyo State? An interrogative sentence always
ends with a question mark (?). Usually, the verb comes before the subject of an
interrogative sentence in reverse to the normal subject-verb order of the declarative
sentence.
Examples:
Declarative Sentence: The Court of Appeal is right to declare him winner.
Interrogative Sentence: Is the Court of Appeal right to declare him winner?
(iii) An Imperative Sentence requests or orders something.
Examples: Lend me your pen.
Listen attentively.
The imperative sentence expresses a request, a demand or command to a person or group of

persons. It also gives instruction, order or command. You may name the person or group of
persons.
Examples: Tunde, lend me your pen.
Class, listen attentively.
Leave the class.
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Even if you do not name the person, it is assumed that you are talking or writing to a person
or group of persons. In this case, the pronoun “you” is assumed to be the subject of the
sentence. An imperative sentence usually ends with a full stop (.).
(iv) An Exclamatory Sentence expresses shock, surprise or sudden joy.
Examples: What an amazing judgment!
All hail the Nigerian judiciary!
Jide Sanwoolu is Governor!
An exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamatory mark (!).
i. State the four kinds of sentences according to purpose.

ii. What does an exclamatory sentence end with?
i. a. Declarative sentence
b. Interrogative sentence
c. Imperative sentence
d. Exclamatory sentence (!)
ii. It ends with an exclamatory mark (!).
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1. The four basic language skills are listening, speaking, reading and writing.
2. Listening and reading are categorised as receptive skills because, through them, the
individual receives information, knowledge and ideas while speaking and writing are
categorized as expressive skills because they are employed to communicate or express
information, knowledge, opinions or ideas.
3. Since Learners come to the university to acquire knowledge, they would need to
employ the receptive skills of listening to lecturers and reading privately much more
regularly than the expressive skills.
4. Although speech is the primary mode of communication in a language, writing has
gained prominence in literate societies mainly because of its durability and wider
reach.
5. Two processes are involved in reading: the physical process of seeing groups of
words on a page, and the mental process of recognizing and comprehending what is
seen.
6. The common pitfalls that slow down reading and must be avoided are head
movement, finger tracing or pointing to words, vocalization, sub-vocalization and
regression.
7. Scanning is an extremely fast pace of reading employed for the purpose of locating a
particular piece of information while skimming is also a fast form of reading a
particular text in order to determine its main idea or the general gist of the text.
8. There are a variety of strategies you can choose from to study. The type of resource/
material you are studying at a particular time, the purpose for which the material is
being studied and the peculiar characteristics of the individual will determine your
choice of strategy.
9. There are four types of sentences according to structure and these are simple sentence,
compound sentence, complex sentence and compound-complex sentences.
10. There are also four types of sentences according to purpose and these are declarative
sentence, interrogative sentence, imperative sentence and exclamatory sentence.
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Having completed Study Session 5, it is important that you examine how well you have
achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering the following questions.
1. Define reading.
2. What are the two processes involved in reading?
1. List four pitfalls in reading and explain how you can overcome them.
2. What is vocalization?
1. What is the difference between scanning and skimming?

2. Explain light reading.
1. What is KWL?
2. What is element mapping?
1. List the types of sentences according to structure.
1. Name the types of sentences according to purpose.
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Glossary of Terms
Reading: A process by which an individual extracts a sequence of cues from printed texts
and relates these, one to another, so that he/she understands the precise message of the texts.
Vocalization: It is the practice of pronouncing words silently to yourself with lip movement.
Sub-vocalization: This is sounding the words in your throat while reading.
Regression: This is returning to what has been read.
Scanning: This is an extremely fast pace of reading employed for the purpose of locating a
particular piece of information.
Skimming: This is also a fast form of reading a particular text in order to determine its main
idea or the general gist of the text.
Sentence: A group of words that expresses a complete thought.
Compound Sentence: A sentence that contains two independent clauses joined by a comma
or a coordinating conjunction.
Complex Sentence: A sentence made up of one or more dependent clauses combined with an
independent clause.
Compound-complex Sentence: A sentence that contains two or more independent clauses

and one or more dependent clauses.
Declarative Sentence: A sentence that states a fact, opinion or feeling.
Interrogative Sentence: A sentence that asks a question.
Imperative Sentence: A sentence that requests or orders something.
Exclamatory Sentence: A sentence that expresses shock, surprise or sudden joy.
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Study Session 6: Types of Examination Questions and

Answering Techniques
Introduction
For many Learners, answering examination questions raises more anxiety than any other
academic task. Examination plays significant roles in Learners’ academic life. It has a large
impact on their final course grades.
There are techniques and strategies one can learn in answering examination questions. These
will reduce the fear of test-taking. Answering examination questions does not always reflect
one's full competence or lack of competence in a given subject on a given day. Having
prepared for an examination, knowing the relative degree of importance of each topic as it
relates to the subject, the examiner's personal areas of interest and the specific requirements
for competence, the next hurdle to cross is applying the techniques involved in answering
examination questions.
After this study session, you have to delete from your mind any negative preconceptions you
may have about skills that can be taught, skills that, with practice, anybody can learn. It is
hoped that this session will stimulate your interest and equip you with some of the techniques
involved in answering examination questions.
When you have studied this session, you should be:
6.1. acquainted with the different types of test questions and the techniques for responding
most effectively to each type;
6.2. able to apply the skills of managing time when answering examination questions; and
6.3. able to think independently and devise effective strategies that can help you handle
any examination question.
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6.1: Answering Examination Questions
Questions are the main ingredient of an examination. They come in a variety of types and
forms and are designed purposely to assess how well you have mastered the tested material at
varying levels. Depending on the type of question, the degree of difficulty in answering is
most often minimal. For instance, questions requiring one to fill-in-the-blank or gap may
require simple recall or recognition while other questions may require a more in-depth
thought process. Thought-provoking questions often require the assimilation of separate lists
of information in order to satisfy the final solution.
You are advised to read the entire stem of the question before looking at the alternatives. Pay
special attention to words written in bold or italics. Write the question number at the top of
the page as appropriate. Do not write out the questions. Answer the easiest questions first:
once you clear all the questions, there will be enough time for you to tackle the tougher ones.
Your confidence will be strengthened as you move through series of questions without too
much struggle. If you are able to answer as many questions as possible, you will be confident
to reach up to earn an acceptable grade.
Skip any item you are uncertain of. You can always come back to the skipped items before
the end of the examination. Note that it is not productive to spend a lot of time on a particular
question. Fully explain all your points, but be concise and ensure that you include enough
materials for the examiner to award marks. Do not waste time including unnecessary
materials.
You will need to monitor your pace in accordance with your time management plan. You
may need to pick up the pace or to slow down. Note that there is no bonus mark for finishing
fast. Set out all workings clearly and neatly, and state briefly what you are doing. Write
neatly and coherently.
Let your work gear to the language of the examiner. Do not use bullets, shading, acronyms,
abbreviations and graphics unless otherwise instructed. Make sure that important information,
key words, ideas, and points stand out. Your whole work must be neat.
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i. What are examination questions designed to achieve?

ii. List some important guidelines you will need to answer examination questions
effectively.
i. Examination questions are designed to assess how well you have mastered the
tested material at varying levels.
ii. a. Read the entire stem of the question before looking at the alternatives.
b. Pay special attention to words written in bold or italics.
c. Write the question number at the top of the page as appropriate.
d. Answer the easiest question first: once you clear all the questions, there
will be enough time for you to tackle the tougher ones.
e. Fully explain all your points, but be concise and ensure that you include
enough materials for the examiner to award marks.
f. Do not use bullets, shading, acronyms, abbreviations and graphics unless
otherwise instructed.
g. Do not waste time including unnecessary materials.
h. Write neatly and coherently.
6.2: Types of Questions
An examination may have different types of questions, but the function is to assess your
familiarity and understanding of the information given. Let us look at the different types of
examination questions.
Essay Question
Essays require a fairly-extended, on-the-spot composition about some topics. It requires you
to focus on the ways in which the various pieces of information being tested fit together. You
are expected to know a series of facts, the connections between these facts, and be able to
discuss the ideas in a logical and organised way. Essays are not structured and often present
challenges with emphasis on analysis or description. One may be tempted to go off the tract
when answering essay questions.
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In essay type questions, you are fully in control and at freedom to work at your own
discretion. Essay questions are time-consuming. Time management is required here. Allocate
time to each question and monitor your time so that each question can be adequately
answered. Do not spend too much time on your favourite topic leaving little or no time to the
last question to be answered.
At times, the question might require you to compare, and/or show relationship between two
or more variables. In such a situation, your answer can start with "To compare A to B" or
"The relationship between A and B." This will send a signal to the examiner that you are
addressing the question. When organising your answers, distinguish between main points and
minor points. The main points are all the broad, general ideas and information that support
your central ideas. The minor points are the specific ideas and information that support the
main points.
Be cautious on the use of spelling, grammar, punctuation marks and subject-verb agreement
just as if you are writing an English Language composition. Your work must be neat. If your
hand-writing is not legible enough, printing of your words (that is, writing them separately)
may be a good option.
a) For an Essay Question:
a. Read the question carefully and understand its specific request.

b. Write out a short outline for a lengthy essay.
c. Pay attention to action words and the keywords that the examiner has used.
d. Knowing the differences between common action words can save you from the
embarrassment of failure.
e. Use simple and correct language. Be brief and straight to the point. Avoid
unnecessary flowery introductory language. Be economical but effective in the use of
words.
f. Give examples and point out differences.
g. Follow a logical sequence. Move from major points/ideas to minor ones, or follow a
time sequence.
h. Answer every aspect of the question, including the embedded ones to receive good
marks.
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i. Make a quick play in your answer script.

j. Under each main point, make a list of all the relevant facts that come to your mind.
k. Write your answer by fully developing each point.
l. Explain the used concepts very well for any lay person to understand
m. Remember to give a brief introduction and of course a conclusion.
In essay type questions, always use the "SCAB" (Johnson et al, 2004) approach: Simplicity,
Clarity, Accuracy and Brevity. However, you must be as thorough as possible. If the time is
running out against you, give summary in a nutshell and turn in your scripts.
b) Action words that are commonly used in essay questions
S/No. Action Words Meaning

1. Analyse Examine and separate into component parts.
2. Clarify Make clearer; explain with significant detail.
3. Compare Examine and explain similarities and differences.
4. Compare and Examine and explain similarities and differences.
contrast
5. Contrast Examine and explain similarities and differences.
6. Critique Write your opinion of or reaction to; analyse and judge, explaining
what is wrong and or right about a concept.
7. Define What is? Provide or say the meaning.
8 Discuss Talk about something; explain, review and consider.
9. Distinguish Recognize the differences and similarities between two people or
between things.
10. Enumerate Name things on a list one by one; provide a list of ideas, concepts,
reasons, items.
11. Evaluate Assess; provide an opinion and justify it; provide pros and cons of
something.
12 Expatiate Write in detail about a subject.
13 Explain Make it easy to understand; give reasons why or how, clarify, justify
and illustrate.
14. Illustrate Make meaning clearer with examples, instances and pictures.
15. Interpret Explain the meaning of something.
16. Justify Show that something is right or reasonable; explain why a concept
can be supported, typically by using examples and other types of
support.
17. Outline Give a description of the main points/facts involved in something;
provide an over arching framework or explanation - usually in
narrative form - of a concept, idea, event or phenomenon.
18. Prove Using evidence and arguments, convince the reader of a particular
point.
19. Relate Show/make a connection between two or more things; show how
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things fit together; provide analogies.

20. Review An examination of something, describe or summarize, often with an
evaluation.
21. State Assert or explain.
22. Summarize Give only the main points, not the details; provide a condensed,
precise list or narrative.
23. Trace Find the origin, discover something by looking carefully for it; to
copy a map/drawing, describe a process or development of
something; provide a history or time line.
NB: Modified from Feldman R. S. (2003) Chapter, 5 pg 131 and Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English.
Objective Questions
Read each alternative completely and make sure you understandwhat it is saying. Make a
mental note or mark right in the examination booklet as to whether this alternative might be
an appropriate answer. But read all the alternatives before you choose a final answer.
Alternative "a" may appear to be the correct choice, but alternative "d" may provide a better
answer to the question posed. Do not be misled by alternatives that are "correct" or "true."
Most of the time, your task will be to choose the best alternative. All might be "correct" but
one will be the best overall answer.
a) Multiple - Choice Questions (MCQ)
They are often designed so that Learners must choose between the correct answer and another
answer that is close, but not correct. They usually contain either a statement, or a question
which is followed by a number of possible answers. You are expected to choose the best
option from the four (4) or five (5) choices provided.
MCQs look tricky as every answer seems to be right. Do not rush into attempting this type of
question so as to avoid scoring low marks. First read the instructions carefully with
understanding to ascertain if only one answer will be correct, which is, in most cases, but at
times the examiners may request for more than one answer.
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Check the first question, read it carefully, try to answer the question without looking at the
options provided. Read carefully through every possible answer. Sometimes, you may think
that one is right. Wait until you read all the options, perhaps there may be a better answer.
Check out for words like never, only, every, none, and always as they are rarely correct.
Whereas words like often, typically, rarely, generally, seldom and usually may indicate a
correct answer. Look out for the word "not" as it is easy to sweep over it.
If you do not know the answer, note it with a pencil and move on. You can easily come back
to it. When you return to the question, first eliminate the options you know are not correct
and see if you can get the answer. If you are having problem with understanding a question,
try to break it into different short sections or underline key words and phrases. Feldman
(2003) advises that sometimes it is helpful to work backwards. This is what he called
Jeopardy Style. That is, you look at the possible answers first to see if you can find one that is
clearly accurate or clearly inaccurate.
With MCQs, you can also engage in educated guessing techniques if you are still not sure of
the correct options. It is good if you are not initially warned against guessing. However, if the
instruction warns you not to guess, it is better you leave a blank rather than guessing wrong
and getting some marks deducted from the correct ones.
In educated guessing, you first try to eliminate any false answer. Then, check the remaining
choices well if an option includes a qualifier that makes it unlikely or a subtle factual error.
With this method, you should be able to get the correct option by eliminating the others.
MCQs are of different types: Single Best Response, and Key Type Response.
Single Best Response: In the single best response question, distractors are introduced as other
variables. Distractors offer an extra challenge. They are like baits which are used to lure you
into selecting the wrong answer. They are usually choices that are close but not correct. They
can also contain partially correct information, but as is the case with true or false questions, if
part of the responses is incorrect, then it is no longer the best option.
Example:
(i) Question: The capital of Nigeria is Lagos.
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Options
A. Lagos (Lagos was the former capital of Nigeria and not the capital any more)
B. Enugu (Enugu is the capital of Enugu State in Nigeria).
C. Abuja (FCT)
D. Niger (Niger is another state in Nigeria)
E. None of the above.
The correct answer is (C) which is Abuja (FCT).
You have a 20% chance, that is, probability of guessing one out of five as the correct answer
for a single best response question. If you know the correct answer because of your previous
knowledge, your chances are very high. Do not waste time. Write the correct answer
immediately.
(ii) Another question may have more than one correct answer depending on the options
available to pick from.
Example:
A wine bottle is equal to ……….
a. 75 litre
b. 750ml
c. 75cc
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
(iii) A plant …
A. Gives out carbon-dioxide.

B. contains chlorophyll
C. makes use of photosynthesis
D. all of the above
E. none of the above
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When a question is structured like this, you can turn it into a true or false statement. If your
conclusion is that each of a, b and c is applicable, your correct answer then is "d." One can
use the same method to answer unfamiliar multiple questions.
b) Key Type Response: These types of questions require your knowledge of selected facts
from the key that corresponds with the answer selection process.
A = 1, 2, 3, B = 1, 3 C = 2, 4.
D = 4, E = 1, 2, 3, 4.
From the alphabets A, B, C, D, or E, you select the alphabet whose number or combination of
numbers corresponds with the correct answer(s).
Key type questions are not actually difficult. The modality assists you to some extent. Take a
look at the answer key pattern. Note that in each case, the number one (1) is seen, and the
number three (3) is also present. This may imply that if "1" is correct, then "3" is also correct.
Your choices are narrowed down to either A, B, or E. If "1" and "4" are correct, then your
correct answer must be E. However, if 2 is not correct, then your answer is either "B" or "D."
Try to guide against selecting an incorrect answer simply because you think you have heard
of it before.
True-False Questions
The true or false question is an old method of questioning. It is an objective type of question
with a relatively high chance (50:50) or 50% of being answered correctly. True or false
questions can become somewhat challenging to follow and as a result a bit difficult to answer
as they involve the subtleness with which one or two factual detections, reversals or
erroneous insertions can be made. However, you are capable of doing them well.
Statements that are either accurate (true) or inaccurate (false) are presented to indicate
whether each statement on a particular item is accurate (right) or inaccurate (wrong). Start a
true-false question by reading thoroughly and understanding the statement that is being made.
First answer the ones you are sure you know.
Look out for pivot words or key words like not, sometimes, always, never, only, which more
often than not determine the appropriate option in the statement. If a statement has the word
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‘not,’ even though not highlighted, the statement can be approached like a Mathematical
equation where two negatives make a positive and any other combination of a positive and a
negative is a negative.
For example: "Abeokuta is the capital of Ogun State." A question stated in this form is "true"
because Abeokuta is Ogun State capital. However, if the question is "Abeokuta is not the
capital of Ogun State," the answer is false.
If the question is: "Ogbomoso is the capital of Oyo State," the answer is false. But if the word
‘not’ is included in the structure, "Ogbomoso is not the capital of Oyo State," the double
negative Mathematical precept now comes in and the answer is true. Always note that if any
part of a true or false statement is false, the entire question is considered false.
Perhaps, if you are not certain whether a statement is true or false, the last resort principle is
choose "true." Generally, in this type of question, there is the probability of having more
"true" than "false." These questions offer you an opportunity to demonstrate your
understanding of basic terms and concepts.
Matching Questions
Two lists of related information are provided and arranged in column form. You are
requested to link them item by item or to pair up (match) the items that go together. A good
example is a state and its capital. You may have questions that request you to match either a
term with a statement or a numerical answer with an equation just like fill-in-the-blank
questions. But matching questions are with a pool of potential answers. In some cases, a
single answer can be used more than once. Follow the earlier instructions stated. The golden
rule here is to select the very best answer more so that the answers may appear to be
somehow close, but one is more exact or descriptive than another.
In matching questions, begin by trying to reduce the size of both columns by matching the
items you are sure about first. With the short list in each column, the final matching may not
be difficult with each question. Go down the list of answers and note those that are
applicable. If two answers are very close, select the one that you feel more satisfied to answer
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the question. However, if there is same number of answers as questions and the instruction
says there is no duplicate answer, this might help you to pick the best choice for each
question.
Fill-in-the-Blank
Fill-in-the-blank questions are usually straight forward. It is either you know it or you do not
know it. They require you to generate and supply specific information in your own words.
They require only one answer. Be brief in your answer. Provide not too much or too little
information. The instructions for the question and the type of the questions will determine the
level of specificity needed.
The questions are very easy and are of the rote memory type; e.g.:
i. Ago-Iwoye is in … State.
ii. OOU College of Agriculture is in … Town.
iii. Professor … was the Dean of Education at OOU, Ago-Iwoye, in 2015.
These types of questions should make you happy. A slight variation of the fill-in-the-blank is
the identification or labelling question type.
A. Identification or Labelling Questions: These types of questions should be expected

where visual applications, audio applications, or equipment are utilized. An anatomy
teacher may ask you to label the parts of the human skeleton or identify the bones that
make up the spinal cord. An oral English teacher may require you to differentiate
between two different sounds or identify nasal sounds as they are being pronounced.
The evidence of how much you prepare for the examination will show because these
types of answers require your knowledge or lack of knowledge.
B. Short Answer Questions: This is a kind of mini-essay that requires few sentences or
brief responses. The focus is on the recall of specific detailed information. These
questions are similar to essay questions in which you have to recall key pieces of
information. But they are unlike essay questions where a demand is on you to
integrate, compare or contrast different types of information. Be brief in your answer.
Give not too much or too little information. The instructions for the questions and the
type of the questions will determine the level of specificity needed.
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i. List five types of examination questions discussed in this study session.

ii. Mention the two types of Multiple Choice Questions(MCQ)
i. a. Essay questions
b. Objective questions
c. True – False questions
d. Matching questions
e. Fill–in–the–blank questions.
ii. a. Single best response
b. Key type response.
6.3: Computer-Based Test
Using the computer to administer a test is becoming the preferred mode in some of the
tertiary institutions nowadays. Most of the standardized tests have a computer-based version
which has been an improvement on the pen-and-paper version. This requires that you have a
basic knowledge of computer operation. Tests are scored by the computer after you have
indicated your answers by clicking on the correct answer in the options provided and clicking
on the ‘submit’ button after you might have finished. Be careful and cautious as a smudge
can cause the computer scanner to misinterpret your answer, and this can produce errors in
grading. Every type of question requires a specific approach to follow, so watch out.
Calculation/Computational Questions
Calculation separates the eagles from the eaglets, and they are not only meant for courses that
are taught by the Mathematics Department. Disciplines like Physics, Chemistry, Statistics,
Agricultural Sciences and Music can incorporate numerical computations. Many
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computational questions require the use of a standard format. Endeavour to understand the
format very well before you go in for the examination. Show your workings step by step to
the concluding end. It will show your examiner that you actually understand how your
answer is arrived at. In case you make an Arithmetic error, you may still be awarded some
points. Endeavour to check and recheck the steps leading to your answer. Attach units where
necessary, e.g. 10 grams, 120cc, 35wpm, 240mg/ dl; and place decimal points correctly. To
make your final answer stand out from the rest of the numbers, you can underline or highlight
it.
If formulae for the calculations are needed but are not provided, write them down in the inner
cover of your answer script while the examination is in progress (and not before it) while the
formulae are fresh in your mind.
Word Problems
Word problems can really force you to analyse a given situation and render a plan of
resolution that may require several formulae, definitions and then logical explanations. For
example:
A cyclist travels for 30km on the A roads. He maintains an average speed of 10 km/h but on
the B roads, his average speed drops to 8 km/h. If the journey takes 3 hours 24 minutes, find
how far he cycles on a road.
Answer = 14 km
Read the question carefully. Before proceeding, make sure that you understand exactly what
is being asked. If there is no clue and the point attached to the question is not high, you may
have to wait until you have answered all the other questions that are less time consuming
before coming back to word problems.
Case Studies
For these types of questions, identify the area where there is a problem. List out the main
theories or principles you are going to employ in solving the problem, then apply them
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accordingly. Outline first the facts of the case problem in relation to the theories/principles
you are using. Include only relevant points and reach a conclusion.
In case you are asked to give/suggest recommendation(s), do not leave this section out. You
can even compare the facts to real-life situation, as it may earn you extra marks.
Open Book Examination
An open book examination can be a potential time trap if the examination is not well
organised. They can be administered in most disciplines but are usually common in courses
that require tables, a lot of formulae and information such as listing of sine, cosine, specifics
and variables that are required for calculations.
If there will be an open book examination, you are supposed to organise everything that you
will need to be easy to find and readily available too. Use markers of different colours to
identify and or highlight definitions, formulae, key points and pertinent information to avoid
wasting away the time searching during the examination.
Take Home Examination: This gives you all the ample opportunity of having available
resources at your access and time at your disposal which you must take advantage of.
Procrastination is the major enemy of take home examination. Do not wait until the last
minute before you start rushing to complete. Try to schedule your time and stick to a well-
timed management plan to make the examination an enriching, non-tedious learning
experience.
i. Mention some of the disciplines that can incorporate numerical computations.

ii. What is the major advantage of take-home examination?
i. a. Physics
b. Chemistry
c. Statistics
d. Agricultural Science
e. Music
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ii. It provides one with the ample opportunity of havingaccess to available

resources and time at one’s disposal.
6.4: General Answering Techniques
By the time you are getting to the last few minutes of the examination, you must not relax
yet. It is not over until it is over. You need to focus your energy and even push yourself
harder. Save some time for the end of an examination so that you can check your work. Five
to ten minutes spent to review what you have written down can make the difference between
a good grade and a mediocre one. Nobody can write an examination for more than one hour
without committing an error. It is, therefore, crucial to check your work.
Make use of punctuation marks. Dot your “Is" and cross your "Ts." In a nutshell, do all the
necessary corrections needed. Try to edit your work before turning your paper over to the
examiner. Make sure that you have answered every question and all its parts, if any. State
your points clearly so that the examiner will have no trouble understanding your ideas. Take
time to ensure that your paper is free of spelling mistakes, repetitions, missing words and
grammatical errors. Correct the grammar, sentence structure and punctuation errors that can
seriously weaken the strength of your writing.
When you have finished, go back and attempt the skipped items again. Check your answers
in reverse, that is, start at the beginning. Read the alternative you have chosen before you
read the question. If you know that you misread the question or otherwise sure that your
answer is wrong, change your answer. Or else when you are uncertain about your answer,
leave your first choice alone. After you have answered the questions, check your answers;
work all over them one by one. If you feel confident that you have answered a question very
well, move to the next question until you must have checked all the questions/answers.
Check your answers to MCQs, True-false questions, Short-Answer questions, Matching

questions, and Fill-in-the-Blank questions. If you had earlier left some items unanswered,
now is the time to make educated guessing. If you had earlier on made some guesses, do not
change your original answer without any good reason. Mind you, your first guess is likely to
be your best guess.
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If it is essay question, proof read what you have written. Make sure it makes sense and it is
meaningful to you. If you use more than one booklet of the answer script, make sure you tie
all the extra sheets with the booklet and check to see that you number every page. After you
have finished checking and reading over your scripts, you discover that you have few more
minutes left: then prepare to hand over your examination script to the invigilators with
confidence that you have done your best.
Hold it! Perhaps on the other hand you discover that instead of finishing to time, the time is
against you, you are running out of time. What would you do? Take a few seconds to calm
down. Do not panic. Take some deep breaths. It is time for last minute technique.
For essay questions that are left unattended to, write out the key points, major ones and minor
ones. If you had prepared the outline before, transfer from the inner or outer back cover into
the appropriate page now. Just the outlines, do not bother to develop them. It is better to write
something down rather than turning in blank page. One or two marks are better than zero.
i. List some things that you should do before handing your examination script to
the invigilators.
i. a. Take time to go over your work beginning from thefirst question to the last.
b. If you know that you misread the question or that your answer is wrong,
change your answer.
c. Look for questions that you had skipped and attempt them.
d. Ensure that your work is free of errors of spelling, punctuation and
grammar.
e. Write something down rather than turning in blank page.
f. Ensure that you have written your matriculation or any examination number
correctly.
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6.5: Good Examination Conduct
It is important that you abide with all the rules and regulations guiding the conduct of
examination. Some of these are arriving at the venue early enough (at least 30 minutes before
the commencement of each paper) not coming into the venue with bags, books, paper chips
or any other written material, phones and calculators (unless you are instructed to use the
calculator. It is also important that you behave politely and show respect to your invigilators.
Also important is your being honest in the examination hall. Being honest during the
examination appears as a pledge. As a matter of fact, many universities hold all Learners
responsible and accountable for their actions when it comes to ethical behaviour. Knowledge
is not advanced when Learners corrupt the essential process by engaging in falsification and
cheating.
Good conduct in examination is completing and turning in only one's own work under one's
own name. It means that one must not be caught being involved in any examination
misconduct when answering examination questions.
Examination misconduct includes:
i. Flouting the orders in the examination hall.

ii. Forcefully snatching another person's answer script.
iii. Copying from another person's work.
iv. Glancing at a colleague's examination scripts.
v. Bringing into the hall prepared scripts or paper chips with likely answers.
vi. Scribbling likely answers on any part of the body.
vii. Copying another person's work and passing it off as one's own (plagiarism).
viii. Use of calculator and phone when it is forbidden.
ix. ix. Discussing answer to a question while writing the examination.
x. Stealing examination scripts.
xi. Being rude to invigilators/examiners.
xii. Playing the role of a mercenary - writing examination for another person.
xiii. Cheating.
xiv. Misrepresentation - passing off someone else's work as your own.
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xv. Giving your script to another Learner to copy.

xvi. Talking (not oral examinations) when answering examination questions.
Examination malpractice is not good. It is not an ideal thing to be involved in. It lowers one’s
self-esteem and dignity, and makes one to lose self-respect. If you get involved in
examination malpractice, it will lead you to a number of unpleasant experiences such as:
a. Failing the examination;

b. Failing the entire programme/course;
c. Appearing before the Learners' Disciplinary Committee;
d. Having your photographs on the pages of national newspapers and on the Internet as a cheat;
e. Being sent away on suspension; and
f. Total expulsion from the institution.
It is not worth it to be involved in cheating and/or examination misconduct. When you are answering
examination questions, encourage honesty among other Learners, and take the initiative to prevent others from
copying your answers. Avoid looking in the direction of other Learners' scripts, or talking to or with other
Learners. Do not help Learners who cheat. Do not compromise. It is dangerous. You can be labelled as an
accomplice. Good conduct in examination is the bedrock of college/university life. The risks of cheating, getting
caught, and causing damage to your sense of self-worth far outweigh any momentary benefits.
i. List at least four examples of academic dishonesty.

ii. State four likely consequences of academic dishonesty.
i. a. Disobeying the orders in the examination hall.

b. Forcefully snatching another person's answer script.
f. Copying from another person's work.
g. Glancing at a colleague's examination scripts.
h. Bringing into the hall prepared scripts or paper chips with likely answers.
i. Scribbling likely answers on any part of the body.
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1. School examination asks for explanations on what you have been taught, or have
acquired, how you have assimilated or stored information and now requires you to
retrieve what you have acquired.
2. Examination plays significant roles in Learners’ academic life since it has a huge
impact on their final course grades.
3. Questions are the main ingredients of an examination and they come in a variety of
types and forms such as essay questions, objective questions, true–false questions,
matching questions and fill–in–the–blank questions.
4. Thought-provoking questions often require the assimilation of separate lists of
information in order to satisfy the final solution.
5. Essays require a fairly extensive, on-the-spot composition about some topics and
expect you to focus on the ways in which the various pieces of information being
tested fit together.
6. In essay type questions, always use the "SCAB" approach: Simplicity, Clarity,
Accuracy and Brevity.
7. In objective questions, read each alternative completely and make sure you
understand what it is saying. Also, make a mental note or mark right in the
examination booklet as to which alternative might be an appropriate answer.
8. MCQ means Multiple Choice Questions.
9. MCQs are often designed so that Learners must choose between the correct answer
and another answer that is close, but not correct. They usually contain either a
statement, or a question which is followed by a number of possible answers.
10. MCQs are of two major types: single best response, and key type response.
11. Using the computer to administer a test is becoming the preferred mode of examination in some tertiary
institutions nowadays.
12. Take home examination gives you all the ample opportunity of having available
resources at your access and time at your disposal which you must take advantage of.
13. Procrastination is the greatest disadvantage of take home examination.
14. Save some time for the end of an examination so that you can review your work.
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15. Being honest during the examination is very important and it is like a pledge. Many
universities hold all Learners responsible and accountable for their actions when it
comes to ethical behaviour.
16. Knowledge is not advanced when Learners corrupt the essential process by engaging
in falsification and cheating.
17. Examination misconduct lowers one’s self-esteem and dignity, and makes one to lose
self-respect.
18. Being involved in examination malpractice may land you in certain unpleasant
situations and experiences such as failing the course or the entire programme, and
suspension or outright expulsion from the institution.
19. When you are answering examination questions, encourage honesty among other Learners, and take the
initiative to prevent others from copying your answers.
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Now that you have completed Study Session 6, it is necessary that you assess how well you
have achieved its Learning Outcomes by attempting the following questions.
1. List some of the basic steps that you would take before answering an examination
question.
1. What kind of examinations/tests will one encounter in the university or higher

institution?
2. What is the full meaning of MCQ?
3. Describe matching questions.
1. What are the fundamental steps involved in case studies?
1. Discuss the types of examination answering techniquesyou can employ in an

examination.
1. Give reasons why a Learner should not be involved inexamination misconduct.
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Glossary of Terms
Questions: These are the main ingredients of an examination and are designed to assess how
well you have mastered the tested material at different levels.
Essay: A fairly extended, on-the-spot composition about a topic.
Multiple-Choice Questions: These are designed so that Learners must choose between the
correct answer and other answers that are close but not correct.
Matching Questions: These are two lists of items arranged in column form and Learners are
requested to link or pair them up item by item.
Computerised Test: A test administered through the use of the computer.
Academic Honesty: This means completing and turning in only one’s own work under one’s
own name and generally behaving in an orderly and upright manner during an examination.
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Study Session 7: Importance of Continuous Assessment in the

University
Introduction
With increasing number of universities in Nigeria and a quality index of 68% measured by
the number of programmes with full accreditation statues, it has become imperative for the
commission to reposition itself and indeed the entire university system to meet national needs
for global relevance and competition (2018) One of the strategies adopted was the
introduction of Benchmark for Minimum Academic Standard (BMAS) to Nigerian
universities. The NUC BMAS places considerable emphasis on continuous assessment as a
vital means of evaluating the performance of university Learners. The NUC BMAS stipulates
a minimum of 30% and a maximum of 40% for continuous assessment in the overall
evaluation of Learners’ performance. It must be recalled that the old method of assessment of
Learners’ performance, called the “Almighty June” had given way to the course system
which has the continuous assessment as an integral componentnuous assessment.
7.1 Define the concepts of assessment and continuous assessment;
7.2 Identify the functions and guiding principles of a good assessment;
7.3 Highlight the characteristics of continuous assessment;
7.4 Recognize the reasons why continuous assessment is desirable;
7.5 Describe the attributes of continuous assessment;
7.6 Identify and explain the areas or scope of continuous assessment; and
7.7 Understand the mode of continuous assessment in the university.

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7.1: Definition of Concepts: Assessment and Continuous Assessment
The essential purpose of education is to bring about the achievement of the national
objectives of creating a free and democratic society; a just and egalitarian society; a great and
dynamic economy and a land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens. To achieve
these, instruction at all levels has to be geared towards, among others, promoting the
physical, emotional and psychological development of all children, and to inculcate in them
moral and spiritual principles in inter-personal and human relations (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004).
Prior to the introduction and implementation of continuous assessment, the terminal form of
assessment, also called one-short examination or single examination, was adopted. In this
form of assessment, the internal and external examinations were used in determining
Learners' achievements in school. This form of assessment was criticized because it neglected
the assessment of skills associated with both the industry and character of the Learners and
also set aside or put off the decision on Learners' performance until the end of the year,
term/semester or the end of the course.
As a result of these shortcomings of the terminal assessment, a new method of assessing

Learners' performance known as continuous assessment was introduced. Continuous
assessment, popularly known as C.A., is the current strategy for evaluating the performance
of Learners in their academic pursuit. This new system is now seen as a critical area of
education, which has attracted considerable attention. Continuous assessment constitutes the
regular and systematic method of determining Learners' achievement in terms of knowledge,
thinking and reasoning (cognitive domain), character development (affective domain) and
industry (psychomotor domain). Since this new method of assessment of Learners' academic
performance was introduced, many parents, teachers and Learners in particular have been
finding it difficult to understand extensively all that the method entails.
Of great concern is that a conscientious teacher, who although employs informal observation
as a means of gathering information/data about his Learners, should also find it important to
use more formal methods such as test and non-test techniques in gathering information
needed to improve the complete teaching-learning process. It is, therefore, imperative that we
know the various methods used to acquire information used for an effective assessment of
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learners. The question, therefore, is: what is assessment and what is continuous assessment?
This aspect of this study session will attempt to give the definition of the two concepts.
Assessment has been defined by various authors. For instance, Anikweze (2005) defines it as
the process of investigating the status or standards of learners' attainment, with reference to
expected outcome that must have been specified as objectives when it comes to learners'
output. Okpala and Onocha (1994) define assessment as the process of fashioning data into
interpretable form, using data collection methods. Rowntree (1977) as cited in Hassan (1998)
defines assessment as occurring whenever one person, in some kind of interaction, direct or
indirect, with another, is conscious of obtaining and interpreting information about the
knowledge and understanding,
Assessment is a systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional

objectives are met by the Learners and this could be formally or informally. Assessment is
also viewed as finding out the achievement or otherwise of goals/objectives of an undertaking
for which certain resources have been invested. Assessment, in relation to education, is
viewed as a method of finding out what the pupils have gained from learning activities that
have been purposely organised to achieve specific objectives. The teacher assesses the
Learners' performance in a subject, while the Ministry of Education assesses the performance
of a school using some set out objectives as a yardstick (Bamiro, 2007).
One major purpose of assessment is to determine whether or not learning has taken place in
an individual. Assessment data can be used in determining whether instructional/ programme
goals and objectives have been achieved. Yoloye (2004) summarizes the major functions of
assessment as follows:
a. Evaluating Learners' progress;

b. Motivating Learners for tests and examinations;
c. Evaluating level of achievement;
d. Giving feedback on teaching effectiveness;
e. Predicting future performance; and
f. Providing the public with a guarantee for competence and providing selection device
for screening candidates for placement.
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In other words, assessment data provide the basis on which important decisions about the
learning outcome of an individual, teaching, methods of instruction and even the whole
educational programme are made. It also helps in achieving quantitative and qualitative
educational system. Sunmola (2009) identifies the guiding principles of a good assessment.
These principles should:
a. be an integral part of the teaching-learning process;

b. be a continuously planned activity;
c. adopt the evaluation techniques for cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains;
d. include not only measurement but also interpretation and judgment;
e. assist teachers in meeting individual needs and providing appropriate programmes for
Learners;
f. be fair and equitable, giving all Learners opportunities to demonstrate their
knowledge, skills and abilities;
g. foster Learners' ability to transfer knowledge into life experiences;
h. encourage active participation and Learners' self-appraisal to foster life-long learning;
and
i. provide opportunities for Learners' development and improvement.
Continuous assessment, as defined by Yoloye (1988), is a method of evaluating the progress

and achievement of Learners in educational institutions. It is aimed at getting the true picture
of the learner's ability and also assisting the Learners to develop their abilities and potential to
the fullest. Continuous assessment is also a mechanism whereby the final grading of a
Learner in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of behaviour takes into account
in a systematic way all the performances of the Learners during a given period of schooling
(Ojerinde & Falayajo, 1984; Federal Ministry of Education Science and Technology, 1985;
Yoloye, 1988; Alonge, 1989, & Alonge, 2002). Hassan (1998) defines continuous assessment
as a continuous updating of teachers' judgment about learners' performance in relation to
specific criteria which will allow, at anytime, a cumulative judgment to be made about
performance upon these same criteria.
Ezenwu and Okoye (1981) also define it as a systematic and objective process of determining
the expected changes in Learners' performance and behaviour over the period of his study
with the view of using them to guide and shape the Learners.
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i. What is the mode of assessment employed in schools before the introduction of

continuous assessment?
ii. Attempt a definition of continuous assessment.
i. Terminal form of assessment/one-short examination or single examination.

ii. Continuous assessment is the regular and systematic method of determining Learners'
achievement in terms of knowledge, thinking and reasoning (cognitive domain),
character development (affective domain) and industry (psychomotor domain).
7.2: The Importance of Continuous Assessment
The Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) in her policy statement as stipulated in the National
Policy on Education stated that education shall be liberalized by being based in whole or in
part on continuous assessment of the progress of the individual. This simply means that
continuous assessment is very important in the teaching-learning process. Yoloye (1984) and
Adenuga (1998) have highlighted the importance of continuous assessment among others to
include the following:
1. Continuous assessment is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. It,

therefore, implies that teachers should take part in the final assessment of the Learners
they teach.
2. Continuous assessment gives the true picture of the Learners' abilities than the single
examination.
3. It gives the teacher the opportunity to assess various aspects of a Learner's life by
introducing interesting and valuable topics that are outside of the syllabus into his/her
teaching. Thus, it encourages the teacher to introduce innovative topics into his/her
teaching, which could form part of the final grading of the Learners.
4. Continuous assessment is useful to teachers for assessing or evaluating their own
teaching performance or instructional methods. This will make the teachers to
improve on their weak areas.
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5. Continuous assessment helps in reducing cases of examination leakages or

malpractices which have plagued almost all the internal and external examinations.
For instance, the single final examination is used to determine the success or
otherwise of the Learners and these Learners use different ways and means to pass
these examinations. However, this problem could be reduced with the introduction of
continuous assessment.
6. Continuous assessment helps in revealing areas where instructional goals are not
being met satisfactorily which often encourages remedial instruction or improved
instructional procedures.
7. Continuous assessment can assist to identify possible causes of Learner
maladjustment, that is, to monitor a Learner's problem for effective guidance.
8. Continuous assessment encourages a systematic and regular evaluation of the
learners. This eventually helps in gathering necessary information that covers the
main aspects of the content. This ensures better content assessment and consistency of
the assessment because the information had been taken over a long period of time. In
other words, the assessment becomes valid and reliable when compared to a single
examination.
9. It ensures better record keeping, which is used in counselling and guiding Learners in
career choice of their interest.
10. It is designed to cover all aspects of human development such as intellectual,
physical, social, and emotional.
11. It helps in alleviating some of the stresses associated with the one-shot examination.
i. List three of the advantages of continuous assessment.
i. a. Continuous assessment gives the true picture of the Learners' abilities more than
the single examination.
b. Continuous assessment is useful to teachers for assessing or evaluating their

own teaching performance or instructional methods. This will make the teachers
to improve on their weak areas.
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c. It is designed to cover all aspects of human development such as intellectual,

physical, social, and emotional.
7.3: Attributes of Continuous Assessment
Continuous assessment, according to Hassan (1998), has a number of distinguishing features.

These features or characteristics are useful in determining the learning outcome of Learners
using tests, assignments, projects, questionnaires, interviews etc. These features include the
following:
1. Systematic: This feature is based on a carefully articulated plan of activities. This

means that the assessment of Learners' performance at a given time is based on the
instructional objectives that had earlier been set by the teacher. It is systematic
because it is guided by a sense of purpose and goal.
2. Comprehensive: This is aimed at the complete utilization of information about a total
person. It covers the totality of an individual's behaviour - cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains using different assessment techniques in gathering information
on the individual such as tests, projects, interviews, questionnaire, observations,
assignments and a host of others. The three behavioural aspects of an individual are
put into consideration in arriving at the final outcome/performance of a Learner.
3. Cumulative: This entails the gradual building up of information concerning an
individual with the addition of recent information with the previous one. It deals with
updating an individual's record whereby information newly obtained is added to the
old one. Record keeping is a very important feature of continuous assessment since
the information collected is updated and used for decision-making. This nature of
continuous assessment makes the Learners to work very hard since the weekly test
will count in the final assessment.
4. Dynamic: It is based on the understanding of a changing individual. It must be
understood that the attributes that are being studied and assessed are also dynamic in
different degrees and should not be assumed without verification to be constant.
5. Continuous: Information obtained about an individual in the assessment process must
be on a continuous basis such that unnecessary gaps are not created and such that
recent information collected on an individual is added to existing information. As this
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is done, the preliminary conceptualizations of the individual learner will either

confirm or reject or remain uncertain.
6. Guidance-oriented: Information or data on an individual are useful in helping the
Learner to make valued educational and career choices and also be guided in
resolving social, personal and familiar conflicts. In other words, it provides guidance
for Learners' present and future development.
i. Make a list of the key features of continuous assessment.

ii. In what ways are these features useful?
i. a. Systematic
b. Comprehensive
c. Cumulative
d. Dynamic
e. Continuous
f. Guidance-oriented
ii. These features are useful in determining the learning outcome of Learner through the
use of tests, assignments, projects, questionnaires, and interviews.
7.4: Areas of Continuous Assessment
Continuous assessment covers the following areas or activities in the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains of the learner. Benjamin Bloom and his associates (1956) cited in
Bamiro (2007) describes these domains thus:
The Cognitive Domain
This refers to the intellectual development of the learner. There are six levels of objectives
emphasized by the cognitive domain of a learner which are:
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a. Knowledge: it is concerned with simple recall of information learned and it is the

lowest level of the cognitive domain.
b. Understanding: This is a higher level of activity which is beyond recalling
information. Understanding is seen in a Learner when he/she is able to translate given
information to the extent that he is able to put it in his own words, summarize, or
explain it.
c. Application: This is the Learner's ability to use learned material in a new and concrete
situation, different from the original situation.
d. Analysis: This is the learner's ability to break down materials into their component
parts and to find the relationship among these component parts.
e. Synthesis: This deals with the learner's ability to put together or build up ideas or
materials to form a new whole.
f. Evaluation: It is the highest level in the cognitive domain and it deals with making
judgment on the values of ideas, materials and methods.
The Affective Domain
This domain involves values, beliefs, attitudes, interests, social relations, emotions, morals
and other personality factors such as class attendance, discipline and cooperation with other
Learners. The belief and attitude of Learners towards a subject determine to a great extent his
ability to do or perform well.
 The Psychomotor Domain
This is another domain of education, which deals with motor skills or manipulative skills and
body movement. Psychomotor skill is concerned with selecting and assembling tools and materials.
Educational assessment of the learner should comprise all the three domains highlighted above.
i. What are the domains of the learner that a good continuous assessment must cover?
ii. List the six levels of objectives emphasized by the cognitive domain of the learner.
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i. a. Cognitive domain
b. Affective domain
c. Psychomotor domain.
ii. a. Knowledge
b. Understanding
c. Application
d. Analysis
e. Synthesis
f. Evaluation.
7.5: Assessment Techniques and Mode of Continuous Assessment
1. Cognitive: It includes tests, projects, written assignments, peer evaluation, oral

exchange of questions.
2. Affective and Psychomotor Domains: Observation, interviews, socio-metric and
questionnaires.
Mode of Continuous Assessment in the University
Education in the university and other institutions of higher learning is geared towards making
contribution to national development by:
a. intensifying and diversifying its programmes for the development of high level
manpower within the context of the needs of the nation;
b. making professional courses to reflect our national requirements; and
c. making all Learners, as part of a general programme of all-round improvement in
university education, to offer general study courses such as history of ideas,
philosophy of knowledge and nationalism (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004).
To achieve these objectives of university education, it is required that universities and even
other institutions of higher learning consider the practice whereby examination performances
of Learners in courses determine the final grading of graduates. Also, elements of continuous
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assessment should be introduced. This assessment on continuous basis must cover the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of education.
Continuous assessment in the university is very much needed because of its relevance in
achieving the desired changes in the behaviour of learners as a result of the teaching-learning
process. It is unfair to evaluate Learners using only one-shot examination, which often comes
at the end of a learning cycle. Learners' achievement should be assessed at various stages of
the learning cycle. This type of assessment is to ensure that learning takes place.
Taking a course in the university and passing it with good grade requires proper registration,
which is then followed by effective lectures or teaching for 15 -17 weeks. At the discretion of
each lecturer, techniques of continuous assessment take various forms ranging from; tests,
quizzes, term papers, projects, written assignments, practicals, class works etc. The university
based continuous assessment constitutes a minimum of 30% and maximum of 40% of the
overall Learners’ assessment, while the final examination conducted at the end of the
semester, which concludes the course, carries 70% or 60% making a total of 100%.
Learners' academic performance can be assessed in a course, in a semester and also

cumulatively over all the semesters. Continuous assessment is the dominant mode of
assessment of learning in obtaining the university degree in any course of study and must be
based on both academic and moral development of the Learner. The Learners, who are able
to meet up with the requirements of the university, are therefore adjudged to be worthy in
learning and character. Continuous assessment, therefore, determines the progress or
retrogress of the Learners' performance from one level to another such that when a Learner
fails to meet certain conditions, it may mean that the Learner will have to:
a. repeat the course at the next available opportunity;

b. receive a faculty counselling or warning asking that the Learner improve on his
academic performance;
c. be placed on probation pending the period the Learner improves; and
d. be advised to withdraw completely from the university.
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 List three methods of assessing the cognitive domain of learners.

 Mention four techniques that can be employed to assess both the affective and
psychomotor domains of learners.
 a. Tests
b. Projects
c. Written assignments
ii. a. Observation
b. Interviews
c. Socio-metric
d. Questionnaires.
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1. Assessment is a systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional

objectives are met by the Learners and can be conducted either formally or
informally.
2. Prior to the introduction and implementation of continuous assessment, the terminal
form of assessment, also called one-short examination or single examination, was
being used.
3. As a result of the shortcomings of the terminal assessment, a new method of assessing
Learners' performance, known as continuous assessment, was introduced.
4. Continuous assessment, popularly known as C.A., is the regular and systematic
method of determining Learners' achievement, in terms of knowledge, thinking and
reasoning (cognitive domain), character development (affective domain) and industry
(psychomotor domain).
5. Continuous assessment gives the true picture of the Learners' abilities more than the
single examination.
6. It gives the teacher the opportunity to assess various aspects of a child's life by
introducing interesting and valuable topics that are outside of the syllabus into his/her
teaching.
7. It encourages the teacher to introduce innovative topics into his/her teaching, which
could form part of the final grading of the Learners.
8. Continuous assessment is useful to teachers for assessing or evaluating their own
teaching performance or instructional methods. This will make the teachers to
improve on their weak areas.
9. It ensures better record keeping, which is used in counselling and guiding Learners in
career choice of their interest.
10. Continuous assessment is systematic, comprehensive, cumulative, dynamic,
continuous and guidance-oriented.
11. Continuous assessment covers activities in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains of the learner.
12. The cognitive domain deals with the intellectual development of the learner and has
six levels of objectives: knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation.
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13. The affective domain involves values, beliefs, attitudes, interests, social relations,
emotions, morals, honesty and other personality factors such as class attendance,
discipline and cooperation with other Learners.
14. The psychomotor domain of education deals with motor skills or manipulative skills
and body movement. Psychomotor skill is concerned with selecting and assembling
tools and materials.
15. The cognitive domain of a learner can be assessed using tests, projects, written
assignments, peer evaluation, oral exchange of questions.
16. The affective and psychomotor domains are assessed using techniques such as
observation, interviews, socio-metric and questionnaires.
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Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved
its Learning Outcomes by answering the following questions.
1. What is assessment?
2. What type of assessment was being used in schools before the introduction of
continuous assessment?
3. Attempt a definition of continuous assessment.
1. List some of the benefits of continuous assessment.
SAQ 7.3 (Test Learning Outcome 7.3)
1. What are the distinguishing features of continuous assessment?
1. What are the domains of the learning that continuous assessment covers?
2. List the six levels of objectives of the learner’s cognitive domain?
1. How can the learner’s cognitive development be assessed?

2. State four techniques that can be used to assess both the affective and psychomotor
domains of learners.
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Glossary of Terms
1. Assessment: (in education) is a method of finding out what the pupils have gained
from learning activities that have been purposely organized to achieve specific
objectives.
2. Continuous assessment: the regular and systematic method of determining Learners'
achievement in terms of knowledge, thinking and reasoning (cognitive domain),
character development (affective domain) and industry (psychomotor domain).
3. Systematic: based on a carefully articulated plan of activities guided by a sense of
purpose and goal.
4. Comprehensive: complete utilization of information about a total person, covering
the totality of an individual's behaviour - cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains.
5. Cumulative: the gradual building up of information concerning an individual with the
addition of recent information to the previous one.
6. Dynamic: based on the understanding of the changing nature of individuals.
7. Guidance-oriented: Information or data on an individual are useful in helping the
Learner to make valued educational and career choices and also be guided in
resolving social, personal and familiar conflicts.
8. Cognitive domain: the intellectual development of an individual.
9. Affective domain: it involves values, attitudes, beliefs, interests, social relations,
emotions, morals, virtues and other personality factors.
10. Psychomotor domain: deals with motor skills or manipulative skills and body
movement.
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Study Session 8: Information and Communication Technology

(ICT)
Introduction
Every organization has several stakeholders, which include customers, staff. Shareholders,
suppliers, competitors, regulatory authorities and the general public. Within the organization
itself there are also many departments and units, which vary with organisational structure and
line of business. Within the various departments there are different units and categories of
staff. The various departments, the various categories of staff in these departments and the
corporate ‘bosses’ all work for the same organization and they need to communicate within
and amongst themselves. It is important to note that the pervasiveness of social media has
fundamentally altered the dynamics of organisational communication as people now
communicate with anybody anytime and anyhow.
At the end of this session, you will be able to explain:
1.1 The type and features of formal communication flows

1.2 The type and features of informal center
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8.1 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
By definition, ICTS include electronic networks embodying complex hardware and software-
linked by a vast array of technical protocols. ICTS are embedded in networks and services
that affect the local and global accumulation and flows of public and private knowledge.
According to the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, ICTS cover Internet
service provision, telecommunications equipment and services, information technology
equipment and services, media and broadcasting, libraries and documentation centers,
commercial information providers, network based information services, and other related
information and communication activities. This is quite an expansive definition. It is
uncommon to find definitions of ICTS that are synonymous with those of Information
Technology (IT). For example, Foster defines IT as the group of technologies that is
revolutionizing the handling of information and embodies a convergence of interest between
electronics, computing and communication.
ICTS encompass technologies that can process different kinds of information (voice, video,
audio, text and data) and facilitate different forms of communications among human agents,
among humans and information systems and among information systems. ICTs also capture,
store, process, display, process, display, protect and manage information.
8.1.2 What Is ICT?
In particular, ICT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to
convert, store process, transmit and retrieve information, for these reasons computer (IT) has
had great on every aspects of life be it business, scientific or personal. The history of IT
spreads across centuries of human imagination and ingenuity.
It is hard to think of any aspect of one life which has not been touched by the computers.
With the aid of computers, electricity is supplied, trains are run, aero planes are flown,
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hospitals are managed, communication is provided, electronic media is activated, funds are
remitted throughout the globe.
The cute user friendly personal computer sitting on one desktop has behind it centuries of
human imagination and ingenuity. In the chapter, we discuss the good, the bad and the ugly
implications impact of the ICT world in various aspects of our lives.
There is widespread research interest in Information Communication Technologies (ICT). It

was noted that for the past few decades most developed countries have witnessed significant
changes that can be traced to ICT. Those multi-dimensional changes have been observed in
almost all aspects of life: economics, education, communication and travel. These efforts are
designed to enable developing countries, including Nigeria, and citizens to find faster ways to
achieve durable and sustainable development.
Among various technological advancement of this century, the adoption and use as been
profound. To a lay man, the term information and communication technology generally
connotes "The internet", computers and e-mail. This term actually denotes all forms of
technology used in collecting, storing, editing and passing on information in various forms.
According to Oladipo and Olorunfemi(2007), information and communication technologies
(ICTs) is defined as the hardware, software, networks and media used to collect, store,
process, transmit and present information in the form of voice data, text and Images They
range from telephone, radio and television to the internet.
In Yamuah, I.K. (2005), ICT was defined in very broad terms as technologies that help the
creation, transfer and exchange of Information across geographical distances through the
radio, internet, and web browsing remote processing etc.
In Wikipedia (2008), the free encyclopedia, the ICT is an umbrella term that includes all
technologies for the manipulation and communication of information. In the common usage,
it is often assumed that ICT is synonymous with IT. ICT in fact encompasses any media
record information (magnetic Disk/ or tape Optical disk (CD/DVD) flash memory etc. and
arguable also paper record); technology for broadcasting information radio, television and
technology for communicating through voice and sound or image microphone, camera,
loudspeaker to cellular phones. It includes the wide variety of computing hardware (PCs,
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servers, mainframes, and Networked storage), the rapidly developing personal hardware
market comprising mobile phones, personal devices, MP3 players, and much more. The full
gamut of application software from the smallest home development spreadsheet to the largest
enterprise packages and online software services, and the hardware and software needed to
operate networks to the largest global private networks operated by major commercial
enterprises and, of course, the Internet. The subject ICT (Information Communication
Technology) is a fast developing technology that has captures the attention of the common
people. ICT to helped ordinary people in their day to day work the example, (PC) Personal
Computer, telephone, mobile etc.
What is the full meaning of ICT?
In-Text Answer (ITAs) 8.1
ICT means Information Communication Technology
8.2 History of ICT
ICTS have been basis for human existence from time immemorial and this has driven man to
continuously seek ways to improve the processing of information and communication such
information to one another irrespective of distance and on a real time basis (Nukwe, 2002).
Surviving in the information age depends on access to national and global information
networks. ICTs are the bedrock for the survival and development of any nation in rapidly
changing global environment, and it challenges us to devise initiatives to address a host of
issues such as reliable infrastructures, skilled human resources, open government, and other
essential issues of capacity building (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2011).
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What is the bedrock for the survival and development of any nation?
ICT
8.3 ICT Tools
At the heart of technology lie two main branches of technology computing and
telecommunication. The technologies covered are the computer system: internet, electronic
mail (e-mail), mode phone and fax machine.
8.3.1 Computers
Computers were originally used by scientists for calculating numbers and have gradually
become useful in offices and industries In re times simplified models that can be used by
almost everybody h become common in schools and houses for accomplishing m varied tiks
and application, Some of the uses that computers now commonly put to are writing letters,
and reports, printing books newspaper, drawing pictures and diagrams, doing statistics
mathematics and handling financial records, controlling straight flying aero planes, making
and playing music, and video, trending messages anywhere in the world.
8.3.2 Internet
The internet is a global collection of many types of Computer and computer networks that are
linked together it is increasingly becoming the solution to many information, problems
information exchange and marketing.
It plays a significant role in education, health, political processes, agriculture, economy,

businesses and newsgroups. The internet has opened up many opportunities, from finding out
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information, conducting communications globally, e.g. through mail, voicemail, e-commerce

or generally just having fun through online chats or instant messaging.
 E-mail
 Mobile phones
 Fax machines
The two main branches of technology are _______ and _________
Computing and Telecommunication
8.4 Importance ICT assigned in Nation Building
ICT is unique in having an impact beyond the individual user’s welfare. ICT infrastructure
offers the following services:
 Economics of scale that stimulate network building and consequent spill over
benefits.
 Interactive communication unhindered by distance, volume, medium or time.
 General inclusion of individuals within networks and even more important, increase
diversity of participants.
 Faster, more efficient and ultimately better decision making across all field of
endeavor.
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8.4.1 Information and Communication Technology for Nation Building (ICT4nb)
This is, in general referring to the application of information and Communication Technology
(ICT) within the field of socio-economic development of the nation. ICT can be applied
either in the direct sense, where they use directly benefits the disadvantaged population in
some manner, or in an indirect sense, where the ICT assist aid organization or non-
governmental organizations or governments in order to improve socio-economics conditions.
8.4.2 Benefits of ICT to Nation Building
ICT an indispensable tool in the development access according to Oladipo and Olorunfemi
(2007). Among immeasurable benefits among which are of ICT are:
 Increase productivity
 Creates most cost effective output with same or less input
 Expand economic growth
 Speeds transaction
 Ensures the widespread use and dissemination of information
 Facilities information sharing and knowledge creation
 Creates earing opportunities, improves delivery and access to health and education
 Provides increased opportunity for transparency accountability and effectiveness of
government, business and non-profit organization.
 ICT and millennium development goal in Nigeria ICT main objective should be to
improve the everyday lives of the community of fight poverty and to contribute
toward the realization of the mdgs.
The millennium Development Goals (MDG) of the united nation millennium declaration
were signed by world leaders in September, 2000. These include:
 Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger

 Achieve Universal Primary Education
 Promote Gender Equity and Empower Women
 Reduce Child Morality
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 Improve Material Health

 Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Diseases
Mention one of the services rendered by ICT Infrastructure.
It offers economics of skill that stimulate network building
8.5 Challenges of ICT in Nation Building
ICT innovation are increasingly having important implication on business and socioeconomic
development due to its role in introducing and diffusing the concepts of knowledge sharing,
community development and equality. The implication could be felt at the individual
organization and at societal level. ICT advances have long been food, clothing and shelter;
the time has come to add information to this list. The implication of developing nations could
be remarkably effective if these technology innovations are properly introduced and
controlled, the result could be an increasing digital divide between the developed and
developing world.
The digital divide is usually due to a number of reasons including but not limited to
the following:
 Expensive personal computers for most developing countries citizens.

 Poor or limited telecommunications infrastructure especially in remote locations.
 High illiteracy rates
 Poor educational system
 Income level
 Age, ethnicity, gender and rural-urban residence
 Absence of skilled human capital
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One of the Challenges of ICT in nation building is
High illiteracy rate
the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Session.
Explain your understanding of ICT
SAQ 8.2 (Tests Learning Question) 8.2
Give a short history of ICT
Write short notes on computing and telecommunication technology
Discuss five benefits of ICT to humanity
Explain five challenges of ICT in nation building.
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Study Session 9: Data & Information
Introduction
Every organization has several stakeholders, which include customers, staff. Shareholders,
suppliers, competitors, regulatory authorities and the general public. Within the organization
itself there are also many departments and units, which vary with organisational structure and
line of business. Within the various departments there are different units and categories of
staff. The various departments, the various categories of staff in these departments and the
corporate ‘bosses’ all work for the same organization and they need to communicate within
and amongst themselves. It is important to note that the pervasiveness of social media has
fundamentally altered the dynamics of organisational communication as people now
communicate with anybody anytime and anyhow.
At the end of this session, you will be able to explain:
9.1 The type and features of formal communication flows

9.2 The type and features of informal center
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9.1 Data & Information
Data can be defined as the raw facts and figures about an event or item. Different events
generate data such as a purchase on store, the salary distribution in an organization, a child is
born and so on. These data are gathered and processed (arranged or calculated) for certain
purpose. Data alone is meaningless. In other words, Data is the representation of facts, or
instructions in a well arranged manner, which should be suitable for communication, or
processing by human or electronic machine (computer). Data is represented with the help of
characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters (+, -, etc.).
If data collected are stored in organized way so that you can retrieve (get back) any item
quickly, store new items and make corrections on existing items efficiently, such organized
collection of data is known as database. A telephone directory, the attendance registers,
visiting card album etc. are all practical examples of databases. Computer databases are much
more efficient than real world databases such as phone book because it is very speedy,
accurate and diligent device.
The term data also refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of
variables. Data (plural of “datum”) are typically the results of measurements and can be the
basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as the
lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived. Raw
data, i.e. unprocessed data, refers to a collection of numbers, characters, images or other
outputs from devices that collect information to convert physical quantities into symbols.
9.1.1 Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring of data by people or machine to increase their usefulness
and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing consists of the following basic steps
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- input, processing, and output. These three steps constitute what is called the data processing
cycle.
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the
receiver. It could also be defined as the processed data on which decisions and actions are
based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics:
 Timely − Information should be available when required.

 Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
 Completeness − Information should be complete
Data is represented with the help of characters such as _______
Alphabets
9.2 Bits
Bits is the plural form of Bit, it is the short form of Binary Digits (BITS). There are two
binary digits or value, 0 and 1. Because computer stores and processes any data in binary
digits, most of the space measurement is done counting number of binary digits. This way, bit
is a unit of measurement. For larger spaces we use bytes, kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB),
gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB) and petabytes (PB).
Bits are usually assembled into a group of eight to form a byte. A kilobyte (KB) is 1,024
bytes, not one thousand bytes as might be expected, because computers use binary (base two)
math, instead of a decimal (base ten) system. Computer storage and memory is often
measured in megabytes (MB) and gigabytes (GB).
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Byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits. In history,
byte was the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer and for
this reason it is the smallest addressable unit of memory in many computer architectures.
Write BITs in full
Binary digits
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1. Any facts and figures collected for some purpose is known as data. Data in itself do
not have any meaning.
2. Meaningful presentation of data is known as information. Information is achieved
after processed data.
3. Computers are excellent devices used to process, store, and retrieve data.
4. Data processing cycle is the re-structuring of data by collected from an event either by
people or machine to make it meaningful and well arranged to the reader.
5. Arranging (in ascending/descending or any other order), calculating (add, subtract,
multiply, divide or any other computations) or any sort of manipulation on data to
derive required information is known as processing.
6. Bits is the abbreviation (short form) of Binary Digits. 8 bits makes one byte.
7. Hard is used in computer literature to mean permanent and tangible such as
hardware, hard-copy output etc.
8. Soft is used in discussions to mean temporary and intangible such as software, soft-
print, soft-copy output.
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Define data
Discuss your understanding of information in data processing
Convert 1010112 to an octa number
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Study Session 10: Brief History of Computers
Introduction
Trying to trace the history of computers, how far should we go Computer Science is the
youngest discipline among human repository of knowledge. We know, the Internet became
popular among general public since 1990s; Mark I, the first computer, was built in 1944;
computers have never gone earlier than 20th century
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10.1 The First Problem – Counting
The quest for easy food droves mankind into the agricultural age. People started to possess
properties. When there is something you possess, you need to remember the quantity, type
and so on. How many sheep do I have? How could a man express a quantity? Numbers were
not invented yet!
Knots in vine and ropes, notches in sticks, scratches made on rocks must be the first counting
aid for people at that time. Later on, those scratches on rocks and drawings on ground must
have given a way to develop numbers.
10.1.1 Mechanical Devices – Counting and Calculating
In this section we will learn about the counting and calculating devices that contribute a way
through for the development of modern-day computers.
Abacus – The first known calculating device
Abacus is a simple wooden box with beads strung which are moved towards the mid-bar [3]
as to perform calculations. You bring the beads near the bar and count to get result. Obtaining
result is a manual process. Thus, Abacus is essentially a memory aid rather than truly a
calculating device. It is generally agreed that Abacus was invented in China around 2500 BC.
An Abacus is divided into two parts – heaven, the upper deck and earth, the lower deck –
divided by a mid-bar. On each string there are two beads on heaven and 5 beads on earth. The
value of each bead on heaven is 5 and on earth it is 1. So, if you pull one heaven bead and 3
earth beads near the mid-bar, it represented the number 8.
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Napier’s bones
Abacus is about ancient past. When we look upon the modern history, it is 1614 when John
Napier invented Logarithm a branch of mathematics to multiply and divide extremely large
or small numbers. This is considered the principal invention of Napier.
In Computer Science what interests us more about Napier’s invention, in addition to the rule
of Logarithm, is Napier’s bones. It is a set of rods (10 rods in a set). Numbers are carved on
each rod and can be used to perform multiplication, division with the help of logarithm.
These rods were made up of bones, and must be the reason for the name. Calculation is done
by aligning the proper rods against each other and by inspection.
Slide Rule
Slide Rule was invented by William Ought red towards 1620. This device consists of
logarithmic scales where one can slide upon other. The sliding rule is aligned properly
against other scale and a reading is done through the indicator slide. Slide rule could be used
to perform multiplication and divisions efficiently.
Pascal’s Adding Machine – the Pascaline
The 17th Century was the most fertile for devising different calculating equipment. Blaise
Pascal, at an age of 19 years, designed an adding machine to find the sum of numbers. The
machine resulted as his effort to help his father. Pascal’s father worked in tax office and in
every evening, he had to calculate the sum of collection throughout the day. It was in 1642
Pascal developed Pascaline which could be used to add, subtract, multiply and divide the
numbers by dialling wheels.
Leibnitz’s Calculator – The Stepped Reckoner
German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz improved Pascal’s adding machine and
made Stepped Reckoner that could even find square roots. This is the first digital mechanical
calculator that can perform all four basic arithmetic operations – add, subtract, multiply and
divide.
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Charles Babbage and his engines
Charles Babbage is considered the father of modern computers. It is his ideas the idea of
input, mill (processing), output and storage – the modern computers followed and been
successfully miraculous device! Though he could not complete his Analytical Engine
(conceived in 1830s) due to insufficient funding and technological advancement of the day, it
proved to be a foundation for the birth of computers. Babbage however completed a working
model of his first machine – The Difference Engine and was awarded by Royal Society.
Difference engine implemented the mechanical memory to store results. It was based on the
difference tables of squares of the number, and thus the name – Difference Engine.
The quest of easy food drove mankind into the ________ age
Agriculture
10.2 Electro Mechanical Computers
In 1944 the first electro-mechanical computer Mark -I was built by Howard Aiken with the
help of IBM. Mark I, Mark II, and Zues Computers (Z2, Z3) are the examples of Electro
Mechanical Computers. Let’s look at Mark I and Z3 computer here.
 Mark I: Mark-I, originally known as IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled

Calculator (ASCC), is the first computer of the world. Mark-I is described as the
beginning of the era of the modern computer. It was built in Harvard University by
Howard H. Aiken in 1944
 Mark I was a gigantic computer. It was 51 feet long, 8 feet tall and 2 feet wide which
weight 4500 Kg. It could do three additions or subtractions in a second. A
multiplication took six seconds, a division took 15.3 seconds, and a logarithm or a
trigonometric function took over one minute.
 Z3 Computer: Apart from Mark I and Mark II computers, there are other
contemporary computers like Z2 and Z3 (designed by Konrad Zuse) on this category.
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The contribution of Zuse was ignored for long due to political reasons. He was a German
Engineer and Computer Pioneer. Zuse completed his work entirely independently of other
leading computer scientists and mathematicians of his day. Between 1936 and 1945, he was
in near-total intellectual isolation.
Improving the basic Z2 machine, Konrad built the Z3 in 1941. It was a binary 22-bit floating
point calculator featuring programmability with loops but without conditional jumps, with
memory and a calculation unit based on telephone relays.
Zuse’s company (with the Z1, Z2 and Z3) was destroyed in 1945 by an Allied air attack
The first electro-mechanical computer Mark-I was built by ______ in the year______
1994, Howard Aiken
10.4. Electronic Computers
In 1947 John Mauchly and J. P. Eckert developed the first general purpose electronic
computer – ENIAC. This begins a new era in computing history. Apart from ENIAC, ABC,
EDVAC and UNIVAC are some early electronic computers. We will be studying these
computers in this section.
Calculating devices were fairly simple aid for human head. Electromechanical calculators
were moderately complex. There were wheels, drums and bars that rotate and move to
produce result. Because they had some mechanical parts, those devices are called electro-
mechanical computers. Electronic computers, on the other hand, work with the flow of
electrons in its different components. Because electronic components are more reliable and
speedier, electronic computers are very reliable compared to the earlier computers.
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a. ABC: ABC, the first electronic digital computer, was invented by John v. Atanasoff and
his assistant Clifford Berry and thus the name Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942.
Earlier, ENIAC was considered to be the first electronic computer until in 1973 a U.S.
District Court invalidated the ENIAC patent. Thus, ABC is the first electronic digital
computer. However, because ABC is a special purpose computer and not programmable,
ENIAC still is the first general purpose electronic computer.
It is the ABC that first implements the three critical features of modern computers:
a. Using binary digits to represent all numbers and data

b. Performing all calculations using electronics rather than wheels, ratchets, or
mechanical switches
c. Organizing a system in which computation and memory are separated.
b. ENIAC: ENIAC stands for Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator. It was
developed in 1946 by John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert.
ENIAC is the first general-purpose electronic digital computer. It used to be considered the
first electronic computer till 1973 when a U.S. District Court invalidated the ENIAC patent
and concluded that the ENIAC inventors had derived the subject matter of the electronic
digital computer from Atanasoff. Anyway, it is still the first general purpose electronic
computer.
ENIAC used decimal numbering system for its operation and contained 17,468 vacuum
tubes, along with 70,000 resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 1,500 relays, 6,000 manual switches
and 5 million soldered joints. It covered 1800 square feet (167 square meters) of floor space,
weighed 30 tons, and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power.
Note: In abbreviation the character ‘C’ in these computers stands for ‘Computer’ or
‘Calculator’. Consider both as correct.
c. EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic computer
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Well that’s it – the name itself includes the word ‘automatic’ like ENIAC used the word
‘electronic’. ENIAC must be excited as it was not depending upon mechanical components,
so, called it ELECTRONIC!
EDVAC was developed by John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert in 1949 with the help of
John von Neumann.
d. EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) was an early British computer (one
of the first computers to be created). The machine, having been inspired by John von
Neumann’s seminal EDVAC report, was constructed by Professor Sir Maurice Wilkes and
his team at the University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in England in 1949.
EDSAC was the world’s first practical stored program electronic computer, although not the
first stored program computer (that honor goes to the Small-Scale Experimental Machine).
e. UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Computer
After the successful development of ENIAC and EDVAC, John Mauchly & J.P. Eckert
founded their own company in 1946 and began to work on the Universal Automatic
computer.
UNIVAC was the first general purpose commercial computer.
Who developed the first general purpose electronics computer and in what year?
John Mauchly and J.P. E. 1947
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Summary of Study
i. People used to count and calculate using knots in ropes, notches in sticks, scratches on
rocks and drawing lines on ground when there were no devices to compute.
ii. Abacus is the first known calculating device. It is believed that Chinese invented
Abacus around 3000BC. Abacus has two parts separated by mid-bar. The upper deck
is called heaven and lower deck is earth. There are 2 beads in each string in heaven
and each has value 5. There are 5 beads on earth where each beads has value 1.
Calculation is done by shifting beads towards the midbar.
iii. Napier’s bones was invented by a Scottish mathematician John Napier in 1617.
There are 11 rods in a set of Napier’s bones and numbers are engraved in each rod.
The rods are aligned properly to read the result using Napier’s bones. They could be
used to multiply and divide numbers.
iv. John Napier’s principal invention is Logarithm – a branch of mathematics to
multiply and divide very large or very small numbers. Napier invented Logarithm in
1614.
v. Slide Rule was invented in 1620 by English mathematician William Oughtred. Slide
Rule contains two or more sliding scales which can be properly aligned and the result
is obtained by inspection. It could be used to multiply and divide numbers.
vi. A French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented an Adding Machine
called Pascaline in 1642. It can add or subtract numbers by dialing wheels. Blaise
Pascal designed this device to help his father who was a tax officer.
vii. Stepped Reckoner was invented in 1671 by a German mathematician Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibnitz. Leibnitz refined Pascal’s Adding Machine and made Stepped
Reckoner capable to add, subtracts, multiply, divide and even find square root.
viii. Punched Card was invented by a French textile manufacturer Joseph Jacquard to
automate his weaving loom. These cards later used in computers to feed data.
ix. Charles Babbage designed Difference Engine in 1923 and Analytical Engine in
1933.
x. Babbage could not complete his engines mainly due to the lack of financial support
and technology at that time. However, the concepts proposed for Analytical engine
(input, mill and output) matches completely with the input, processing, output model
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of modern computers. That’s why Charles Babbage is known as Father of

Computing.
xi. Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace suggested Babbage to use binary numbering system for
his Analytical engine and devised a method of using punched cards to calculate which
made her The First Programmer. She was known as enchantress of numbers.
xii. An American census statistician Dr. Herman Hollerith developed a
mechanicaltabulatingmachinein1887asthe solution of tabulating problem of 1880s
census. He established the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896 to manufacture and
sell his invention which later on converted into International Business Machine
(IBM) Company.
xiii. Hollerith founded Tabulating Machine Company which later merges with other three
companies – International Time Recording Company, Bundy Manufacturing
Company and Computing Scale Corporation to form a new company named
Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR) Corporation. In 1917 the company
changes its name to International Business Machine (IBM) Co. Ltd.
xiv. Mark I is the first computer. Howard Aiken and American computer engineer and
mathematician Grace Hoper invented it in collaboration with IBM engineers in 1937.
It was an electro-mechanical computer with 18000 vacuum tubes. The machine was
51 ft. long, 8 ft. tall and 3 ft. wide.
xv. Mark I is also known as Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator
(ASCC).
xvi. ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer) was built in 1939-42 by John Vincent Atanasoff
and Clifford Berry. It was the first electronic computer.
xvii. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) is the first general
purpose electronic digital computer developed by John William Mauchly and John
Presper Eckert in 1946-55. It used decimal numbering system.
xviii. Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann proposed Stored Program Concept in
1945. In his paper he suggested that the data as well as instructions to process those
data be stored internally in the machine and binary numbering system be used for
machine building.
xix. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was invented by
John Mauchly and J.P. Eckert in 1946-49. It was the second stored program computer.
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xx. Mourice Wilkes and his team in Cambridge University invented EDSAC (Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Computer) in 1949. It is the first practical Stored Program
computer.
xxi. UNIVAC is the first commercially available general purpose electronic digital
computer. It was invented in 1951 by John Mauchly and J.P. Eckert.
xxii. PDP-8 is the first minicomputer introduced by DEC in 1968
xxiii. Intel 4004 is the first microprocessor developed by Intel Corporation in 1971. This
is also the first commercially available microprocessor.
xxiv. 8 inch memory disk (floppy disk) was introduced by IBM in 1971. First sealed hard
disk called Winchester was developed in 1972 by IBM.
xxv. MITS Altair 8800 is the first successful personal computer.
xxvi. Microsoft Corporation founded in 1975 by Bill Gates and Paul Allen. In 1976 Job
and Woznik developed the Apple personal computer. In 1984 Apple introduced
Macintosh computers.
xxvii. Apple – I personal computer was launched in 1976 by Apple Company and IBM PC
was launched in 1981 by IBM Corporation.
xxviii. In 1981 Microsoft launched “quick and dirty” DOS operating system
xxix. Tim Berner Lee developed World Wide Web and CERN released it in 1991.
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Distinguish between Internet and Intranet
Discuss briefly the on computer invention
List the main features of computers that are associated with Electro Mechanical
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Study Session 11: Generations of Computers
Introduction
(ICs), Large Scale Integration (LSI) & Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
An international conference in 1962 classified computers into 5 distinct generations – 3 of

which are already passed by and we are in the fourth generation now. The fifth generation
computers are undergoing research and a few computers of this generation are developed that
meets some of the expected features of fifth generation.
Each generation of computers is characterized by a major technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper,
more powerful, and more efficient and reliable devices.
In fact, each computer is classified into different generations based on what electronic
component it used. It’s neither the time period, nor the model. Vacuum tubes, transistors,
Integrated Circuits (ICs), Large Scale Integration (LSI) & Very Large Scale Integration
(VLSI) chips are used as switching components or memory and processing devices (as
distinguishing features).
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11.1 First Generation
First generation computers used vacuum tubes as switching device and magnetic drum for
memory. The duration of first generation computers is 1946 to 1954.These computers were
often huge, occupying an entire hall.
Figure 11.1 Different vacuum tubes.
Because first generation computers used vacuum tubes, they consumed a lot of electricity and
produced excessive heat. You require cooling facilities to operate computers. This was the
major problem of this generation of computers. Moreover, these tubes burned out because of
too much heat and need to be replaced more frequently. The operation cost of these
computers was too expensive. In first generation computers, the operating instructions or
programs were specifically built for the task for which computer was manufactured. The
Machine language was the only way to tell these machines to perform the operations. There
was great difficulty to program these computers and when malfunctioning.
Figure 11.2 Magnetic Drum

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Features of First Generation Computers
 They used vacuum tubes or valves as main electronic component

 They were large in size, slow in processing and had small storage capacity
 They consumed lots of electricity and produced excessive heat
 They were less reliable than later generation computers
 They used machine level language for programming
Examples of First-Generation Computers
ENIAC UNIVAC IBM 650
Figure 11.3
The duration of first generation computer is _____ to ________
1946 to 1954
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11.2 Second Generation of Computers (1955 to 1964)
By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the computer’s development.
Coupled with early advances in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to second generation
computers that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-efficient than their
predecessors.
The first large-scale machines to take advantage of this transistor technology were early
supercomputers – Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry-Rand. These machines were costly,
and tended to be too powerful for the business sector’s computing needs, thereby limiting
their attractiveness.
A remarkable improvement realized in this generation was the development of assembly

language. Assembly language was abbreviated programming codes to replace the machine
language – the difficult binary codes.
Towards the early 1960′s, there were a number of commercially successful second-generation
computers used in businesses, universities, and government. They contained all the
components we associate with the modern-day computer: printers, tape storage, disk storage,
memory, and stored programs.
One important example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout
industry. This is the first computer to enter into Nepal as well. Nepal brought this computer
for the census of 2028 BS. It was the stored program and programming language that gave
computers the flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use.
More sophisticated high-level languages such as Common Business-Oriented Language

(COBOL) and Formula Translator (FORTRAN) came into common use during this time, and
have expanded to the current day.
Examples of Second-Generation Computers
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IBM 7030 Stretch IBM 1401 UNIVAC LARC
Figure 11.4
An example of second generation computer is
IBM
1401
11.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
The computers using small scale integration circuits (SSI) and medium scale integration
circuits (MSI) are under this class. The invention of IC Chips made it possible to greatly
reduce the size of computers with improvement in operation speed (nanoseconds) and
reliability.
The most noticeable achievement of third generation is the development of operating

systems. The operating systems allowed the machines to run many different applications.
These applications were monitored and coordinated by the computer’s memory.
User interface devices such as Keyboards and Monitors started from this generation.
Similarly, Graphical User Interface (GUI) also was started from third generation. These are
important development of third generation.
Characteristics of Third Generation Computers
i. Third Generation Computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology.

ii. Third Generation Computers were able to reduce computational time from
microseconds to nanoseconds
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iii. Third Generation Computers utilized operating systems to centrally control and made
it possible for multiple programs to run on a computer
iv. Users interacted with computers through keyboards and mouse rather than traditional
punched cards and printers.
v. Third Generation Computers devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In
some cases, air conditioning was still required.
vi. The size of Third Generation Computers was smaller as compared to previous
computers
vii. Since hardware of the Third Generation Computers rarely failed, the maintenance cost
was quite low.
viii. Extensive use of high-level language became possible in Third Generation
Computers.
ix. Manual assembling of individual components was not required for Third Generation
Computers, so it reduced the large requirement of labor & cost. However, for the
manufacture of IC chips, highly sophisticated technologies were required
x. Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
Examples
IBM 360 PDP-8
Figure 11.5
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What is the most remarkable achievement of third generation computer?
Operating System
11.4 Fourth Generation Computers
Fourth generation for the computers is the era of blooming in multiple dimensions rather than
invention of electronic components. Fourth generation computers use ICs as in third
generation. But third generation computers used Small Scale and Medium Scale ICs where as
in fourth generation Large Scale ICs (LSI), Very Large-Scale ICs (VLSI) and the Ultra
Large-Scale ICs (ULSI) are used.
As millions of electronic components got integrated in a tiny chip, the computers became
very small with increased speed, reliability and reduction in cost.
The size of computer reduced to mini computers and microcomputers. Today, we have
laptops, palm tops and pocket PCs. In this generation mini computers were built that had
more user friendly software packages like word-processor and spreadsheet calculation.
In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and
schools. Other companies made the clones of IBM PCs to make the personal computers more
affordable.
In 1984 Apple developed its Macintosh line. Notable for its user-friendly design, the
Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move screen icons instead of
typing instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse.
Fourth generation is the duration when we saw the tremendous improvement in operating
systems and high level programming language.
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As the small computers become powerful, it was possible to link and work in cooperative
environment. This led to the invention of networking. WAN, MAN, LAN and PAN
networks came into existence.
IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in _________ year
1981
11.5 Fifth Generation Computers
Up to the fourth generation we saw how computers evolved as the switching devices
improved. Fifth generation computers are future computers.
In 1982 Japan started a project named Fifth Generation Computer Systems Project
(FGCS) initiated to create a “fifth generation computer” which was supposed to perform
much calculation using massive parallel processing. The project was to create the computer
over a ten-year period, after which it was considered ended and investment in a new, Sixth
Generation project, began. Opinions about its outcome are divided: Either it was a failure, or
it was ahead of its time. Anyway, it’s out of our context for the moment. I just wished to
make you aware of this development.
Fifth generation computers are anticipated new type of computer based on emerging
microelectronic technologies with high computing speeds and parallel processing. Other
major expectations out of this generation are the ability to use natural language and acquire
artificial intelligence (AI). Computers will be able to learn by its experience. These
computers are being made using ULSI (Ultra Large Scale IC) and Bio-Chips.
We can see some development in achieving these features already. Parallel processing, voice
recognition systems and some level of intelligence is being already realized.
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CLARIFICATION: Use natural language – computers will be able to understand and use
the language that we use in speaking rather than the specially structured commands we are
still using in computers.
Examples of Fifth Generation Computers
If you are looking for the examples of fifth generation computers, PIM/m, PIM/p, PIM/i,
PIM/k, PIM/c are the computers.
Which generation of computer process ability to use natural language and aquire Artificial
Intelligence?
5th generation
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Summary of Session 11
i. Development of computers into five distinct generations based on main electronic

component was used on them.
ii. The computers that used vacuum tubes are first generation computers and they range
the date 1946 to 1958.
iii. Vacuum tube diode was first developed by the English physicist Sir John Ambrose
Fleming.
iv. Vacuum tube triode was invented in 1906 by the American engineer Lee De Forest.
v. First generation computers were very large, consumed a lot of power producing
excessive heat. They had low level of accuracy and reliability.
vi. Machine language was used to program first generation computers.
vii. Because thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they produced a lot of heat. Cooling
facility was required in any room where computers were installed. Vacuum tubes
were burnt out frequently and maintenance cost was very high. This was the main
drawback of first generation of computers.
viii. Second generation computers used transistors as their main electronic component.
Transistor was much smaller, produced almost no heat and thus, they had a
tremendous impact in development of computers and other electronic devices.
ix. Second generation computers were developed in 1959 to 1964
x. Transistors were invented in 1947 by trio Bell Lab scientists – Walter Brattain, John
Bardeen, and William Bradford Shockley.
xi. Assembly language was used to program second generation computers.
xii. Magnetic tapes and disks were used as main secondary storage media.
xiii. Third generation computers were developed in 1965 to 1974 that used integrated
circuits (ICs) also called microchip as main electronic component.
xiv. Transistors were invented by two scientists independently in 1958 – Jack Kilby of
Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation.
xv. Monitors and Keyboards were introduced in third generation for input and output of
data.
xvi. High level languages were used to program in third generation.
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xvii. Fourth generation computers are developed during 1975 to 1990 which used LSI and
VLSI microprocessors.
xviii. Invention of microprocessors is the most startling development in fourth generation.
xix. Personal Computers (PCs) were introduced and are very popular. GUI was developed
in fourth generation.
xx. The first microprocessor called Intel 4004 was developed by American Intel
Corporation in 1971.
xxi. The fifth-generation computer project conducted jointly by several Japanese computer
manufacturers under the sponsorship of the Japanese government, emphasized
artificial intelligence.
xxii. Artificial intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with designing
intelligent computer system that possesses reasoning, learning and thinking
capabilities resembling those of a human being.
xxiii. Fifth generation computers will use super conductor technology – Gallium Arsenide
chips or Biochips.
xxiv. Quantum computation and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come.
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List the five features of the first generation computers
Write out 4 of the features associated with second generation computers
Give the advantages of 3rd generation computer over 2nd generation computers.
What distinguish features of 4th generation computers that makes them better than the 2nd
generation computers?
Differentiate between the 4th and 5th generation computers.
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Study Session 12: Classification of Computers
Introduction
Since the first computer, there are different types of computers. Some are to do specific task
and some for general purpose – do everything a program can make it to do. Some computers
work with continuous signals of the physical quantities such as pressure, temperature, speed,
current etc. and some with discrete data or the digital signals. Some computers are really
huge in size while others are as tiny that fit in our pockets and palm. There are computers
from different companies that work totally different and some work similar to others. So, in
this class we’ll try to identify the classes on which each computer can be grouped into the
classification of computers.
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12.1. Desktop computer
The system unit/Central processing Unit (CPU) of this type of PCs is designed to sit on top of
a table, hence, the name desktop. It sits flat on the desktop.
12.2. Tower System
The system unit/ CPU is designed upright like a tower but medium sized. It sits on top of a
table.
12.3. Laptop Computer
This is a portable computer that is generally small in size and lightweight. It has a built-in
monitor, keyboard and mouse. It can easily be transported from one place to another.
12.4. Palmtop/Handheld Computer
This is another class of portable computer that is handheld. It weighs less than one (1) pound.
An example is the personal diary or organizer.
12.5. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
Personal Digital Assistants – PDAs are designed for convenient mobile communication and
computing. PDAs use touch screens, pen-based handwriting recognition or keyboards to help
mobile workers send and receive Email.
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 12.1 – 12.5
i. Mention 2 classifications of computers
In-Text Answer (ITAs) 12.1 – 12.5
i. Laptop Computer, Desktop Computer
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12.6. Classification of computers based on Types
We can identify three different types if we look upon how a computer works or what they are
applied for – Analog, Digital and Hybrid computers.
i. Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-changeable aspects of

physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved. These computers are used in Hospitals, Air-crafts and so on.
An analog computer can be mechanical analog computer or electronic analog computer.

(There can be a confusion that electronic computers are digital but note that there are
electronic analog computers too!). Mechanical analog computers have existed for thousands
of years, with the oldest known example being the Antikythera. This is a Greek machine,
thought to have been made around 100 BC, designed for calculating astronomical positions.
A more recent and common mechanical analog computer is the slide rule.
The HITACHI 240 Analog Computer
 Digital computers are the most common class of computers for us because we are
using them every day. Digital Computers can be defined as a computer that performs
calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the
binary number system.
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In digital computers, mathematical expressions are represented as binary digits (0 and 1) and
all operations are done using these digits at a very high rate. It means that the computer
operates on electrical inputs that have only two states, ON and OFF. These computers are
widely used in commercial and control systems. Nowadays when we use the word computer,
we mostly refer to a digital computer.
Digital Computer
 Hybrid Computers
Analog computers worked purely measuring the physical quantities whereas digital
computers counted and manipulated the numbers to produce results. There is another class of
computers that can take benefit of features of both these two classes, this known as hybrid
computers.
Hybrid computers are computers with combined features of both digital and analog type.
Desirable features of analog and digital machines can be combined to create a Hybrid
Computer. This type of computer operates by counting as well as by measuring. In other
words, the output can be either in the form of numbers or required units of measurement, e.g.,
an analog device measures patient’s heart beat (ECG). These measures will be converted into
digital form and a digital device checks for any abnormality. Further, we can also input
digital data like your marks and get digital results like the result of your class. Another
example is a Modem. (which converts the digital signals into analog, carry it along the line
and at the receiving end again changes it back into digital signal).
If you are interested about the differences in analog, digital and hybrid computers, you are
encouraged to visithttp://www.answerbag.com/q_view/1602745.
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EAI 180 hybrid computer
Three classes of computer by type are ________, ______ and _______
Analog, Digital and Hybrid
12.6.1 Classification of Computers Based On Size
We’ve already seen how large the computers were and these days we are using very small
computers, some even embedded in wrist watch. So, another interesting aspect to classify
computers is based on size. If we look at the computers from this perspective, we can group
them into three major classes – Mainframe, Mini and Microcomputers.
 Mainframe Computers
These are very huge computers. It is interesting how the word ‘mainframe’ came into use. In
fact, because the different units of computer were installed in a frame, it started to be called a
computer in main frame and today classes of computers are called Mainframe computers.
Mainframe computers are very powerful computers with large memory and processing
capabilities. It can support hundreds of users simultaneously.
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Mainframe Computer
Mini computers are medium sized computers – much larger than the personal computers we
are using and smaller compared to the mainframe computers. These computers can support
multiple users simultaneously and is less powerful than mainframe computers.
A Minicomputer was typically a standalone device that was ideal for use by small and
medium sized businesses who needed more power and memory than could be obtained with
microcomputers, but did not have a need for the resources provided by mainframes. More
recently, a minicomputer is thought of in terms of being a server that is part of a larger
network.
 Micro Computers
Those computers that use microprocessor as their central processing unit and are the smallest
of the types are the microcomputers. Microcomputers are often called personal computers
(PCs) because they are intended to be used by a single person at a time. While mainframe and
mini computers can support multiple users simultaneously, it can support only one user at a
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time. Micro computers can further be classified into desktop computers (that can fit within
the top of a desk), laptops (portable computers that can be operated on your lap) and
palmtops (hand held computers).
Micro Computers
 Super Computers
Super Computers are the fastest type of computer and the largest. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other
uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear
energy research, and petroleum exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer

channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe
uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
Super Computer – Cray I
In-Text Questions (ITQs) 12.6.1
Mainframe computers are powerful computers with large ____ and _____ capabilities
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In-Text Answer (ITAs) 12.6.1
Memory, Processing
12.7. Classification of Computers Based On Brand
Brands are specific names that companies use to identify their product against others in the
market. There are many companies involved in computer manufacturing. However, there are
two classes of computers very different in principle itself – the IBM and the Macintosh.
There are many other companies that follow the principle of IBM and are called IBM
Compatible computers.
12.7.1 IBM PCs
These are the computers developed by IBM Company. After Thomas John Watson became
president of Computing Tabulating Recording in 1914, he renamed it in 1924 as International
Business Machines Corporation (IBM). In 1975 IBM introduced their first personal computer
(PC) which was called the Model 5100. Later on IBM teamed up with Microsoft to create an
operating system because their software division was not able to meet a deadline. They also
teamed up with Intel to supply its chips for the first IBM personal computer. When the
personal computer hit the market it was a major hit and IBM gained a strong power in
electronic computers. What identifies IBM computers is because of the UPU design. IBM
computers use CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) CPUs. It uses the Intel chips for
its PCs and relied to Microsoft for operating system.
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IBM PC 5150
12.7.2 Apple Macintosh Computers
Apple Company was founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak in 1976. For about $700
someone could buy a computer that they put together, which was called the Apple I. In 1977
the Apple II was introduced. Apple was trying to appeal more to the business world so they
designed the Lisa computer that was a prototype for the Macintosh and it cost around
$10,000. It featured a ‘never before seen’ graphical interface and the mouse. In 1984, they
launched the Macintosh.
IBM used Motorola chips and created a RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) CPU that
could run faster than the CISC model of the same MHz rating, so a RISC chip with a MHz
rating of 100 could run just as fast as a CISC chip with MHz rating of 133.
Apple Macintosh
12.7.3 Compatible Computers
Phoenix Technologies went through published documentation of IBM PC to figure out the
internal operating system (BIOS) in the IBM. In turn, they designed a BIOS of their own
which could be used with IBM computers. Many manufacturers jumped in and started
making their own IBM Compatible computers. So, there is a class of computers that work in
the same principle as that IBM PCs but are developed by other companies. These computers
are generally known as Compatible Computers.
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SAQ 12.1 – 12.5 (Tests Learning Question)
Mention the major classification of computers
Write short notes on the three major types of computers.
SAQ 12.6.1 (Tests Learning Question) 12.6.1
List and explain the three major classification of computers based of size
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Study Session 13: Organization of Computer System
Introduction
A computer system is made up of various components. The components can be hardware or

software. Because these systems are so massively complex, the components are organized in
layers. It is comprised of the five classical components (input, output, processor, memory,
and data path). The processor is divided into an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit,
a method of organization that persists to the present. The main component of basic
organization of a computer system is micro-processor (C.P.U), memory unit (MU), and input-
output devices. CPU is the brain of computer. It controls the computer system. Computer
architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and hardware technology
standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In short, computer architecture
refers to how a computer system is designed and what technologies it is compatible with.
This study session focuses attention on Computer System and its organization. Specifically,
the session explains the concepts of computer system organization, examines the architecture
to readers, and discusses the major components and structures of computer system.
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13.1 Computer System
When we say system, we understand there are many different distinguishable units that work
in its own; there is a link, a relationship or connection among those units; and this link is
created for a particular objective. For example, the transportation systems. There are vehicles,
the authorities that create, issue, and monitors licenses, rules, there are passengers, road, and
traffic officers etc. as different units. The objective of this system can be to ensure
comfortable and safe transportation.
A computer system consists of different units. These units have their own functions. They are
connected with each other via cables or other medium. These units are connected with a
purpose for smooth operation of computer. Computer system has four major units: Input unit,
Processing Unit, Output Unit and Storage Unit.
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Input Unit
Input Unit Devices
The task of Input Unit is to input data into the computer. All the devices that enter data in
computer are input devices. We type into keyboard to enter data, click on mouse to issue
commands (input commands into computers), scan images, record voice, shoot video and
many ways a computer gets data into it. So, keyboard, mouse, light pen, joystick,
microphone, web cam, video camera etc. all are input unit device. If we look a bit deeper, it is
the input unit that accepts the user data, converts it in suitable form (string of binary digits) –
known as encoding – so that it can be used by computer.
Processing Unit
Central Processing Unit
The task of processing unit is to process data. It obtains data from input unit, performs
necessary calculation, comparisons to produce the result. This unit is often called the central
processing unit (CPU) and consists of three sub-units – ALU, CU & MU. Processors, co-
processors, Memory cards etc. constitute this unit.
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ALU
ALU stands for Arithmetic and Logical Unit. This is the calculating unit of a computer
system. The actual instructions execute in ALU. It performs mathematical manipulation,
logical and comparative analysis. By mathematical manipulation, I mean, it performs the
operations such as addition, subtraction and multiplication. Similarly, by logical and
comparative analysis you should understand that it performs logical operations based on
AND, OR and NOT functions. Comparative analysis consists of comparison, for example,
whether one is equal or less or greater than another number.
CU
CU stands for Control Unit. It is a sub-unit of CPU that controls and directs the flow of
information throughout the computer system. So, it is also known as the nerve centre of a
computer system. It is the job of CU to fetch instructions, decode them and execute.
Primary Memory RAM Session
This is a part of CPU that handles the storage facilities of data. Primary memory is also
known as internal memory. It is called primary memory because this is the only unit through
which CPU accesses data directly. The examples of primary memory are RAM and ROM.
We’ll read about memory in successive sections.
Output Unit
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This unit provides results to the user in suitable form. A computer may output as display on
monitor, projector or produce sound in speaker, or printout through printer, plotter etc. These
are output devices. This unit receives data from processing unit and converts it in suitable
form (decodes – contrast with encoder, the input unit) so that the output is in human readable
form.
Storage Unit
Storage Unit Hard Disk
Storage unit facilitates the data storage in computer so that it can be kept safe for future use.
There are two types of storage – primary or main storage and secondary or auxiliary storage.
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We generally call memory for primary storage and storage for secondary or auxiliary though
memory and storage words are used almost interchangeably.
Paper Tapes, magnetic tapes, floppy disk, hard disk, compact disks, Blu-ray disks etc. are
some examples of secondary storage devices.
Storage Unit Devices
Mention four major units of a computer system
Input unit, processing unit, output unit, and storage unit
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i. A computer system comprises of 4 different units – Input Unit, Output Unit, Central
Processing Unit and Storage Unit
ii. Input unit accepts user data and sends them to processing unit for further action. Input
unit is often considered as encoder as it converts the user data into machine readable
form.
iii. Keyboard, mouse, trackball, joystick, touchpad, digitizer, light pen, digital camera,
webcam, scanners (bar code reader, optical mark reader, optical character reader,
magnetic ink character reader), smart card reader, microphone, are some devices of
input unit.
iv. When you press a key on computer keyboard, it release a sequence of 8 bit binary
codes which is known as scan code. These scan codes are processed according to the
ASCII or EBCDIC to determine which key was pressed.
v. The task of output unit is to derive the final result as meaningful information for the
user. output unit is sometime called the decoder as it converts the machine codes back
to the human understandable form.
vi. If the output produced by computer is of temporary nature such as sound or display on
screen are known as soft copy output and for a permanent nature output such as
printout on paper, we callhard copy output.
vii. Monitor, digital projector, speakers, printers and so on are the devices of output unit.
viii. The task of central processing unit is to process data, control and coordinate with all
the devices of computer system. It acts as manager of computer resources.
ix. The job of CPU is to fetch instructions, process them and produce some result or
resultant information.
x. Microprocessor is an example of CPU device. The speed of processor is measured in
MegaHertz (MHz)
xi. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Primary Memory (PM) are
the different sub-units of Central Processing Unit (CPU).
xii. ALU is the digital circuit that performs all the arithmetic calculations such as
addition, multiplication and all comparisons operations.
xiii. Control Unit is the nerve center of the computer. It tells teh rest of the computer
system how to carry out a program’s instructions.
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xiv. Control unit directs the movement of electronic signals between the memory and
ALU. It also directs the control signals between the CPU and I/O devices.
xv. Primary memory is the main memory of a computer system. It is called primary or
main because the CPU can access the data in it directly.
xvi. It is the primary memory where the data as well as instructions to process those data
are stored. After execution the intermediate and final results too are stored in primary
memory until it goes to the output devices or secondary storage device.
xvii. There are two types of memory chips used for primary memory – RAM and ROM.
They are used for different purpose in a computer system. Permanent programs and
data such as BIOS, POST, and Bootstrap Loader are stored in ROM. Temporary
programs and data such as user data, operating systems, and applications are stored in
RAM.
xviii. RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile memory because the data in it are erased
automatically when power supply is cut off. Operating system, application programs
and user files are loaded in RAM when they are running.
xix. SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access
Memory) are the two types of RAM. SRAM is static in nature and DRAM is dynamic
as the name itself suggests. This means, the data stored in SRAM are there as long as
power supply is provided. But in DRAM data is erased automatically even when
power supply is provided. So DRAM must be refreshed periodically (same data must
be written again and again if you still need them).
xx. SRAM chips have access time ranging from 10 to 30 nanoseconds. It is faster than
DRAM but is more expensive.
xxi. DRAM chips have access time around 60 nanoseconds. So, it is slower than SRAM
but is cheaper.
xxii. ROM is a permanent memory (non-volatile). The programs stored in ROM are known
as firmware.
xxiii. BIOS (Basic Input Output System) contains special instructions and data that tells the
computer how to access hard disk and other devices, find operating system and so on.
xxiv. The contents of ROM are written when manufacturing these chips.
xxv. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read
Only Memory) and EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory) are the types of ROM. PROM chips can’t be erased and reprogrammed.
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EPROM can be erased by exposing it to high intensity ultraviolet light. EEPROM can
be easily erased. You need to remove EPROM chips from computer to erase but for
EEPROM you don’t need to take it out.
xxvi. Cache memory is a high speed temporary memory placed between RAM and
processor so that Cache along with RAM can cop up with the speed of Processor.
xxvii. A cache is useful when RAM accesses are slow compared with the CPU speed
because cache memory is always faster than main memory. Cache is much more
expensive and consumes more power.
xxviii. All the mass storage devices or back up storage or auxiliary storage devices are
secondary memory. These devices are used to store user’s data for future reference.
Disks, tapes, pen drives, CDs, DVDs etc. are examples of secondary storage or
secondary memory.
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Discuss the major functions of the Arithmetic and memory units of a computer system.
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Study Session 14: Computer Software
Introduction
Computer systems divide software into three major classes: system software, programming
software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.
Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as a hard drive,
memory, or RAM). Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or
computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. It is a set of programs, which is
designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions. All
computers use system software and without the system software the application software will
not work. The most common OS on a PC is the Windows operating system.
This study session focuses attention on computer software. Specifically, the session explains
the concepts of computer software as the most important aspect of a computer system, it
examines the importance of both the application software and system software to learners,
and discusses the major points and guidelines for effective computer system.
14.1 Computer Software Concept
Software is the most important component of computer system. Software is a generic term for
organized collections of computer data and instructions, often broken into two major
categories: system software that provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the
computer, and application software which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks. In
other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its documentation
concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Thus, the software contains the
instructions that tell a computer what to do and how to do to solve a specific problem.
In general use, by software we understand a group of programs to make a system run. A

program contains instructions or commands to perform a task. The term package or suite is
used to describe a group of related software.
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Computer Software
The most important component of a computer system is _______
Software
14.2 Types of Software
Software is generally classified into two groups – system software and application software.
Some people prefer three types: system, application and utilities.
14.2.1 System Software
System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the system
see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as
transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display. Generally, system
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software consists of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk
formatters, file managers, display managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and
management tools, and networking and device control software.
There are three types of software under system software: Operating Systems, Language &
Language Processors and Utilities
Operating Systems
Operating Systems: An operating system (OS) is a set of software that manages computer
resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a
vital component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs require
an operating system to function.
The operating system is the most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-
purpose computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems
perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the
display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral
devices such as disk drives and printers.
Operating systems can be classified as follows:
 Multi-user operating system: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same
time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
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 Multiprocessing operating system: Supports running a program on more than one

CPU.
 Multitasking operating system: Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
 Multithreading operating system: Allows different parts of a single program to run
concurrently.
 Real time operating system: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating
systems, such as DOS, Windows and UNIX, are not real-time.
Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called
application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a
particular operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great
extent the applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS,
OS/2, and Windows, but others are available, such as Linux.
As a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. For
example, the DOS operating system contains commands such as COPY and RENAME for
copying files and changing the names of files, respectively. The commands are accepted and
executed by a part of the operating system called the command processor or command line
interpreter. Graphical user interfaces allow you to enter commands by pointing and clicking
at objects that appear on the screen.
Language and Language Processors: A programming language is a computer language

programmer use to develop applications, scripts, or other set of instructions for a computer to
execute. Programming languages such as C, C#, Java, Visual Basic are used to develop
applications; AIML, Prolog, C, C++ are used for artificial intelligence development, Dbase,
FoxPro, MySQL, Sql etc. are used for database development; Assembly language, C are used
to develop computer device drivers or other hardware interface development; HTML, Java,
JavaScript, Perl, PHP, XML are used for internet and web page development and so on.
There are 2 types of computer languages: low level language and High level language.
Low Level Language
Machine language and assembly language are called low level language because they are
used to write programs that deal with the low level tasks such as transferring data from
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memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display. Low level language is machine dependent
i.e. a program written for one type of computer does not work on other computers.
Machine Language
The lowest-level programming language. Machine languages are the only languages
understood by computers. While easily understood by computers, machine languages are
almost impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers. It is tiresome
and error prone to program in machine language. Programmers, therefore, use either a high-
level programming language or an assembly language.
Every CPU has its own unique machine language.
High Level Language: High level language is a machine-independent programming

language, such as C, C++, Java, Perl and COBOL. It lets the programmer concentrate on the
logic of the problem to be solved rather than the intricacies of the machine architecture such
as is required with low-level assembly languages. High level languages use English like
statements and mathematical notations. Because a programmer now does not need to
remember the machine architecture and operations implemented directly on the physical
CPU, high level languages are machine independent. They are often called problem-oriented
languages or business-oriented language.
High level languages were developed towards the end of second generation of computers
(COBOL and FORTRAN) and flourished during third and fourth generations. Pascal, C,
C++, C#, LISP, Java, Basic etc. are the examples of high-level language.
High level language is completely different than what machines can understand. To run a
program written in high level language, you need to convert it into machine code. There are
two kinds of language processors to convert high level language into machine language –
interpreter and compiler.
Compiler: A compiler is a language processor that converts the instruction of a high level
language into machine language as a whole. Programs written in high level language is called
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source program and after it is converted into machine language by the compiler, it is called an
object program.
Compiler checks each statement in the source program to generate machine instructions. Any
syntax errors if existing in source program are discovered while analysing. A source program
containing an error cannot be compiled into an object program.
Each high level language has its own compiler. A compiler can translate the programs of only
that language for which it is written. For example, C++ compiler can translate only those
programs, which are written in C++.
Interpreter: An interpreter is a language processor that converts one statement of high level
language program at a time. It executes this statement before translating the next statement of
the source program. If there is an error in the statement, the interpreter will stop working and
displays an error message.
The advantage of interpreters over compilers is that an error is found immediately. So the
programmer can make corrections during program development. Thus, interpreters are often
used to debug program while debugging.
The disadvantage of interpreter is that it is not very efficient. The interpreter does not produce
an object program. It must convert the program each time it is executed. Visual basic uses
interpreter.
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Computer Utilities
Utility Software: Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure,
optimize or maintain a computer. Utility or a tool is the term used for a single piece of utility
software. Utility software are also referred to as service program, tool, service routine, or
utility routine. Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including
the computer hardware, operating system, application software, and data storage) operates.
Utility software is often targeted at technical people with an advanced level of computer
knowledge.
Some sample categories of utilities are: Anti-virus, Backup utilities, Data compression, Disk
checkers, Disk cleaners, Disk compression utilities, Disk defragmenters, Disk partitions,
Archive utilities, File managers, Cryptographic utilities, Hex editors, Memory testers,
Network utilities Registry cleaners, Screensavers, System monitors and System profilers.
Mention two types of computer software
System software, Application software

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14.3 Application Software
Application software, is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the
computer system. Application software may consist of a single program, such as an image
viewer; a small collection of programs (often called a software package) that work closely
together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or text processing system; a larger
collection (often called a software suite) of related but independent programs and packages
that have a common user interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which
consists of closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a software
system, such as a database management system, which is a collection of fundamental
programs that may provide some service to a variety of other independent applications.
Software is created with programming languages and related utilities, which may come in
several of the above forms: single programs like script interpreters, packages containing a
compiler, linker, and other tools; and large suites (often called Integrated Development
Environments) that include editors, debuggers, and other tools for multiple languages.
14.3.1 Types of Application Software
You can group application software into two categories – tailored or customized software and
packaged software. You can find other categories that lie in between the tailored and
packaged.
Tailored Software
Tailored software are the applications developed to solve or automate a particular task of an
individual or organization. Tailored software are developed by employing or hiring a system
design and development team who perform system study and find best alternative to solve the
problem at hand. They analyze, design new system, develop, testing, debugging and
implementation. When the software is ready to do its work, it is handed over to the
organization.
Packaged Software
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Many software houses study the general requirement of computer users and develop software
packages. Software packages are aimed at solving some common problem such as word-
processing, spreadsheet calculation, database management, presentation systems and so on.
Package software are complex and with less bugs because it is developed often by a large
professional team. So they are more reliable compared to tailored software. Microsoft Office
Suite, Lotus Suite, Open Office Suite, Adobe Creative Suite etc. and their individual
applications are the examples of packaged software.
Categories of packaged software:
 Word-processing Systems – MS Word, Lotus Write, WordPerfect

 Spreadsheet Systems – MS Excel, Lotus 123,
 Database Management Systems – MS Access, MySQL, Oracle, MS SQL Server
 Presentation Systems – MS PowerPoint
 Graphic Designing – Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw
 Web Browsers – Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome
 Email Clients – Microsoft Outlook, Eudora Pro
 Multimedia and Entertainment –Windows Media Player, xDiv DVD Player, VLC
Player, and computer games
14.3.2 Customized Software
Apart from tailored and packaged software there is another software type called customized
software. These are the software applications that are modified or customized to meet your
specific need after acquiring some pre-built packaged software. For example, you can get MS
Excel or Access and use its macro feature or write some other add-ins, or extensions, to solve
your particular problem. Any software developed this way is known as customized software.
Live ware: Live ware is a slang term used to denote people using (attached to) computers,
and is based on the need for a human, or live ware, to operate the system using hardware and
software. It was used in the computer industry as early as 1966 to refer to computer users,
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often in humorous contexts by analogy with hardware and software. Other words meaning the
same or similar to live ware include wetware, meat ware and jelly ware.
Firmware
The term firmware is often used to indicate the control programs stored in ROM chips.
Typical examples of devices containing firmware are embedded systems, computers,
computer peripherals, mobile phones, and digital cameras. The firmware contained in these
devices provides the control program for the device.
Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, or flash memory.
Changing the firmware of a device may rarely or never be done during its economic lifetime;
some firmware memory devices are permanently installed and cannot be changed after
manufacture.
Common reasons for updating firmware include fixing bugs or adding features to the device.
This may require physically changing ROM integrated circuits, or reprogramming flash
memory with a special procedure. Firmware such as the ROM BIOS of a personal computer
may contain only elementary basic functions of a device and may only provide services to
higher-level software. Firmware such as the program of an embedded system may be the only
program that will run on the system and provide all of its functions.
Cache Memory
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory that is built into a computer’s
central processing unit (CPU), or located next to it on a separate chip. It is usually a small
amount (normally less than 1MB) of high-speed memory residing on or close to the CPU.
Cache memory supplies the processor with the most frequently requested data and
instructions. The CPU uses cache memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to
run programs, improving overall system speed. The advantage of cache memory is that the
CPU does not have to use the motherboard’s system bus for data transfer. Whenever data
must be passed through the system bus, the data transfer speed slows to the motherboard’s
capability. The CPU can process data much faster by avoiding the bottleneck created by the
system bus.
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Application software is used to accomplish specific task other than just running the computer
system. True or False
True
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Summary of Study Session
i. Computer in itself is nothing more than a slave in a box. Computer hardware is like a
dead body which has all the machinery and mechanism but can’t do anything. A
computer requires programs and instructions to do each and every tasks.
ii. A set of self-contained instructions that tells a computer how to solve a problem or
carry out a task is called a program. A group of programs that are put into a
computer to operate and control its activities is called software.
iii. Software are classified broadly into two types – system software and application
software. Loosely, you can understand it as all the software developed to help user to
perform his/her required tasks are application software. And similarly, all the software
developed to operate computer and help it to be able to run user required applications
are system software.
iv. System software is a set of programs that organizes, utilizes and controls the
hardware in a computer system. It serves as intermediary between hardware and
application software. System software supports – running other software,
communicating with peripheral devices, development of other types of software,
monitoring the use of hardware resources.
v. Operating systems, utility programs, device drivers and language processors fall into
the class of system software.
vi. Operating system is a type of system software that controls and coordinates the
internal working of a computer system. The major function of operating system is –
provide user interface to the user; manage disks, devices and other resources; provide
platform to run other software; load applications as and when user requests.
vii. Microsoft launched GUI operating environment called Windows in November 20,
1985.
viii. Device drivers are the system software that controls a particular type of device
installed in computer. Device drivers has instructions to make operating system able
to recognize and operate the device. Device drivers work as intermediary between the
hardware device and operating system.
ix. Utility software are system software that are designed to help analyze, configure,
optimize and maintain the computer system. It performs the specific task related to the
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management of computer functions, resources, or files as password protection,

memory management, virus protection and file compression.
x. Many operating systems have some utility programs build directly into the operating
system itself. Other utility programs are sold separately as software packages that the
user must install.
xi. Disk tool kits, data compression utilities, backup utility programs, virus protectors and
screen savers are some utility programs.
xii. Disk defragmenters are utilities that analyse the fragmentation (pieces of a file
scattered on different location in disk surface) and move the pieces into one place to
improve computer performance.
xiii. Disk checkers like check disk, scandisk can scan the contents of a disk to find files or
disk areas that are corrupted in some way.
xiv. Disk cleaners can identify files that are unnecessary to computer operation and can
delete them on your permission.
xv. Computers can understand instructions that are in machine language. Any program
that is not in machine language must be translated into machine language to execute.
A program that translates user’s program into machine language are language
translators or language processors.
xvi. Assembler, compiler and interpreters are the types of language processors.
xvii. Assembler translates a program written in assembly language into machine language.
It creates a converted file that is executable in computer. Small-time, MASM,
TASAM are some examples of assembler.
xviii. Compiler is a language processor that translates a high level language program into
machine code in a single operation. It creates machine language file that can be
executed in computer. Programming languages like C, C++, Java, FORTRAN uses
compilers.
xix. Interpreter is a language processor that translates each statement of user programs in
turn into machine code for the computer to execute. Interpreters do not create machine
code file but rather run every instruction after it is converted one after another.
xx. Application Software is a class of computer programs that help users to solve their
problems. Application software are also known as applications or apps.
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xxi. Examples of application software are word processors, database programs, web
browsers, development tools, drawing, paint, and image editing programs,
communication programs.
xxii. API (Application Programming Interface) is a formal request for services and
means of relating with other programs that a programmer uses in writing an
application program.
xxiii. Application software are further classified into packaged software and tailored or
customized software.
xxiv. Packaged software is a generalized set of programs that allows the computer to
perform a specific data processing job for the user. Some of the popular packaged
software are Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access and so on.
xxv. Tailored software or customized software is the software developed to meet the
specific requirement of a particular organization, institution or person. Industrial
automation software, business software, payroll software of a company, banking
software designed especially for a bank, result processing system for SLC exam etc.
are examples of some customized software.
xxvi. Word Processing software allows users to create, edit and format documents.
xxvii. Database software allows uses to store and retrieve huge amount of data from
database quickly.
xxviii. Spreadsheet software allows uses to perform complex calculation on a large
electronic sheet.
xxix. Multimedia software allows uses to create, edit and play audio, video media.
xxx. Presentation software allows users to create and present information in the form of
display slides.
xxxi. Image editing software allows uses to create and manipulate images, photographs
and other graphics objects.
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Explain briefly the concept of computer software
i. Mention and explain the two types of computer software.

ii. Define the term operating system
iii. Mention and explain the two types of computer languages
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Study Session 15: Hardware Concept
Introduction
The physical and tangible parts of a computer are hardware. It includes the devices such as
keyboard, mouse, monitor, printers, motherboard, memory chips, electronic circuitry,
expansion cards, cables, switches and everything you can touch and feel.
There is a very useful analogy to define computer hardware and software. Let’s take an
example of a book. You should be thinking of the cover, the pages and the ink as hardware.
At the same time the words, sentences, paragraphs, and the storyline, i.e. the information held
within the book would represent the software. A computer without software is very much like
having a book full of blank pages, you need the software to make a computer useful – just the
same as you need the words and story to make a book meaningful. Hardware refers to any
part of the computer which is manufactured. It can refer to individual components or a group
of components.
Many people love to offer an analogy with human body and soul to clarify the relationship
between hardware and software component of computers. The body is considered as
hardware and the soul that operates human body is equated with the computer software.
Without software, a computer is just a dead body.
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15.1. Hardware Component of Computer System
Here is some common hardware that you’ll find inside a computer:
i. Motherboard
ii. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
iii. Random Access Memory (RAM)
iv. Power Supply
v. Video Card
i. Hard Drive
ii. Optical Drive (i.e. BD/DVD/CD drive)
iii. Sound Card
iv. Network Interface Card (NIC)
v. Analog Modem
vi. FireWire/USB Expansion Card
Here is some common hardware that you might find connected to the outside of a computer:
1) Keyboard
2) Mouse
3) Printer
4) Scanner
5) Speakers
6) Monitor
The following hardware is referred to as network hardware and various pieces are often part
of a home or business network:
i. Router
ii. Network Switch
iii. Access Point
iv. Repeater
v. Bridge
vi. Print Server
vii. Firewall
In-Text Questions (ITQs) (ITQS) 15.1
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i. Motherboard and Optical drive are example of ______ components that can be found
inside a computer.
ii. Keyboard and Scanner are hardware components found outside a computer.
True/False
i. Hardware
ii. True
Mention five external hardware components.
Mention five external hardware components.
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Study Session 17: History of Libraries in Nigeria
Introduction
Libraries are central to the growth and development of any institution, society, group or
nation. Libraries worldwide provide access to reliable information resources in different
formats. In academic institutions like the university, libraries are established to support the
curriculum and the research activities of the institution through the provision of information
and educational resources for the use of their clients (Learners, staff and researchers)
Libraries are thus central to the educational activities of various institution of higher learning.
Therefore it is important to acquaint members of the academic community on the use and
importance of the library to their educational activities.
19.1 Define a library

19.2 Give a brief history of university libraries in Nigeria
19.3 Discuss the services offered and roles played by libraries in support of
university education
19.4 Discuss types of libraries
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17.1 The Library: A Definition
A library is an organized collection of information and educational resources made available

to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides access to both physical and
digital educational and information resources. The library may be available in a physical
space or virtual space, and it may be hybrid (i.e physical and virtual).
It is an organized collection of books, periodicals and non-book resources that are processed,
stored and prepared for the purpose of reading, study, research and consultation by members
of the community.
Define a library
A library is an organized collection of information and educational resources made available

to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides access to both physical and
digital educational and information resources. The library may be available in a physical
space or virtual space, and it may be hybrid (i.e physical and virtual).
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17.2 Brief History of University Libraries in Nigeria
The history of university libraries in Nigeria is traceable to the establishment of the

University College, Ibadan (now University of Ibadan) in 1948. As it is the practice that
university libraries are established simultaneously with their parent institution, it is therefore
a fact that the first university library in Nigeria is the University of Ibadan Library (now
Kenneth Dike, named after the first Vice-Chancellor of the University).
On attaining independence in 1960, the Federal Government of Nigeria and the various
regional governments decided to bridge the gap of literacy and administrative manpower that
exists in each region of the country. This decision led to the establishment of one university
per region, and the established universities are the Ahmadu Bello UniversityZaria, University
of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) and theUniversity of Nigeria Nsukka. This
development and the consistent increase in the number of people seeking university education
led to the establishment of more universities particularly when states were created from
regions and the licensing of individuals to establish Universities. Each of the universities
simultaneously establishes university libraries to support their curriculum and research
activities. It should be noted that no university in the world will be granted the license to
operate without provision for a functional library.
i. Which University library is the first in Nigeria?

ii. Mention the first set of university libraries that were established after independence
i. University of Ibadan Library

ii. Ahmadu Bello University Library, Obafemi Awolowo University Library, and
University of Nigeria Library.
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17.3 Libraries and Education
Libraries and education, particularly in higher education are inseparable twins. Without
libraries, there won’t be meaningful and reliable education and without education, libraries
will be worthless ventures as there would be no need investing in such. Libraries relevance
to education cannot be over-emphasized as they remain agents of learning, teaching,
educational, social, economic, political, scientific and technological development.
In the university, the library supports the curriculum and research activities of the university
by offering a range of education related services which include –Circulation services,
reference service, current awareness service, selective dissemination of information service,
user education and information literacy skills development, and inter-library loan service
among others.
The services rendered to support the academic activities in university libraries include-
i. Circulation services: This involves the display and shelving of various library
materials on the shelves. The service also offers charging in and out of books (lending
service) to library users.
ii. Reference services: This service provides access to non-loanable books that can be
consulted only in the library. Such books are marked as reference books. This service
also answer user queries and offer directional and referral service where needed.
iii. Current awareness service (CAS): This service informs the university community on
new arrivals or additions to the library collection. This is done by listing such and
sending to various faculties/departments. The information is also pasted on the library
notice bulletin board and posted to the library social media handles. This service is
aimed at attracting members of the university community to the newly acquired
library resources.
iv. Selective dissemination of information(SDI): This service identify an individual or a
group of individuals, and source for resources that can be useful for the individual or
group’s academic activities and send them the packaged information. For example, a
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librarian may source for books that can be useful for this course and send the list to
the GNS unit or the social media platform for 100 level Learners.
v. User education and information literacy skills development: A rich library collection
that is not used is a waste. Therefore, the university library engages in user education
and information literacy skills development activities that will enhance the use of the
library resources. Such activities include library displays, orientation lecture for new
Learners, information sourcing skills development among others.
vi. Inter-library loan services: No library in the world can acquire all relevant educational
materials desired by the users, this has led to inter-library cooperation among the
libraries which the inter-library loan is an offshoot of. This service provide access to
resources not available in the library, but available in some other libraries. The library
seeks for the release of such library materials on loan from the library that has it. On
receiving the material, such is the issued out as loan to the interested user.
Libraries partnership with education is also established in role they play in higher education.
The roles include-
i. Information dissemination agent: The library is in all higher institutions bestowed

with the responsibility of information resources acquisition and dissemination. The
library thus source, acquire, and process information resources for dissemination to
members of the institution. Please note that information dissemination simply mean
information provision (i.e provision of information resources to members of the
university community).
ii. Independent learning support: For academic success, Learners need independent
learning success. Independent learning offers Learners to study at their pace as in
some cases Learners may find the pace of the lecturer/instructor too fast to cope with.
The library thus provides the Learners the opportunity to study at their own pace.
iii. Knowledge expansion opportunity: The library assists Learners in expanding their
knowledge by providing information resources that may be consulted to confirm or
reject what has been learnt. By consulting many information resources on a particular
issue, Learners become better informed.
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iv. Economic cost reduction: The cost of acquiring needed information resources will be
too enormous to afford for many Learners, the library thus fill the gap by making
available to Learners the materials they need for their study.
v. Recreational role: All work and no play make Jack a dull boy is an English proverb.
The library provides recreational materials such as general reading materials (story
books, newspapers and magazines, autobiography, biography etc) games and
relaxation corners for the use of library users.
vi. Reading culture promotion: Libraries through user education inculcates necessary
skills to achieve good reading culture which is central to academic success.
vii. Conducive studying environment: Conducive environment is needed for critical and
independent studies. The library provides this for their clients, and that is why reading
in the classroom and in the library won’t yield same results. The library is made
noiseless, and well ventilated and illuminated pace is provided.
viii. Development of future leaders and thinkers: The essence of university education is to
develop future leaders and great thinkers. The library support the institution by
providing rich information resources that will aid the development of the Learners
into future leaders and great thinkers.
i. Mention three services that are rendered by the library to support education
ii. Mention three roles performed by the library to support education
i. Circulation services, current awareness service and selective dissemination of

information.
ii. Information dissemination, independent learning support, and conducive studying
environment.
17.4 Types of Libraries
Basically, there are six (6) types of libraries, and they are:
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1. National/State libraries/Public libraries: A public library is a library which is

accessible by the public and is generally funded from public sources (such as tax
money) and may be operated by the civil servants. The public library is an excellent
model of government at its best. A locally controlled public good, it serves every
individual freely, in as much or as little depth as he or she wants. This type of library
is found in towns, cities and villages.
2. School libraries: A school library (or a school library media center) is a library
within a school where Learners, staff, and often, parents of private media center
school a public or have access to a variety of resources. The goal of the school library
is to ensure that all members of the school community have equitable access "to
books and reading, to information, and to information technology. An example of this
is the library you used in your primary and secondary schools.
3. Special libraries: A special library is one which is established to serve a particular
group of people, such as the employees of a firm, of government department, or the
staff and members of a professional or research organization or association. Examples
are the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) library, Institute of
Chartered Accountants of Nigeria (ICAN) library, Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN)
library etc.
4. Private libraries: A private library is a library established by an individual for his/her
personal use. This type of library is usually funded by the individual. In some cases, a
private library can be established for a small group of individuals with a particular
focus. For example, a professor’s library may be intended for his use and that of
his/her research assistants or Learners. Usually they have the same research focus.
5. Academic libraries: Academic library is the library which is attached to academic
institutions like colleges, monotechnic, polytechnic and universities. An academic
library serves more specifically the Learners, research scholars, lecturers and staff of
the academic institution. Main objective of an academic library is to providewide
range of information resources to its clientele so that they may fully exploit such to
aid their success academically. Examples of academic libraries include the Olabisi
Onabanjo University Library, Ago-Iwoye, Tai Solarin College of Education library in
Omu, and Abraham Adesanya Polytechnic Library, Ijebu-Igbo.

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i. Define special libraries

ii. Write short note on academic libraries
i. A special library is one which is established to serve a particular group of people,

such as the employees of a firm, of government department, or the staff and members
of a professional or research organization or association.
ii. Academic library is the library which is attached to academic institutions like
colleges, monotechnic, polytechnic and universities. An academic library serves more
specifically the Learners, research scholars, lecturers and staff of the academic
institution. Main objective of an academic library is to provide wide range of
information resources to its clientele so that they may fully exploit such to aid their
success academically.
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In this study session, you have learned the following:
1. A library is an organized collection of books, periodicals and non-book resources that

are processed, stored and prepared for the purpose of reading, study, research and
consultation by members of the community.
2. The history of university libraries in Nigeria can be traced to the establishment of the
University of Ibadan (formerly University College, Ibadan) in 1948 and the
consequent simultaneous establishment of the university library.
3. Libraries support university education by rendering services such as circulation,
reference. Selective dissemination of information and current awareness services.
University libraries also play roles such as information dissemination agents,
independent learning support and knowledge expansion opportunity creators among
others.
4. Types of libraries include national/state libraries, school libraries, special libraries
private libraries and academic libraries which university libraries is part of.
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learning outcomes by answering the following questions. You can check your answers
with the Notes on Self-Assessment Questions at the end of this Session.
Define a library.
Write briefly on the history of university libraries in Nigeria.
Discuss various services offered by a university library.
Discuss the major types of libraries.
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Study Session 18: Organisation of Olabisi Onabanjo

University Library
Introduction
The Olabisi Onabanjo University library is positioned to support the curriculum and research
activities of the university, it is thus organised into sections to handle and offer various kind
of resources to the university community as part of its mandate to support teaching, research
and community service of the university.
18.1 Discuss various sections of the university library
18.2 Discuss and describe various library materials.
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8.1 Organisation Of Olabisi Onabanjo University Library
The Olabisi Onabanjo University Library is centrally managed from the Main library on main
campus in Ago-Iwoye. The library has branches on all the campuses of the university, as well
as the Law Library on Main campus in Ago-Iwoye. The library is divided into six sections
namely:
i. The University Librarian’s Office: This office is responsible to the Vice-

Chancellor through the University Librarian who sees to the day to day administration
of the university library. The services and roles of the University library are
coordinated from this office. This simply means that all services that you enjoy are
provided by the University Librarian through various heads of section and
departments as you will find in the course of this study.
ii. Collection Development Section: The collection development section sees to the
evaluation and selection of information resources to be acquired. The section orders
selected resources and do bibliographic checks on supplied library materials (books
and other related materials). Bibliographic check includes checking if the supplied
material is what was ordered, whether the collation is properly done without missing
pages, and if the binding is intact. The section thereafter stamps the books with
ownership stamps and issue accession numbers to them. The books are thereafter sent
to for cataloguing and classification in the technical services division.
iii. Technical Services Division: The Technical Services Division handles the
cataloguing (bibliographic description of the book) and classification (assigning the
material to a particular course/discipline). The books are shelved according to the
classification numbers issued to them using a standard library arrangement schedule
according to subject/discipline. Date due slip and book pockets are attached to each
book before it is sent to Readers Services Division for circulation.
iv. Readers’ Services Division: This division comprised of circulation and reference
sections. The circulation section takes care of users’ registration, interlibrary loan as
well as charging in and out of books. Charging in and out of books refers to issuing
books out to users on loan and receiving same when the user is done with the book.
When users keep the book longer than approved, such users are fined and they pay
overdue charges. Reference section is also under this division. The reference section
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manages non loan-able books (reference materials), user queries, and offer referral
service.
v. Reference books are marked as ‘REF’ – this means the book is not loan-able and they
include abstracts and indexes, albums and photographs, dictionaries, directories,
encyclopedia, gazettes, government publications, globes and maps, etc.
vi. This section also responds to users queries. When users need support or direction,
they meet with the reference Librarian who painstakingly handles their queries.
Referral service involves the reference Librarian referring users to other libraries
where they can find desired information resources. A Learner or researcher in the
Olabisi Onabanjo University can be referred to the Central Bank Library or the
Neuro-psychiatry Hospital in Abeokuta if that is where they can get desired resources.
vii. Serial Section: This section manages periodicals. Periodicals are publications that are
issued periodically (daily, weekly, monthly, bi-monthly, bi-annually, and annually;
and it is intended to continue indefinitely. These include newspapers, magazines,
business and academic journals. The section sees to the acquisition and display of
periodicals.
viii. Multimedia Resources Section: The multimedia resources centre is synonymously
referred to as electronic library, e-library or electronic resources centre. This section
acquires stores and provide for use electronic library resources. The electronic
resources include e-books, e-journals, e-dissertations, e-thesis, etc.
i. Give examples of reference books

ii. Define periodicals
i. Abstracts and indexes, albums and photographs, dictionaries, directories,

encyclopedia, gazettes, government publications, globes and maps, etc.
ii. Periodicals are publications that are issued periodically (daily, weekly, monthly, bi-
monthly, bi-annually, and annually; and it is intended to continue indefinitely. These
include newspapers, magazines, business and academic journals.
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18.2 Types of Library Materials
Information resources can be broadly classified into primary, secondary and tertiary sources.
They could also be classified according to the format in which they appear – that is print and
non-print formats as well as books and non-books. For the purpose of this study the
classification would be books and non-books.
Library materials are not limited to books as it is assumed in some quarters. The break-
down is as follows:
1. Books: Books are those materials in printed form that can be briefly consulted for
particular information or read from cover to cover. A book is normally not less than
49pages, boundtogether along one edge and usually protected by hardback, paperback
or paper cover. When a book is less than 49pages, it is referred to as a pamphlet or a
booklet. Books can be classified into general books and reference books.
General books are textbooks on various subjects or disciplines. They contain

knowledge put together by experts (authors) in various fields of knowledge like
Agriculture, Philosophy, Psychology, medicine, Law, Accounting etc. We also have
books that are fictional (that is not about any particular course of study). These
include storybooks, novels, biography etc.
2. Reference Materials: Reference materials are those information resources that are
not meant to be read from cover to cover, this means that you are not expected to read
them from page one to the last page unlike other textbooks. Reference books are
meant for quick consultations, they provide answer to questions, terms or
terminologies. They are usually alphabetically arranged, and are mostly in volumes.
This includes dictionaries, encyclopedias, handbooks, yearbooks, directories, atlases
and gazettes, gazetteers, almanacs, bibliography, indexes and abstracts among others.
3. Dictionaries: A dictionary can simply be defined as a list of words arranged in

alphabetical order. Dictionaries give meaning of words and terms. Other information
contained include the origin of such words, pronunciation, syllables, usage, parts of
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speech and some other information about the word or term. There are different types
of dictionaries and they include general, subject and special dictionaries.
4. General Dictionaries: General dictionaries are language dictionaries; they contain

the list of words of a particular language. The Chambers Dictionary is a very good
example of a general dictionary. A dictionary with a list of words in just one language
is known as a mono-lingual dictionary while a general dictionary with two languages
is known as bilingual dictionary; a language dictionary with more than two languages
is known as multilingual dictionary.
5. Subject Dictionaries: Subject dictionaries listwords or terms of a particular subject.

A good example is the Oxford Dictionary of Chemistry.
6. Special Dictionaries: Apart from general and subject dictionaries, there are other
types of dictionaries known as special dictionaries. These deal with different aspects
of a language like idioms, grammar, dialects, slangs, quotations, synonyms and
antonyms. The Roget’s Thesaurus is an example of a special dictionary.
7. Encyclopedia: Encyclopedias are collections of short, factual entries often written by

different contributors who are knowledgeable about the topic. There are two types of
encyclopedias -- general and subject. General encyclopedias provide concise
overviews on a wide variety of topics. Subject encyclopedias contain in-depth entries
focused on one field of study, which may include bibliographies. Encyclopedias are
available in the reference section of a library or searchable online. We often use
encyclopedia when looking for background information on a topic, when trying to
find key ideas, important dates or concepts and when we want to find basic
biographical information.
8. Handbooks and Manuals: Handbooks and manuals are reference books that we
quickly check for information as we work on a particular topic. They provide a more
comprehensive overview than an encyclopedia article, as well as useful lists of facts,
formulae, and other important information. They are also the place to look for more
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practical, "how-to" information. For example we have ‘A handbook for engineering

Learners’, ‘Faculty handbook for Learners’.
9. Directories/Guides: A document that lists the names of various service organizations

like hotels, schools or libraries giving their addresses and telephone numbers is
known as a directory. An example of directories is the ‘Nigeria yellow pages’which
list the names, addresses and the telephone numbers of business organizations in
Nigeria.
Guides are very similar to directories in the sense that they enlighten people,
especially travelers on how they can locate a particular place, but sometimes they can
describe places and mention what to expect in the area of food, hospitality, language
and other things like weather which could be of interest to tourists.
10. Atlases: An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of maps of Earth or a

region of Earth. Atlases have traditionally been bound into book form, but today
many atlases are in multimedia formats. In addition to presenting geographic features
and political boundaries, many atlases often feature geopolitical, social, religious and
economic statistics. They also have information about the map and places in it. An
example is the ‘National Geographic Atlas of the World’ which provides physical
maps as well as thematic maps covering such aspects as population, food, minerals,
climate, and energy. It combines state-of-the-art cartographic technology and
information with dynamic and diverse physiographic and cultural content.
11. Gazetteers: A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary or directory used in conjunction

with a map or atlas. It typically contains information concerning the geographical
makeup, social statistics and physical features of a country, region, or continent.
Content of a gazetteer can include a subject's location, dimensions of peaks and
waterways, population, gross domestic product and literacy rate. This information is
generally divided into topics with entries listed in alphabetical order.
12. Bibliographies: A bibliography is a list of books, articles and other sources of

information that form the literature of a subject. These are reference books that have
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been published on a subject, nation or publisher. A subject bibliography lists the

various information resources that have been published in a particular field of
knowledge. A national bibliography lists the various books that have been published
in a particular country and it is arranged according to their subjects. A publisher
bibliography is also known as trade bibliography. This document lists all the books
that have been published by a particular publisher in order to showcase them to
would-be buyers like libraries, bookshops, and individuals. Whichever type, in
addition to listing the books, the bibliographic information of each book, author(s)
name(s), date of publication, place of publication, publisher and the number of pages.
An example is the National Bibliography of Nigeria, British National Geography.
13. Abstracts: These are information documents that contain list of available information
resources on a subject, course or a field of study. It lists all the bibliographic
information like a bibliography. In addition to listing the titles; author’s name, date of
publication, place of publication, publisher and number of pages, abstracts give a
summary of the content of each information source. Examples are CAB Abstracts,
Library and Information Science Abstracts (LISA).
14. Indexes: Indexes are indicators or locators that assist one to find information. They
do more than just locate, indexes are systematic guides to location of words, concepts
and other information items in books, periodicals or other publications. An index
consists of series of entries appearing in alphabetical order to enable users find
information with references to show where each item is located.
15. Periodicals: These are publications which are issued at regular or irregular
intervals, with volume and date, with the intention of being continued
indefinitely, which could be daily, weekly, monthly, bi-annually or annually.
Examples are Daily Newspapers (Dailies), Weekly Magazines, Journals, and
annual book series.
16. Non-Book Materials: Non-book materials refers to non-print information resources,

they are generally called audiovisual resources or materials. These materials include
audio resources – tape recordings, voice recording on compact disks (CD), etc, visual
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resources like photographs, realia, charts etc, and audiovisual materials like video
recordings, Video compact disks (VCD) etc. Non-book materials help in solving
communication problem and enhance instructional efficiency during teaching and
learning process, as it enable Learners to see those things in real life situations, and
such opportunity affords the Learners to remember the experience for a longer period.
i. Define dictionary
ii. What are non-book materials?
i. A dictionary can simply be defined as a list of words arranged in alphabetical order.

Dictionaries give meaning of words and terms. Other information contained include
the origin of such words, pronunciation, syllables, usage, parts of speech and some
other information about the word or term.
ii. Non-book materials refers to non-print information resources, they are generally
called audiovisual resources or materials. These materials include audio resources –
tape recordings, voice recording on compact disks (CD), etc, visual resources like
photographs, realia, charts etc, and audiovisual materials like video recordings,
Video compact disks (VCD) etc.
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1 Various Divisions/sections of the university library include technical services
division, collection development division, Readers services division, and
Multimedia section among others.
2 Various kinds of library materials which include the books and non book
materials.
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Discuss three major divisions/sections of the university library.
Write briefly on the following:
 Encyclopaedia
 Dictionary
 Gazetteer
 Non book materials
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Study Session 19: Organisation and Arrangement of Library

Materials
Introduction
When access to library resources is difficult, such library would have failed in fulfilling its
mandate of providing easy access to materials. In the Olabisi Onabanjo University, due
unrestricted access is provided to the library resources by cataloguing and classifying the
library resources according to international standards.
19.1 Discuss the essence of library organization and arrangement
19.2 Define the catalogue and discuss the functions and types of catalogue
19.3 Define classification and define classification schemes.
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19.1 Organization and Arrangement of Library Materials
To ensure easy and timely access to library resources, a standard form of resources
description and resources classification is applied. In ensuring that no two books look
the same, even when they have same title, bibliographic cataloguing is done whereby
the material is bibliographically described. To enhance easy access to library materials,
efforts are made to put resources on same subject together, towards this, subject
classification is done using standard classification scheme. In this section, we will be
going through cataloguing and classification of library materials.
19.2 What Is A Library Catalogue?
Library catalogue is an essential and important tool for information resources access in any
type of library. This tool has been developed to facilitate the use of reading materials in a
library by directing users to the exact document desired. It is useful to both, the readers using
the library and the library staff members who help the readers to use the library.
Library catalogue is a list of books and other reading materials available in a particular
library or in a group of libraries sharing resources. It shows the user the contents of a library
collection. The library catalogue can also be described as a register of all bibliographic items
found in a library arranged alphabetically by author, title, subject and class mark.
19.3 The Function of a Library Catalogue
1. To know the items available in a library, or a group of libraries.

2. To assist library users in finding a book they know one of the following:
 Author
 Title
 Subject of the book
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3. To help library users determinewhether the library has a certain item or which edition
and works of a particular Author are available in the library collections or which
materials are available in the library on a particular subject.
Actually, as explained by Cutter, a library catalogue should:
i. enable a person to find a book of which

ii. the author, or
iii. the title, or
iv. the subject is known
v. show what the library has
vi. by a given author
vii. on a given subject
viii. in a given kind of literature
ix. assist in the choice of a book
x. as to its edition (bibliographically)
xi. as to its character (literary or topical).
The library catalogue is like a pointer that takes the seeker of a document to the location of
the document in the library.
19.4 The Physical Forms of Library Catalogue
The physical forms of library catalogue consist of the following:
 Book catalogue
 Card catalogue
 Online Public Access Catalogue / automated catalogue
19.4.1 Book Catalogue
This is the oldest form of catalogue which was commonly used in American libraries. In book
catalogue, entries for books in the collection of a library are printed and bound in book form.
One page of the catalogue contains more than one entry. Catalogue of many libraries are
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available in book form. The characteristic of this type of catalogue was expensive to produce
and quickly became out of date because of its inflexibility in changing of the collections.
This catalogue was gradually replaced with card catalogue.
19.4.2 Card Catalogue
This is mostly found in libraries worldwide. Each entry is prepared on standard 7.5cm x
12.5cm (3” x 5”) card. These cards are then filed in alphabetical order by author, title, subject
and call numbers in the drawers of the catalogue cabinet to provide access to the library
collections. The card catalogue is very flexible. Entries can be easily added or removed
whenever necessary. Corrections can be effected on cards and re-filed.
In large libraries there is provision for (see and see also) references in the card
catalogue.
Following are however the disadvantages of card catalogue:
i. Filing of large new entries takes a long time.

ii. More spaces are needed as the library collections grow bigger.
iii. Since filing and changes on the catalogue are done manually, the library patrons
might need to wait until the library staff completes the filing of catalogue cards.
The card catalogues are filed in any of the following format:
1. Dictionary Catalogue: In it are Author, Title, Subject and classified entries filed in a
single alphabetical sequence. The dictionary catalogue is popular in public libraries
and it presents the least amount of difficulty for general or casual reader.
2. Classified Catalogue:It is arranged by subject according to the classification scheme
in use by the library. It is arranged according to the class mark assigned to each book
in the library. The arrangement of the cards will correspond with the arrangement of
books on the shelves.
3. Divided Catalogue:Cards are arranged in alphabetical sequence, with Author, Title
and Subject entries in a separate file usually referred to as three – way divided
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catalogue. This form has increased in popularity as many libraries have divided their
former dictionary catalogue.
 Author catalogue: An author catalogue is one in which the books are arranged
alphabetically according to author’s name.
Author catalogue informs the library user which works are written by a particular
author or corporate author available in the library. For example, if one is searching for
books written by Professor Wole Soyinka, the user will go to the letter ‘S’ section of
the author catalogue to search for Soyinka, Wole. If one is searching for a work
produced by a corporate entity like the Ogun State Government, one will go to the ‘O’
section of the catalogue to search for Ogun State Government.
 Title catalogue: The title catalogue is arranged in alphabetical order. It refers the
library users to the titles of books available in the library. They are helpful to those
readers who are more likely to remember the title of a publication than its author. It is
a library catalogue whose entries are listed by titles only. For example if one
remembers the title of a work, you will approach the title catalogue to search for such
title.
 Subject catalogue: A subject catalogue is one in which books or other materials are
listed only under the subject treated and are arranged in alphabetical order. For
example, one may wish to search for books on Organic Chemistry, Financial
Accounting, and Advertising etc.
19.4.3 Online Catalogue/Automated Library Catalogue
With the advancement of modern information technology, libraries try to automate all their
library activities through the use of computer and other information technology equipment
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19.5 Finding Books and Other Library Materials on the Shelf Using Title
Author and Subject Catalogue
To find a specific book or books on a particular subject or topic, there is the need start the
search from the library catalogue. The catalogue will inform you on the library holdings and
will give you the location and call number with which to find the book on the shelf.
The library catalogue consists of the author, title, subject and call mark cards representing
each and every book available in the library. Any book not found in the catalogue is either
not available in the library or under processing.
19.5.1 To Search for a Book Using Author Catalogue
To get to a library material that you know the name of the author, you approach the ‘author
catalogue’ and search for the name in the alphabetically arranged entries in the author
catalogue. You will actually find together all the publications published by the author. The
arrangement uses the author’s surname first approach that is if you are seeking a book by
Chinua Achebe, it will be in the catalogue as Achebe, Chinua.
19.5.2 To Search for a Book Using the Title Catalogue
To get to a book that you only know the title, you use the ‘title catalogue’. Entries in the title
catalogue are arranged in alphabetical order of the title of the books. Please note that in many
cases, libraries join the ‘author catalogue’ and ‘title catalogue’ together to form Author/Title
catalogue. This simply means that all the author entries and title entries are arranged together
alphabetically.
19.5.3 To Search Using Automated Library Catalogue
The automated library catalogue can be described as a machine readable catalogue. It is the
application of computers to digital catalogue display. This automated library catalogue is the
conversion of the traditional card catalogue to computerized digital catalogue with a
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standardized format known as MARC 21 format. It contains the bibliographic information of

a traditional card catalogue in a computerized digital format.
All the bibliographic information of books and other library materials are stored as electronic
format on a database on the library computer server which eventually is connected with other
computers available in the library by Local Area Network (LAN) to be used only within the
library. While further connection can be made with the Wide Area Network (WAN) for
further access to the library patrons in other locations outside the main library premises.
19.5.4 Online Public Access Catalogue
Online Public Access Catalogue is an online database (catalogue) of materials held by a

library or group of libraries. Users search this catalogue to locate books and other materials
available in the library. OPAC is an automated terminal which serves as catalogue cabinets
where library materials are accessed by library patrons.
i. What are the functions of a library catalogue?

ii. What are the physical forms of catalogue?
i. 1. To know the items available in a library, or a group of libraries.
2. To assist library users in finding a book they know one of the following:
 Author
 Title
 Subject of the book
3. To help library users determine whether the library has a certain item or which
edition and works of a particular Author are available in the library collections or
which materials are available in the library on a particular subject.
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ii. The physical forms of library catalogue consist of the following:
 Book catalogue
 Card catalogue
 Online Public Access Catalogue / automated catalogue.
19.6 What Is Classification in Libraries?
Retrieving documents from a heap of books without particular arrangement will be difficult,
hence the need for libraries to organize their resources to ensure easy access and retrieval.
This is done by dividing the whole of knowledge into classes to ensure that library materials
on the same subject or discipline are grouped together.
Classification is the process of arranging, grouping, coding, and organizing books and other
library materials (e.g. serials, sound recordings, moving images, cartographic materials,
manuscripts, computer files, e-resources etc.) on shelves or entries of a catalog, bibliography,
and index according to their subject in a systematic, logical, and helpful order by way of
assigning them call numbers using a library classification system, so that users can find them
as quickly and easily as possible. Joudrey, Taylor & Miller simply described classification
as “the placing of subjects into categories.”
Library classification systems, group related materials together, typically arranged in a

hierarchical tree structure (from general to specific).
The library classification numbers can be considered identifiers for resources, but are distinct
from the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) or International Standard Serial
Number (ISSN).
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19.6.1 Classification Schemes
A classification scheme is the descriptive information for an arrangement or division of

objects into groups based on characteristics, which the objects have in common.
There are quite a number of classification schemes, the common classification systems used
in English speaking countries include:
1. Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)

2. Library of Congress Classification (LC)
3. Colon Classification (CC)
4. Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)
5. Moys
The popular library classification scheme in use in university libraries is the library of
congress classification scheme. We will briefly highlight the features of the scheme.
19.6.2 Library of Congress Classification Scheme
The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a system of library classification developed

by the Library of Congress. The effort to organize and arrange the book collections of the
American Library of Congress led to the development of the scheme in the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. Over the course of the twentieth century, the system was
adopted for use by other libraries as well, especially large academic libraries in the United
States. It is currently one of the most widely used library classification systems in the world.
The Library's Policy and Standards Division maintains and develops the system. The
popularity and the adoption of the classification scheme over the decades led to the Library
of Congress making its records available electronically through its online catalogue, and this
has led to more libraries adopting LCC for both subject cataloguing as well as shelf listing.
The Library of Congress Classification LCC scheme divided the whole of knowledge into
twenty-one main classes using the English alphabets. The English alphabets comprised of 26
alphabets, the LCC is yet to use alphabets I,O,W,X,and Y.
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Main classes of LCC (the alphabets) represents major disciplines which are divided into
subclasses which are further divided into divisions. Such a categorisation creates a
hierarchical display for LCC, progressing from the general to the specific. Levels of
hierarchy in the schedules are indicated by indentions.
The schedules of LCC were developed independently by the different group of subject
specialists based on the “literary warrant” of the materials already in, and being added to, the
Library of Congress. Therefore, each schedule stands on its own with some differences from
discipline to discipline; because of their intrinsic peculiarities.
The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) scheme is popularly used in university libraries
for the following reasons.
1. It caters for the aspect of knowledge

2. It has a comprehensive index
3. It is expandable
4. Each discipline is divided into volumes
5. It is frequently revised
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Source: https://www.librarianshipstudies.com/2017/11/library-of-congress-classification.html
Call number or classmark is a number, letter or combination of these, indicating the specific
location of a work in a library, especially the combination of the classification symbol and the
designation for the author. It can also be defined as alphanumeric code indicating the physical
location of a book within a library. Class numbers are used to organize books according to
subject area. Libraries generally use classmarks to group items of a similar subject together,
which in turns makes browsing the shelves easier. Classmarks are based on the library’s
classification scheme. OOU call numbers are based on Library of Congress Classification
Scheme.
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The call number represents what the book is about and acts like the books address on the
library’s shelves or stacks. Books on the shelves are arranged with call numbers usually
written at the spine of the books.
Call number is a combination of characters assigned to a library book to indicate its place on
a shelf. Each book is given a unique call number chosen according to the LC scheme and the
books are arranged on the shelves in order by that number. Examples of call numbers:
BF - Broad Subject Area
39 - Further narrows down the subject
D2 - The cutter number 58 following the first letter of the author’s surname
i. List five classification schemes that you know

ii. Why is the LCC scheme popularly used in university libraries?
i. 1. Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)

2. Library of Congress Classification (LCC)
3. Colon Classification (CC)
4. Universal Decimal Classification (UDC)
5. Moys
ii.
 It caters for the aspect of knowledge

 It has a comprehensive index
 It is expandable
 Each discipline is divided into volumes
 It is frequently revised
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1. Library catalogue is a list of books and other reading materials available in a

particular library or in a group of libraries sharing resources. It shows the user the
contents of a library collection. The library catalogue can also be described as a
register of all bibliographic items found in a library arranged alphabetically by author,
title, subject and class mark.
2. The title catalogue is arranged in alphabetical order. It refers the library users to the
titles of books available in the library. They are helpful to those readers who are more
likely to remember the title of a publication than its author. It is a library catalogue
whose entries are listed by titles only. For example if one remembers the title of a
work, you will approach the title catalogue to search for such title.
3. The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a system of library classification
developed by the Library of Congress. The effort to organize and arrange the book
collections of the American Library of Congress led to the development of the scheme
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Over the course of the twentieth
century, the system was adopted for use by other libraries as well, especially large
academic libraries in the United States. It is currently one of the most widely used
library classification systems in the world. The Library's Policy and Standards
Division maintains and develops the system. The popularity and the adoption of the
classification scheme over the decades led to the Library of Congress making its
records available electronically through its online catalog, and this has led to more
libraries adopting LCC for both subject cataloging as well as shelf listing.
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Why is cataloguing and classification necessary in university libraries?
Define catalogue and discuss various types of physical catalogue format you know
Define classification and discuss the LCC scheme.
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Study Session 20: Copyright Issues and Its Implications
Introduction
Copyright is an act devised to protect individual’s intellectual property. This right that is
backed by law prohibits the use or reproduction of a part or the entire work of another
author/producer without due acknowledgement through bibliographic citation or permission
to do so.
20.1 Define copyright and discuss copyright infringements.
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20.1 Copyright Issues and Its Implications
20.1.1 What is Copyright?
Copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner (author(s), artists, musicians,
etc) the exclusive right to make copies of a creative work, usually for a limited time. The
creative work may be in a literary, artistic, educational, or musical form. Copyright is
intended to protect the original expression of an idea in the form of a creative work, but not
the idea itself. A copyright is subject to limitations based on public interest considerations,
such as the fair use doctrine in the United States.
Copyright can be defined as a person's exclusive right to authorize certain acts (such
asreproduction, publication, public performance, adaptation etc.) in relation to his or
heroriginal work of authorship. The creator of the work typically owns the copyright, at least
initially. However, copyright is often sold or assigned, in whole or in part, to a commercial
publisher, a filmmaker, a recording studio or to someone else who will exploit the work
commercially. As a consequence, copyright often benefits commercial interests’ more than
individuals. Simply put, copyright gives the producer of any intellectual content the right
over its use.
Copyright is a legal right that aimed at protecting the producer of an intellectual property
from being exploited. The law protects indiscriminate reproduction, copying, and distribution
of an author's work without the permission of the author. Copyright law in Nigeria is
governed by the Copyright Act 1988 with its amendments of 1992 and 1999 which is now re-
codified in the Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2010. The primary function of Copyright
under the law is to protect from annexation the fruits of a person's work (Babafemi, 2007).
20.1.2 Copyright Infringement
Copyright laws exist, though the laws vary from country to country. Since the right of
producers of intellectual properties is backed by law, there are infringements. When you use
part or all of an intellectual work (music, video film, articles, books, etc) without permission,
an infringement has been committed, and litigation can be initiated by the original owner of
the work.
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In the university, copyright infringement is seriously frowned at, and the punishment ranges
from suspension, rustication, expulsion, demotion or outright sack depending on the laws of
the various universities. Some of the copyright infringements include:
20.1.3 Plagiarism
This is the act of citing, quoting or coping other author’s work(s) without due
acknowledgement of the original author or authors. This is a serious and punishable offence
in universities. It is often referred to as ‘academic fraud’. Whoever engages in this
unwholesome act is seen as indirectly claiming authorship (ownership) of the work(s) that
originates from another person. In order not to be a victim of this infringement, one must
ensure that all works cited in the cause of one’s research or write-up or other academic
activities must be referenced accordingly; giving credit toauthor(s) whose works have been
used at one point or the other.
How do I avoid copyright infringement?
 Assume there is a copyright: You have to assume that any created work is protected
under copyright laws. If you cannot find an explicit statement confirming that the
material is for public use, there’s still a good chance that someone already owns the
rights to it.
 Read and research before using an intellectual property that is not yours: It is
safer to read and understand the ‘terms of use’ of any intellectual property before you
use the work. Where you cannot find such on the work, it is better assumed that such
works have copyright protection.
 Understand the conditions for fair use: Fair use permits limited use of copyrighted
material without having to first acquire permission from the copyright holder.
However, you must understand the fair use clause of the copyright law before using
another person’s intellectual property.
 Source Information resources from public domain: There are many sources for
free-to-use materials under the Public Domain.
Other copyright infringements include the outright and complete reproduction of another
person’s intellectual property without seeking the consent of the original producer of the
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work. It is also an infringement to copy part of another person’s intellectual property for
personal use or sharing. We commit that a lot on social media. It is also an infringement to
copy past project (undergraduate research project) and submit s if it is your original work.
i. What is copyright?
ii. How would you avoid copyright infringement?
i. Copyright can be defined as a person's exclusive right to authorize certain acts (such
as reproduction, publication, public performance, adaptation etc.) in relation to
his or her original work of authorship.
ii. - Assume there is a copyright
- Read and research before using an intellectual property that is not yours.
- Understand conditions for fair use
- Source information from public domain
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1. Copyright can be defined as a person's exclusive right to authorize certain acts (such
as reproduction, publication, public performance, adaptation etc.) in relation to his or her
original work of authorship. The creator of the work typically owns the copyright, at least
initially. However, copyright is often sold or assigned, in whole or in part, to a commercial
publisher, a filmmaker, a recording studio or to someone else who will exploit the work
commercially. As a consequence, copyright often benefits commercial interests’ more than
individuals. Simply put, copyright gives the producer of any intellectual content the right
over its use.
2. Plagiarism is the act of citing, quoting or coping other author’s work(s) without due
acknowledgement of the original author or authors. This is a serious and punishable offence
in universities. It is often referred to as ‘academic fraud’. Whoever engages in this
unwholesome act is seen as indirectly claiming authorship (ownership) of the work(s) that
originates from another person. In order not to be a victim of this infringement, one must
ensure that all works cited in the cause of one’s research or write-up or other academic
activities must be referenced accordingly; giving credit to author(s) whose works have been
used at one point or the other.
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Define copyright and discuss the copyright infringements that can be committed when proper
bibliographic citation is not done?
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Study Session 21: Library E-Resources and Databases
Introduction
The advent and application of Information Communication Technology (ICT) to library

services has led to the availability of library resources in electronic format, as well as
digitization of paper based library resources. This development has led to the establishment
of e-libraries and databases. Electronic resources contributes greatly to easy information
resources access in universities
21.1 List databases available in the OOU library.
21.2 Define electronic library and state the advantages and disadvantages of e-library to
university education.
21.3 Define bibliographic citation and discuss the APA reference style.
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21.1 Library E-Resources and Databases
The Olabisi Onabanjo University library had acquired, processed and prepare for the use of
university researchers, staff and Learners various electronic information resources. The
resources include electronic books, journals, periodicals etc. These resources are not web
based and as such can be accessed without internet. The resources are made available in the
main library and all branch libraries.
The University library also subscribes to a wide range of electronic resources databases. The
databases are hosted on the internet, and can be accessed anywhere in the world. Some of the
databases subscribed to include:
Please note that the following Databases are accessible only through the University Library
Portal and University Network
ProQuest Central contains scholarly ebooks in multiple subjects from

world-renowned publishers Proquest Package includes multidisciplinary resources that cover
over 170 subject areas including Business, Health, and Medical Sciences and many more, as
well as links to collaboration to enable global access to more than 270,000 dissertation
abstracts from China’s premier universities. It also contains access to over 10,000 full text
journals databases and more than 5,300 full text periodicals, including 4,400 peer-reviewed
journals providing access to Thesis and Dissertations
HeinOnline is a premier online database containing more than

173 million pages and 270,000 titles of historical and government documents in a fully
searchable, image-based format. HeinOnline bridges an important research gap by providing
comprehensive coverage from inception of more than 2,700 law-related periodicals. In
addition to its vast collection of academic journals, HeinOnline contains the entire
Congressional Record, Federal Register, and Code of Federal Regulations, complete
coverage of the U.S. Reports back to 1754, and entire databases dedicated to treaties,
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constitutions, case law, world trials, classic treatises, international trade, foreign relations,
U.S. Presidents, and much more.
Global Online Access to Legal Information: is a new programme to provide

free or low cost online access and training to law and law-related content to eligible
institutions in developing countries. The aim of GOALI is to improve the quality of legal
research, education and training in low- and middle-income countries, and in turn strengthen
legal frameworks and institutions and further the rule of law
ARDI – Research for Innovation The Access to Research for

Development and Innovation (ARDI) program, coordinated by WIPO together with its
partners in the publishing industry, aims to increase the availability of scientific and technical
information in developing countries. By improving access to scholarly literature from diverse
fields of science and technology
OECD iLibrary is the online library of the Organisation for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD) featuring its books, papers and statistics and is the
gateway to OECD’s analysis and data. OECD library also contains content published by the
International Energy Agency (IEA), the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA), the OECD
Development Centre, PISA (Programme for International Learner Assessment), and the
International Transport Forum ITF. IP authentication Based and Use of password for remote
access
The International Monetary Fund's (IMF) eLibrary simplifies analysis and

research with direct access to the IMF’s periodicals, books, working papers and studies, and
data and statistical tools. You will find information and perspective on macroeconomics,
globalization, development, trade and aid, technical assistance, demographics, emerging
markets, policy advice, poverty reduction, and so much more. Accessible via IP
Authentication and proxies access via Library portal
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The Royal Society is a Fellowship of many of the world's most eminent

scientists and is the oldest scientific academy in continuous existence. Accessible via IP
Authentication and proxies access via Library portal
ScienceDirect is a leading full-text scientific database offering

journal articles and book chapters from nearly 2,500 journals and 26,000 books in the
following discipline: Physical Sciences and Engineering, Life Sciences, Health Sciences,
Social Sciences and Humanities.
Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) Is an online

directory that indexes and provides access to high quality, open access, peer-reviewed
journals. 10,497 Journals 6,363 searchable at Article level 134 Countries 1,945,030 Articles
Welcome to SCC Online - India’s premier legal database. Access

complete coverage of the Supreme Court, all High Courts, Tribunals and Commissions,
Statutory Material and many foreign jurisdictions and International material.
JSTOR is a digital library of more than 1,500 academic journals, books, and primary
sources. JSTOR helps people discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content through a
powerful research and teaching platform, and preserves this content for future generations.
JSTOR is part of ITHAKA, a not-for-profit organization that also includes Ithaka S+R and
Portico.
Online Access to Research in the Environment (OARE) is led by the United

Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in partnership with major publishers OARE
enhances environmental research by connecting academics, researchers and policy makers in
low and middle income countries with online research and scholarly information. Up to 5710
peer reviewed journals and 1119 online books, and other information resources are available
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to environmental institutions in more than 100 countries benefitting many thousands of

environment researchers, practitioners, policy makers, educators, and Learners.
TAYLOR & FRANCIS DATABASE: This is a

rich and robust online database that consists of current academic e-books and e-journals in
various fields of academics. The database has over 4,000,000 journals articles/e books.
Emerald Insight databases has full –text database, with

more than 10,300 full-text periodicals, including 6,400 peer-reviewed journals across all
major academic programmes. AFRICAN JOURNAL ONLINE It

promotes access to African research by providing access to abstracts; of African published
literature. BIOLINE INTERNATIONAL:the bioline international operates

on a not-profit-basis, focused on improving the distribution of scientific information despite
borders and barriers. Bioline is an open access that provides quality bioscience journals
published in developing countries.
Lyell Collections was launched in 2007 to celebrate 200 years of the Geological Society of
London, the Lyell Collection is an online collection comprising of the Society’s journal titles,
Special Publications and key book series. Cutting edge science sits alongside important
historical material, all captured and presented to the highest electronic standards and
benefiting from the extensive functionality of HighWire Press’ platform.
SPIE is an international society advancing an interdisciplinary approach to the

science and application of light.The not-for-profit society advances emerging technologies
through interdisciplinary information exchange, continuing education, publications, patent
precedent, and career and professional growth.SPIE Europe serves as an advocate and liaison
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to political and industry associations within the European optics and photonics community,
and sponsors and organises world-class technical events throughout Europe.
ingentaconnect from Publishing Technology

distributes your content to over 25 million individual users a month. An all-inclusive and
cost-effective package. ingentaconnect gives you access to the largest linking network of its
kind online. ingentaconnect is ideal for publishers looking to put their content online for the
first time, increase the global visibility of their publications, or who are looking for an
additional online channel to market.
Access to British Journal of Radiology (BJR), BJR/case reports and

Dentomaxillofacial Radiology (DMFR).BJR: Original Research Papers and reviews from
leading centres internationally, covering all aspects of the radiological sciences. Readers
benefit from our continuous publication model, meaning the latest in research is published as
quickly as possible.
Access to Physics: Daily online-only news and commentary about a selection of

papers from the APS journal collection. Aimed at readers that want to keep up with highlights
of physics research, Physics provides clear and informative explanations that don't rely on
jargon and technical detail.
HINARI Access to Research in Health Programme provides

free or very low cost online access to the major journals in biomedical and related social
sciences to local, not-for-profit institutions in developing countries.HINARI was launched in
January 2002, with some 1500 journals from 6 major publishers: Blackwell, Elsevier Science,
the Harcourt Worldwide STM Group, Wolters Kluwer International Health & Science,
Springer Verlag and John Wiley, following the principles in a Statement of Intent signed in
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July 2001. Since that time, the numbers of participating publishers and of journals and other
full-text resources has grown continuously. Today more than 150 publisher partners are
offering more than 37,000
information resources in HINARI and many others are joining the
programme. AGORA ONLINE DATABASE: The AGORA program, set up by the

Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) together with major publishers, enables
developing countries to gain access to an outstanding digital library collection in the fields of
food, agriculture, environmental science and related social sciences. AGORA provides a
collection of more than 3500 key journals and 3300 books to 2500 institutions in 116
countries. AGORA is designed to enhance the scholarship of the many thousands of
Learners, faculty and researchers in agriculture and life sciences in the developing world.
The National Virtual Library Project is a online digital library

presently hosted and managed by the National Universities Commission (NUC). The Virtual
Library was designed and deployed with support and funding from the Education Trust Fund
(ETF), UNESCO and the Japanese government.The goal is to ensure that user (subscribers)
have the latest publications of the highest calibre in their respective fields (the Arts, Medical
Sciences, Pure Science, Social Sciences, Technology, etc...) to facilitate teaching, research
and learning.
i. List five (5) databases available in the OOU library

ii. List three (3) non web based electronic information resources available in the OOU
library?
i. ProQuest Central, HINARI, HEINONLINE, Taylor and Francis, and JSTOR

ii. E-books, E-Journals, and E-theses
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21.2 Electronic Library
The adoption of Information Communication Technology (ICT) to library services has

changed the face of library services delivery. With ICT, university libraries are digitizing
their physical book collection and making same available in digital/electronic format.
Electronic library which is synonymously used with multimedia library, virtual library,
electronic library anddigital library is an offshoot of the adoption of ICT to library services.
The electronic library provides electronic resources (e-books, e-journals, e-theses etc) for the
use of members of the university community.
According to Arms (2007) an e-library is a managed collection of information with

associated services wherethe information is stored in digital format and accessible over a
network. An e-library is an organizedcollection of digitized material or its holding in the
digital form, which can be accessible by a computer on a network by using TCP/IP or other
protocol.
Apart from digitizing paper based information resources and acquiring new resources in
electronic/digital format, e-libraries provide access to subscribed databases hosted on the
internet. The E-library also arrange user education training for members of the university
community to enhance the use of the acquired resources. Training in ICT competence is also
offered for those that needs. As part of efforts to encourage library clients in using the e-
resources, the e-library created social media platforms where information is circulated and
reference queries attended to.
Advantages
1. No geographical boundary restriction: As access is made available on the web, users

are not restricted by geographical boundary in accessing the electronic resources. A
Learner on vacation in the United States of America can access the OOU library
portal without restrictions.
2. Round the clock availability: E- libraries are not also restricted by the time of the day,
as the e-library is accessible twenty-four (24) hours a day.
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3. Multiple access: Unlike the paper based resources that can only be used by an
individual at any point in time, electronic resources can be simultaneously used by
thousands of individuals from various location.
4. Access to reliable information sources: E-libraries ensure their users have access to
reliable information resources, as they only subscribe to notable and reliable
databases. Source of electronic documents (e-books, e-journals, etc) are also critically
evaluated before they are acquired.
5. Easy information retrieval system: Unlike the experience of library users with the
manual library information retrieval system where users will first use the manual
catalogue before going to search for the material on the shelves, the e-library
information system affords users easy access to e-documents. With good search skills,
you are able to get to your desired document in a few minutes or even seconds.
6. Preservation and conservation: The electronic library platform ensures the
preservation and conservation of the e-resources, as the resources do not lose the
original quality even after several consultations and years of use. The paper based
resources lose quality and wear out from use.
7. Space: Traditional libraries are limited by storage space needed for shelves, seating
furniture, staff furniture (etc), the e-library does not need such space. The e-resources
are hosted in the cloud space. You can access the e-library from your mobile sets
without physically visiting the library building.
8. Resource sharing: E-libraries enhance resource sharing among like-institutions. An e-
library can provide access to other institutions e-resources link. For example, access is
provided to e-theses and e-dissertations of other universities overseas by the OOU e-
library.
Disadvantages
1. Copyright issues: Copyright infringements can be easily committed with e-resources

use. Dubious individuals can easily copy documents and distribute or sell such
without due permission or fair use considerations.
2. Technical issues: E-library relies on internet bandwidth, reliable computers, servers
and electricity among others to run. Access can be denied with lack of electricity or
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poor internet bandwidth capacity. Virus infested computer systems can hamper access
while servers with inadequate space can also be an issue.
3. Huge financial investment: The initial cost of e-resources acquisition and provision is
usually huge. The cost of maintenance of the e-library is also huge. In this university,
a fortune is expended on electricity generator fuelling.
4. Information explosion: E-library offers access to vast information resources, and as
such sifting through the resources to get to the desired one(s) can be tasking.
5. Electronic information sourcing incompetence: Many library clients still seem to
suffer from technophobia (fear of technology), as such, despite all efforts many will
not willingly use the e-resources. Some who are ‘forced’ by their lecturers to source
electronic information resources still seek the assistance of their techno-savvy friends.
i. Define electronic library

ii. Discuss four (4) advantages of e-library use.
i. According to Arms (2007) an e-library is a managed collection of information with

associated services where the information is stored in digital format and accessible
over a network. An e-library is an organized collection of digitized material or its
holding in the digital form, which can be accessible by a computer on a network by
using TCP/IP or other protocol.
ii. 1. No geographical boundary restriction: As access is made available on the web,
users are not restricted by geographical boundary in accessing the electronic
resources. A Learner on vacation in the United States of America can access the
OOU library portal without restrictions.
2. Round the clock availability: E- libraries are not also restricted by the time of the
day, as the e-library is accessible twenty-four (24) hours a day.
3. Multiple access: Unlike the paper based resources that can only be used by an
individual at any point in time, electronic resources can be simultaneously used by
thousands of individuals from various location.
4. Access to reliable information sources: E-libraries ensure their users have access
to reliable information resources, as they only subscribe to notable and reliable
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databases. Source of electronic documents (e-books, e-journals, etc) are also

critically evaluated before they are acquired.
21.3 Bibliographic Citations and Reference
A bibliographic citation provides relevant information about the author and publication
information of a document. A citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded
in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references
section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to
the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears.
Bibliographic and reference citation styles include;
1. Modern Language Association (MLA) style

2. American psychologist Association (APA) style, popularly called Harvard Style
3. Chicago Manual style
In the Olabisi Onabanjo University, the APA referencing style is adopted. Citation
contents can vary depending on the type of resource and the style adopted. Examples of
APA referencing style include:
Book: author(s), date of publication, book title, place of publication, publisher, and page
number(s)
Examples
One author:
Jackson, L. M. (2019). The psychology of prejudice: From attitudes to social action (2nd
ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000168-000
Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis: author, date, title, source university
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Harris, L. (2014). Instructional leadership perceptions and practices of elementary school

leaders [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Virginia.
Journal: author(s), date of publication, article title, journal title, and page numbers
Example:
Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in storybooks: A
comparison of storybooks that represent ethnic and racial groups in the United States.
Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(3), 207–217.
https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000185
Newspaper: author(s), date of publication, article title, name of newspaper, section title and
page
Example
Harlan, C. (2013, April 2). North Korea vows to restart shuttered nuclear reactor that can
make bomb-grade plutonium. The Washington Post, A1, A4.
Please see the following pictures for better appreciation.
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Page 270 of 293

Why is bibliographic citation important?:
To uphold intellectual honesty and avoid plagiarism infringement
To attribute prior or original work and ideas to the correct sources
To allow the reader to determine independently whether the referenced material supports the
author’s argument as claimed
To help the reader weigh the strength and validity of the material the author has used
a) With example, list the content of a sole authorship book citation.
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b) Bibliographic citation in academics is important, why?
a) Book: author(s), date of publication, book title, place of publication, publisher, and
page number(s)
Example
One author:
Jackson, L. M. (2019). The psychology of prejudice: From attitudes to social action (2nd
ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000168-000
b) To uphold intellectual honesty and avoid plagiarism infringement
To attribute prior or original work and ideas to the correct sources
To allow the reader to determine independently whether the referenced material
supports the author’s argument as claimed
To help the reader weigh the strength and validity of the material the author has
used
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1. The adoption of Information Communication Technology (ICT) to library services
has changed the face of library services delivery. With ICT, university libraries are
digitizing their physical book collection and making same available in
digital/electronic format. Electronic library which is synonymously used with
multimedia library, virtual library, electronic library and digital library is an offshoot
of the adoption of ICT to library services. The electronic library provides electronic
resources (e-books, e-journals, e-theses etc) for the use of members of the university
community.
2. A bibliographic citation provides relevant information about the author and
publication information of a document. A citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric
expression embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the
bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the
relevance of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the
citation appears.
3. Bibliographic and reference citation styles include;
i. Modern Language Association (MLA) style
ii. American psychologist Association (APA) style, popularly called
Harvard Style
iii. Chicago Manual style
In the Olabisi Onabanjo University, the APA referencing style is adopted. Citation
contents can vary depending on the type of resource and the style adopted.
Page 273 of 293

List five (5) databases available in the OOU library.
Define e-library and discuss the advantages and disadvantage of using e-libraries/resources.
Why is bibliographic citation important?
Page 274 of 293

References
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meaningful learning. Lagos: Elegant Publishers.
Anikwezw, C. M. (2005) Measurement and evaluation in education. Enugu: SMAAD Press.
Asagwara, C. O. & George, I. N. (1997) School adjustment and academic success.
Calabar: BON Universal Ltd.
Burns, T. & Sinfield, S. (2015) Essential study skills: the complete guide to success at
university
(5th Edition) SAGE www.sagepublishing.com
Cottrell, S. (2019) The study skill handbook.(5th Edition) London: Red Globe Press.
Cottrell, S. (2017) Critical thinking skills: developing effective analysis and argument.
London:
Macmillan Publishing Ltd.
Edun, T. (2007) The teacher as an encoder and a decoder of messages. LASU
education review 2(1). Pp. 273-280.
Ezenwu, E. E. & Okoye, N. N. (1981) Principles and practice of continuous assessment.

Ibadan:
Evans Brothers.
Falaye, A. O. (2001) Human lifespan development: a basic text in developmental
psychology, Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers.
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Feldman, R. S. (2003a) P. O. W. E. R. Learning: strategies for success in college
and life. 2nd Edition. New York: The McGraw Hill Companies Inc.
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Fred, L. (2002) Organisational behaviour, New York: The McGraw Hill
Companies Inc.
Kiltiz, B. (2008) Effective study skills. Retrieved on 18/09/08 from
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Mayo Clinic.com, Memory improvement techniques help with short-term
memory. http://www.bindependent.com/hompg/look/menistart.htm.
MacPherson, F. M. (2011) Effective notetaking. NY: Emerald Publishing.
MacPherson, F. M. (2009) Perfect memory training. Goodreads www.goodreads.com
Muchnick, C. C. (2011) The everything guide to study skills: strategies, tips and tools you
need
to succeed in school. London: Simon & Schuster.
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performance.
NUC Newsletter, 18th January. Abuja: NUC
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Western, D. (1996) Psychology: mind, brain and culture, New York: John Wiley
& Sons Inc.
Adedoyin. S.F (2008). Information and Communication Technology in the Development and
Sustainability of Nigeria Educational System; Institute of Education, Olabisi Onabanjo
University Publication,27-35
Agunbiade D.A and Solanke O.O (2017). Principles of Information and Communication
Technology. Olabisi Onabanjo University Ago-Iwoye Nigeria.
Alebiosu, K.A. and Ifamuyiwa, A. S. (2008). Empowering teachers for sustainable

development through ICT.2nd national conference proceedings institute of education, O.O.U
Ago Iwoye,36-41
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Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1
SAQ 1.1
1. Learning has taken place when there is a relatively permanent change in behaviour as
a result of experience and practice.
2. True.
SAQ 1.2
1. The acquisition stage is the first phase of learning involving perception, sensation and
acquisition of information using the sensory organs of seeing, hearing, smelling,
touching and feeling. The second stage is the retention phase where information
received is processed and stored. The third stage is the retrieval phase where
processed and stored information may be retrieved from time to time for use through
recall, recollection, recognition or relearning.
2. True.
SAQ 1.3
1. Memory deals with retention and recall of information and it is a function of the brain.
It consists of the short-term memory and the long-term memory.
2. Peers who are well disposed to learning and appreciate academic work would aid
good attitude to learning among each other than peers who detest learning activities.
SAQ 1.4
1. It is a means through which learners acquire ideas, refresh the materials already
learnt, and enhance greater comprehension that can allow for easy recall of facts and
application of materials learnt in various situations.
a. Study space should be quiet and comfortable as much as possible.
b. When studying, keep a waste basket handy so that you find something to drop
unwanted or used pieces of paper so that they would not constitute
distractions.
c. Have a consistent place for everything, and above all, keep them there!
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d. Have everything needed for study handy beforehand. Don't waste valuable
time looking for books, notes, or other materials.
SAQ 2.1
1. Note-taking is a process of recording facts from different sources to expand human

knowledge while note making is when the facts recorded from different sources are
later developed into more comprehensive and meaningful forms for future use.
2. TRUE
SAQ 2.2
1. a. It triggers the basic lecturing processes and helps one to remember what is being
taught and other relevant information.
b. It helps one to concentrate in class since concentration isthe key to good note-
taking.
2. FALSE
SAQ 2.3
1. a. Learners must learn to concentrate on the lecture or on the reading material.

b. Learners must learn to take note selectively. That is, they should avoid writing
down every word mentioned by the lecturer.
SAQ 2.4
1. a. Learners should use introductory phrases to precede an important idea.

b. Learners should learn to pause before or after an idea so that the ideas could be
properly written.
SAQ 2.5
1. a. Outlining
b. Flowcharts or diagrams
c. Column formation.
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2. Outlining is itemising the major topics or main ideas that provide information
about the subject being discussed. However, the sub-points that describe the major
points should also be noted for note-taking to be complete and meaningful.
SAQ 2.6
1. a. Using symbols to abbreviate.

b. Eliminating small connecting words such as ‘is,’ ‘are,’ ‘the’ and pronouns such
as ‘they,’ ‘these,’ and ‘them.’
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 3.
SAQ 3.1
1. Remembering is a process of recall in which an individual produces or reproduces

materials on his/her own without the aid of other people. Forgetting is the loss, either
temporarily or permanently, of the materials that have previously been learnt.
2. Retention involves what has been stored after a learning process which can still be
recalled. It is known by measuring the difference between what was originally learnt
and what is remembered.
SAQ 3.2
1. a. Rote memory
b. Logical memory
c. Intellectual memory.
2. a. Working memory
b. Short-term memory
c. Long-term memory.
SAQ 3.3
1. Forgetting can be caused by the following:

a. Distortion: The passage of time may cause distortion in recall making what
has been recalled significantly different from what has been originally learned
and stored in the memory.
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b. Repression: This is a key concept in psychoanalysis that explains a mechanism

in which unpleasant events are deliberately forgotten. Learners or people may
forget some things because they are unpleasant.
c. Interference: This emphasises disruptions at the timematerials are being
retrieved.
Interference focuses on the retrieval failures that occur because of materials

thatinterfere with what is to be remembered.
SAQ 3.4
a. By first recognising the causes of forgetting and then taking positive steps to find
solutions to them.
b. To combat disuse, teachers should help Learners to understand what is taught very
well and provide repeated exposure of whatever concept they are teaching.
c. Teachers should make their lessons meaningful by relating them to Learners’
experiences. This will help to prevent distortions.
d. Teachers should make their lessons enjoyable, pleasant and memorable to help
prevent repression.
e. To minimise interference, teachers should allow Learners to participate actively in the
lesson to facilitate their recall of events of the lesson.
SAQ 4.1
1. a. Episodic memory
b. Semantic memory
c. Procedural memory
2. Also called ‘skill memory,’ procedural memory has to do with things that one has
learnt how to do but not doing them.
SAQ 4.2
1. a. Encoding
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b. Storage
c. Retrieval/Recall
2. Retrieval/Recall.
SAQ 4.3
1. a. Flashbulb method
b. Breaking-up
c. Rehearsal method
d. Cue method
e. Formation of mind maps
f. Use of Mnemonics
2. The cue method is making symbolic representation of the information to be remembered.
SAQ 5.1
1. Reading is a process by which an individual extracts a sequence of cues from printed

texts and relates these, one to another, so that he understands the precise message of
the texts. It is the combination of visual and non-visual experiences or behaviours.
2. The first is the physical process of seeing groups of words on a page, while the second
is the mental process of recognizing and comprehending what is seen.
SAQ 5.2.
1. a. Vocalisation and sub-vocalisation. These habits can be reversed if readers keep

their lips tightly closed while reading and by speeding up the eye movement so that it
becomes impossible for the vocal organs to keep up.
b. Regression. The reader needs to concentrate and force himself/herself to move

forward all the time.
2. Vocalisation is the practice of pronouncing words silently tooneself with lip

movement.
SAQ 5.3.
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1. Scanning is an extremely fast pace of reading employed for the purpose of locating a
particular piece of information while skimming is also a fast form of reading a
particular text in order to determine its main idea or the general gist of the text.
2. Light reading or rapid reading is a medium fast pace of reading which is used to read
for relaxation or to review a familiar material.
SAQ 5.4.
1.KWL stands for Know, What, and Learned.
2. Element mapping is a reading technique that helps Learners, especially literature

Learners,
to break down a work of fiction into its component parts.
SAQ 5.5.
1. a. Simple sentence
b. Compound sentence
c. Complex sentence
d. Compound-complex sentence.
SAQ 5.6.
1. a. Declarative sentence
b. Interrogative sentence
c. Imperative sentence
d. Exclamatory sentence.
SAQ 6.1
1. a. Read the entire stem of the question before looking at the alternatives given.
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b. Focus attention on words that are written in bold or italics.
c. Attempt the easiest questions first and once you clear all the questions, there will be
enough time for you to return to the tougher ones.
d. Explain fully all your points, but be concise and ensure that you include enough
materials for the examiner to award marks.
e. Write neatly and coherently.
SAQ 6.2
1. a. Essay questions
b. Objective questions
c. True – False questions
d. Matching questions
e. Fill – in – the – blank questions.
2. Multiple Choice Question.
3. In a matching question, two lists of related information are provided, arranged in

column form, and you are requested to link them item by item or to pair up (match)
the items that go together.
SAQ 6.3.
1. a. Identify the area where there is a problem.

b. List out the main theories or principles you are going to employ in solving the
problem.
c. Apply the theories/principles accordingly.
d. Outline first the facts of the case problem in relation to the theories/principles you
are using.
e. Include only relevant points and reach a conclusion.
f. Compare the facts to real-life situation.
SAQ 6.4.
1. a. Ensure that you have attempted every question and all its parts, if any.
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b. State your points clearly so that the examiner will have no trouble understanding
your ideas.
c. Edit your work before turning your paper over to the examiner. Ensure that your
paper is free of spelling mistakes, repetitions, missing words and grammatical
errors. Correct the grammar, sentence structure and punctuation errors that can
seriously weaken the strength of your writing.
d. When you have finished, go back and attempt the skipped items again.
e. Check your answers in reverse, that is, start at the beginning.
SAQ 6.5.
1. Learners should not be involved in examination malpractice because they will face
unpleasant situations such as:

d. Having their photographs appear on the pages of national newspapers and on
theInternetascheats;
e. Being sent away on suspension;
f. Total expulsion from the institution; and
g. Losing their self-worth and integrity.
SAQ 7.1
1. Assessment is a systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional

objectives are met by the Learners and this could be formally or informally.
Assessment is also viewed as finding out the achievement or otherwise of
goals/objectives of an undertaking for which certain resources have been invested.
2. Before the introduction of continuous assessment, the terminal form of assessment,
also called one-short examination or single examination was being used.
3. Continuous assessment is a method of evaluating the progress and achievement of
Learners in educational institutions. It is aimed at getting the true picture of the
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learner's ability and also assisting the Learners to develop their abilities and potential
to the fullest.
SAQ 7.2
1. a. Continuous assessment gives the true picture of the Learners' abilities than the single
examination.
b. Continuous assessment is useful to teachers for assessing or evaluating their own

teaching performance or instructional methods. This will make the teachers to improve
on their weak areas.
c. Continuous assessment helps in reducing cases of examination leakages or

malpractices which have plagued almost all the internal and external examinations.
For instance, the single final examination is used to determine the success or otherwise
of the Learners and these Learners use different ways and means to pass these
examinations. However, this problem could be reduced with the introduction of
continuous assessment.
d. Continuous assessment helps in revealing areas where instructional goals are not
being met satisfactorily which often encourages remedial instruction or improved
instructional procedures.
e. Continuous assessment can assist to identify possible causes of Learner

maladjustment, that is, to monitor a Learner's problem for effective guidance.
SAQ 7.3
1. Continuous assessment is:

a. Systematic
b. Comprehensive
c. Cumulative
d. Dynamic
e. Continuous
f. Guidance-oriented.
SAQ 7.4
1. The domains of learning are:

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a. Cognitive
b. Affective
c. Psychomotor
2. The six levels of objectives in the cognitive domain of learning are:
a. knowledge
b. understanding
c. application
d. analysis
e. synthesis
f. evaluation.
SAQ 7.5
1. The learners’ cognitive domain can be assessed through the use of tests, projects,
written assignments, peer evaluation, and oral exchange of questions.
2. The affective and psychomotor domains of learning can be assessed using the
techniques of observation, interview, socio-metric and questionnaire.
Notes on Assessment Questions
SAQ 8.1
ICT as defined by UNESCO for Africa covers internet service provision, telecommunication
equipment and services, commercial information providers, network based information
services, and other related information and communication services.
SAQ 8.2
ICT have been the basis for human existence from time in memorial. However, information
technology as a term has evolved since 1970s. It basic concept has also been traced to the
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World War II alliance of the military and industry to enhance the development of electronics,
computers and information theory.
SAQ 8.3
Five ICT tools are;
1. Computers
2. Internet
3. E-mail
4. Mobile Phones
5. Fax Machines
SAQ 8.4
This involves the application of ICT within the field of socio-economic development of the
nation. According to Oladipo and olorunfemi (2007), it importance to the nation building
include;
1. Increasing productivity
2. Creation of cost effective output
3. Aid economic growth
4. Facilitate information sharing and knowledge creation
5. Provision of improved opportunity for transparency and access to health and
education, etc.
SAQ 8.5
These challenges include;
1. Poor or limited communication infrastructures especially in remote locations

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2. Expensive personal computers for the citizens of most developing nations

3. High illiteracy rate
4. Poor education system
5. Absence of skilled human capital
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions for study Session 9
SAQ 9.1
Data can be defined as the raw fact about an event or item. Data are typically the result of
measurements and can be of graphs, images or observations of asset variables. An
information is the result of a processed data which is presented in a form useful to human
comprehension.
SAQ 9.2
Data processing cycle is the restructuring of data by people or machine through series of
steps to improve their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. A complete order
taken is a cycle. Information is a organized data which has some meaningful values for the
receiver.
SAQ 9.3
A bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer. The known binary digits are 0 and 1. Bytes is
unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits.
SAQ 10.1
1. Abacus
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2. Napier’s Bones
3. Slide Rule
4. Pascal’s Adding Machine
5. Liebnitz’s Calculator
SAQ 10.2
The following are the features of electro-mechanical computers:
Mark 1; Its very gigantic, slow calculation and not portable.
Other examples belonging to this age are; Z2 machine, Z3 computer.
SAQ 10.3
These computers of this developmental age are ENIAC, ABC, EDVAC, and UNIVAC. These
calculating devices were fairly simple
1. Used binary numbers to represent numbers and data

2. Calculation performed using electrons
3. ENIAC with vacuum tubes uses decimal numbering for it calculation
4. Very large and heavy
5. UNIVAC was the first practical stored program electronics
Notes on self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 11
SAQ 11.1
First Generation Computer
Second Generation Computer
Third Generation Computer

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Fourth Generation Computer
Fifth Generation Computer
SAQ 11.2
Features of first generation computers
i. Vacuum tubes used as electronic components

ii. Large in size, slow in processing capability with small storage capacity
iii. Less reliable when compared with later generation computers
iv. Consumed lots of electricity and generates excessive heat
v. Uses machine level language
SAQ 11.3
Features of second generation computer
i. Used transistor as the main electronic component

ii. Equipped with small transistor
iii. Produced less heat
SAQ 11.4
Features of third generation computer
i. Used operating systems

ii. Keyboard and mouse components are utilized rather than traditional cards and printers
iii. Consumed and generated less heat
iv. Enhanced computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds
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SAQ 11.5
Features of third generation computer
i. Improved switching device evolved

ii. Uses massive parallel processing device
iii. Generates and consumes very less heat and energy
iv. Voice recognition are being achieved
v. Artificial intelligence achieved.
References
Adedoyin. S.F (2008). Information and Communication Technology in the Development and
Sustainability of Nigeria Educational System; Institute of Education, Olabisi Onabanjo
University Publication,27-35
Agunbiade D.A and Solanke O.O (2017). Principles of Information and Communication
Technology. Olabisi Onabanjo University Ago-Iwoye Nigeria.
Alebiosu, K.A. and Ifamuyiwa, A. S. (2008). Empowering teachers for sustainable

development through ICT.2nd national conference proceedings institute of education, O.O.U
Ago Iwoye,36-41
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2001). Nigeria national policy for information technology
online available at ICT-g22 (2005) ICT-Nigeria roadmap to sustainable development online
available http://www.jidaw.com/digital nigeria.html, accessed February 2nd 2009.
Information and communication technology for development and poverty reduction the
potential of telecommunication edited by Maximo Torero and Joachim von Braun (2006),
John Hopkins university press and international food policy research institute (ifpri).
Ndukwe E.C.A (2007). ICT as a tool for achieving the millennium development in Nigeria
(online) available at http://www.nce:pv.ng/speeches presentations/eve%20 presentation/
champion lecture 2007,pdf, accessed 28 January 2009
Page 292 of 293

Ndukwe E (2002). Application Technology the pointer, 28 October p.l6
Ogbomo M.O. (2008). Incorporation of ICTS in making a healthy Information Society:

Library Philosophy and practice online available at http:www. Webpages. unidabo. Edu
/mbolin/ ogbomo2.htm, accessed 29 January 2009
UNDP/UNPF (2001). Role of UNDP in ICT for development available at

www.undp.org/ocS/... Accesed 29 January 2009
S.I Kamel (2007). The role of ICT in building a knowledge based society online available
aiwww.thiktanking.idsC.gov.eg/ thick tankfiles/the role of ICT in building a knowledge
based society. psf accessed 22 February 2009.
UNDP (2004) ICT and human development toward building composite index for Asia online
Wikipedia Foundation lnc. (2008). Information and Communication Technology for

development accessed 30 January 2009
Wikipedia Foundation Inc. (2008). Information and Communicate

http://en:wikipedia.org/wk/information and Communication Technology accessed 28 January
2009
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OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY,

OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE,

GNS 102: Study Skills and ICT

COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Dr. Fatai A. Hammed. – Subject Expert

Dr. Jaiyesinmi M.A. – Subject Expert

Dr. Odunewu O. Abiodun. – Subject Expert

Prof. B.A Agunbiade – Course Reviewer

Mrs Osinulu Lolade F. – Course Reviewer

Prof Taiwo Edun – Course Reviewer

Dr Olayemi Oluwakemi T – Language Editor

Prof. Oyesoji Aremu – ODL Expert

Mr. A.O. Ogundein – Instructional Designer

VICE Chancellor’s Message

1. Commitment, Competence, Teamwork and Self-motivation,

Recommended Study Time

What Learners are about to Learn in this Course

Working through this course

The major components of the course are:

Printed Lecture Materials

University of Lagos, Lagos.

Bamgbose, A. 1999. African Language Development and Language Planning. Social

AKT Ventures LTD.

Eko, E. 1987. Effective Writing. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books.

Jowitt, D. 2001. Nigeria's National Language Question: Choices and Constraints in

Olayemi, O.T. (ongoing). Misuse of English Language Prepositions in Children Literature by

Language. London: Longman.

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

Final Examination and Grading

Tutors and Tutorials

Core Values ............................................................................................................................ 3

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 9

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 2 .............................................................................. 57

2.1 Note-Taking and Note-Making Skills ....................................................................... 58

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 2.1 ........................................................................................... 58

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 2.1 ............................................................................................. 59

2.2 Importance of Note-Taking ....................................................................................... 59

In-Text Question (ITQ) 2.2 .............................................................................................. 59

In-Text Answer (ITA) 2.2 ................................................................................................ 59

2.3 Guidelines for Effective Note-taking ........................................................................ 60

In-Text Question (ITQ) 2.3 .............................................................................................. 60

In-Text Answer (ITA) 2.3 ................................................................................................ 61

2.4 Major Points in Note-Taking..................................................................................... 61

In-Text Question (ITQ) 2.4 .............................................................................................. 61

In-Text Answer (ITA) 2.4 ................................................................................................ 61

2.5: Forms of Note-Taking ........................................................................................... 62

In-Text Question (ITQ) 2.5 .............................................................................................. 62

In-Text Answer (ITA) 2.5 ................................................................................................ 62

2.6 Reducing and Streamlining Notes. ............................................................................ 63

In-text Question (ITQ) 2.6 ............................................................................................... 64

In-Text Answer (ITA) 2.6 ................................................................................................ 64

Summary of Study Session 2 ............................................................................................... 65

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 2. ................................................... 66

SAQ 2.1 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.1) .......................................................................... 66

SAQ 2.2 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.2) .......................................................................... 66

SAQ 2.3 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.3) .......................................................................... 66

SAQ 2.4 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.4) .......................................................................... 66

SAQ 2.5 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.5) .......................................................................... 66

SAQ 2.6 (Test Learning Outcomes 2.6) .......................................................................... 66

Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................ 67

Study Session 3: Remembering and Forgetting .................................................................... 68

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3 .............................................................................. 68

3.1: The Concepts 'Remembering' and 'Forgetting' .......................................................... 69

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 3.1 ........................................................................................... 70