Chapter 4

Histology
Lecture Outline
• Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology
Third Edition
• Kenneth S. Saladin, Robin K.
McFarland

• © 2022 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
• No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.

The Tissue Level of Organization

Chapter 4

1 chemical 2 cellular 3 tissue

5 organ system 4 organ

6 organism

Learning Outcomes
• Name the four primary classes of adult tissues
• Describe the properties that distinguish epithelium
from other tissue classes
• List and classify eight types of epithelium,
distinguish them from each other, and state where
each type can be found in the body
• Discuss how the structure of each type of
epithelium relates to its function
• Recognize epithelial types from specimens or
photographs

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The Four Primary Tissue Classes (Table 4.1)
• Table 4.1 The Four Primary Tissue Classes
Type Definition Representative Locations
• Connective Tissue with usually more matrix than Tendons, ligaments, cartilage, fat,
cell volume; often specialized to bone, blood
support, bind, and protect organs
• Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill
Education
• Epithelial Tissue composed of layers of closely Epidermis, lining of digestive tract,
spaced cells; covers organ surfaces, liver, and other glands
forms glands, and serves for
protection, secretion, and absorption
• Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/ Getty
Images

• Nervous Tissue containing excitable cells Brain, spinal cord, nerves

specialized for rapid transmission of
information to other cells

• Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/ Getty
Images
• Muscular Tissue composed of elongated, Skeletal muscles; heart; walls of
excitable cells specialized for uterus, bladder, intestines, and other
contraction and movement internal organs

• Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/ Getty
Images

4 Tissue types

1)Epithelial 2)Connective 3)Muscle 4)Nervous

Microscopic study of tissues is Histology

5

The Matrix Surrounds the Cells

• ECM (ground substance) varies from tissue to tissue

• None in epithelial, abundant in connective tissue
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 Epithelial Tissue
The Lining

Types of Epithelium
1. Membranous

2. Glandular

Epithelial Tissue Functions

1. Protection
2. Secretion
3. Absorption
4. Excretion
5. Filtration
6. Sensation
Lines the internal hollow
organs and is
continuously scraped off
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3
General Characteristics

1. Regeneration
2. Avascular
3. Cell junctions (close
together)
• Little to no matrix
4. Polarity
• Apical
• Cilia or microvilli
• Basal
5. Basement Membrane
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Epithelial Definition
• Lacks blood vessels, little to no matrix, and has cells
that are tightly packed together

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General Characteristics

1. Cilia move

2. Microvilli absorb

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4
Classification
squam- scale
1. Number of cell
layers

2. Cell shape

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Simple Epithelium

1. Simple Squamous
2. Simple Cuboidal
3. Simple Columnar
4. Pseudostratified
Columnar

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Simple Squamous Epithelium

Locations:
• Air sacs (alveoli) of lung
• Cardiovascular system
• Heart
• BV’s
• Kidneys
• Serous membranes
Functions:
• Absorption
• Secretion
• Reduces friction

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5
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Locations:
• Glands
• Kidney tubules
• Liver, thyroid, mammary,
salivary, and other glands

Functions:
• Absorption
• Secretion
• Protection (mucous coat)
• Movement of respiratory
mucus (bronchioles)

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Simple Columnar Epithelium

Locations:
• GI tract

Functions:
• Absorption
• Microvilli
• Secretion
• (Goblet cell)

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Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
Location:
• Respiratory tract
(nasal cavity to
bronchi)

Functions:
• Secretes
• Goblet cells
• Cilia
• moves respiratory
mucus

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 Stratified Epithelium

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Stratified Squamous (Majority)

Locations:
• Keratinized (water proof)
• Epidermis
• Non-keratinized
• Lining of mouth, throat,
esophagus, rectum, anus, and
vagina

Functions:
• Protection
• Resists abrasion
• Retards water loss through skin
• Resists penetration by
pathogenic organisms

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Stratified Cuboidal
Locations (rare):
• Sweat gland ducts

Functions:
• Secretion
• Sweat

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7
Stratified Columnar
Locations:
• Conjunctiva of the eye
• Lobar ducts of salivary
glands
• Epiglottis, anus, mammary
glands, salivary gland ducts,
and urethra

Function:
• Protection
• Secretion

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Transitional Epithelium
Locations:
• Limited to
urinary tract

Functions:
• Stretches
• Protects

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Checkpoint
• List 5 important characteristics of epithelial tissue.
1. Regeneration
2. Avascular
3. Cell junctions (close together)
4. Polarity
5. Basement Membrane

24

8
Name the epithelia

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Connective Tissues

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Learning Outcomes
• Describe the properties that most connective
tissues have in common
• Discuss the types of cells found in fibrous
connective tissue
• Explain what the matrix of a connective tissue is
and describe its components
• Visually recognize each type from specimens or
photographs

27

9
Connective Tissue (connect)

Extracellular matrix (ECM)

1. Specialized cells
2. Extracellular proteins
(collagen)
3. Ground substance (fluid)

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Connective Tissue Functions

1. Binding of organs
2. Support
3. Physical protection
4. Immune
protection
5. Movement
6. Storage
7. Heat production
8. Transport
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Connective Tissue Fibers

• Fibroblasts Fibrocytes

1. Collagen fibers
• Flexible
• Resist stretch
2. Reticular fibers (also collagen)
• Extra support
• Spongelike framework
3. Elastic fibers
• Stretching
• elastin
• branched, wavy

30

10
 Connective Tissue Definition
• Contains a lot of extracellular space filled with
extracellular matrix that supports and connects
different type of tissue and organs of the body.

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Connective Tissues
1. Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Tendons/ligaments
• Adipose tissue (fat cells)
2. Cartilage
• Hyaline, elastic and
fibrocartilage
3. Bone
• Spongy and compact
4. Blood
• Red blood cells, white blood
cells, platelets, and
plasma/lymph
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1. Fibrous Connective Tissues

1. Loose fibrous (areolar)
2. Adipose
3. Reticular

4. Dense
• (1)Irregular
• (2) Regular
• (a) Collagenous
• (b) Elastic

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Loose (Areolar)
Locations:
• Underlying nearly all epithelia
• Surrounding blood vessels,
esophagus, and trachea; fascia
between muscles; mesenteries;
visceral layers of pericardium
and pleura

Functions:
• Connects
• Immune layer
• Blood vessels

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Adipose Tissue
• Adipocytes
• Tightly packed together
• Filled with triglycerides
(very little cytoplasm)

• White fat
• Brown fat (baby fat)
• Mitochondria

• a: Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill
35

Reticular
Locations:
• Lymphatic system
• Lymph nodes,
spleen, thymus,
bone marrow
Functions:
• Supportive stroma
(framework) for
lymphatic organs

36

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Dense Connective Tissues
1. Dense regular CT
• Tendons
• Ligaments
• Aponeuroses
2. Dense irregular CT
• Dermis
• Capsule
• Perichondrium
• Periosteum

37

Dense Regular
Locations:
• Tendons,
ligaments, vocal
cords

Functions:
• Flexible but
strong connection

38

Dense irregular
Locations:
• Deeper portion of dermis of
skin; capsules around viscera
such as liver, kidney, spleen;
fibrous sheaths around
cartilages, bones, and nerves

Functions:
• Durable, hard to tear;
variable orientation of fibers
withstands stresses applied
in unpredictable directions

39

13
 A

B
C
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Checkpoint
• Identify if it is epithelial or connective tissue.
• Cells packed tightly together
• Lots of extracellular matrix
• Specialized cells, ground substance, and protein
fibers
• Highly vascularized
• Lines internal organs and is constantly being
scraped off

41

Checkpoint
• Which connective tissue is underlying nearly all
epithelia?
• Areolar connective tissue
• Collagenous fibers can be found extensively in
__________ tissue.

42

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Supportive Connective Tissues

2. Cartilage
1) Hyaline
2) Elastic
3) Fibrocartilage
3. Bone

43

Cartilage
• Supportive connective tissue with rubbery
matrix
• Gives shape to the external ear, tip of nose,
and larynx
• Cells are called chondrocytes
• Secrete matrix, become trapped in cavities
called lacunae
• Avascular
• Nutrition and waste removal are dependent on
diffusion through the matrix
• Low rates of metabolism and cell division
• If injured, heals slowly
• Difference in fiber types is the basis for
subclassifications: hyaline, elastic and
fibrocartilage

44

Hyaline Cartilage
Locations:
• Articular cartilage
• Costal cartilages
• Trachea and bronchi
• Larynx
• Fetal skeleton

Functions:
• Firm but flexible support
• Connection between structures
• Precursor of bone in the fetal skeleton
• Growth zones of the long bones of
children

45

15
Elastic Cartilage
Locations:
• External ear
• Epiglottis
• Nose

Functions:
• Provides flexible, elastic
support; gives shape to the
ear
46

Fibrocartilage
Locations:
• Intervertebral discs
• Pubic symphysis
• Menisci

Functions:
• Shock absorber

47

Checkpoint
• What are the 3 types of cartilage and where are they
found?
Hyaline - most common, articular cartilage, ribs, nose,
larynx, trachea. Is a precursor of bone.
Fibro- is found in intervertebral discs
Elastic - is found in the external ear, epiglottis and larynx.

48

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 Supportive Connective
Tissue
Bone

49

Bone
• Compact and spongy

Locations:
• Skeleton

Functions:
• Support
• Protection
• Reservoir of calcium
and phosphorus
50

Blood

51

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Blood
1. Plasma

2. Formed elements
1. Blood cells
• Transports O₂
2. White blood
cells
• Defense
3. Platelets
• Hemostasis

52

Epithelial vs Connective
• Cells closely packed • Connective tissue cells
with little or no are dispersed in a
extracellular space in matrix.
between

Loose areolar CT
53

Checkpoint
• What type of cells make cartilage?
• Chondrocytes
• What cell makes bone?
• Osteoblasts
• What cells make collagen in connective tissue?
• Fibroblasts

54

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 Muscle Tissue

55

Learning Outcomes
• Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the
specific structural features of each type.
• Discuss the basic structure and role of nervous
tissue.

56

Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal

2. Cardiac

3. Smooth

57

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Skeletal muscle
• Striated
• Striations are transverse light and
dark bands resulting from
internal arrangement of proteins
• Voluntary control
• Long, parallel, unbranched
muscle fibers (muscle cells)
• Multiple nuclei
• Attached to bones

58

Cardiac muscle
• Striated
• Intercalated discs
• Has thicker dark bands
• Involuntarily
• Short, branched cells
called myocytes
• Each cell has one nucleus
• Only in the heart

59

Smooth muscle
• No striations
• Involuntary
• Short myocytes that overlap
each other
• Found in walls of hollow
organs
• Blood vessels, stomach,
intestines, and uterus

60

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Checkpoint
• What are the 3 types of muscle tissues?

61

Checkpoint
• Identify the muscle tissue with the characteristic.
• Non-striated
• Intercalated discs
• Voluntary
• Striated
• Involuntary

62

Nervous Tissue

63

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 NEURONS NEUROGLIA (supporting cells)

Figure 4–20 Nervous Tissue.

Nuclei of neuroglia
• Maintain physical structure
of tissues
Cell body • Repair tissue framework
after injury
• Perform phagocytosis
• Provide nutrients to neurons
• Regulate the composition of the
interstitial fluid surrounding neurons
Axon

Dendrites Nucleolus
Nucleus

LM × 600
Nervous Tissue
Dendrites
(contacted
by other Contact with
Axon (conducts other cells
neurons) Microfibrils and information to
microtubules other cells)
Cell body
(contains
nucleus
and major
organelles)
Nucleus Excitable
Mitochondrion
Nucleolus
Transmits electrical signals
A representative neuron
(sizes and shapes vary widely)
64

Learning Outcomes
• Describe how injuries affect the tissues of the body.
• Describe how aging affects the tissues of the body.

65

Wound Healing (4 steps)

66

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 Keloid Scar

Too much collagen

67

Glands

68

Glandular Epithelia
• Exocrine
• Ducts
1. Structure
2. How they secrete
3. What they secrete

• Endocrine
• Ductless (directly into
blood)
• Hormones
69

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Gland Structure
• Unicellular exocrine gland
• Goblet cells
• Mucus

• Multicellular exocrine gland

• Secretory sheet
1. Structure
2. Shape of secretory
portion
3. Relationship

70

Shape

• Simple vs. Compound

71

Structure
Tubular Alveolar Tubulo-alveolar

72

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Relationship

• Branched
• Share a duct

73

Secretion
• Method of secretion
1. Merocrine
2. Apocrine
3. Holocrine
• Types of secretion
1. Serous
2. Mucous
3. Mixed exocrine

74

Merocrine (Eccrine)
• Most exocrine glands are of
this type
• Secretion is packaged by
the Golgi complex and
released by exocytosis
• For example, tear glands
and exocrine pancreatic
secretions

75

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Apocrine glands
• Secretion is produced in the
cytosol
• Droplet buds off cell
surface, covered by a layer
of membrane and cytoplasm
• For example, secretion of
milk fat in mammary gland

76

Holocrine glands
• Gland cells break down
and become part of the
secretion itself
• Continuously replaced
from stem cells
• For example, oil-
producing sebaceous
glands of skin

77

Learning Outcomes
• Describe or define various kinds of glands
• Compare modes of glandular secretion
• Describe the structure of mucous and serous
membranes.

78

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 Membranes

79

Membranes 1
2
3

4
80

1. Mucous Membrane (Mucosa)

• Digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive.

81

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2. Cutaneous Membrane

• Skin

82

3. Serous Membrane (Serosa)

Friction control
• Peritoneum
• Pleura
• Pericardium
83

4. Synovial Membrane

84

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References
• Martini, F. H., Nath, J. L., &Bartholomew, E. F.
(2018). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology
(11th ed.). New York: Pearson Education.
• Patton, K. T. (2019). Anatomy & physiology (10th
ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
• Saladin, K. (2022). Essentials of anatomy and
physiology (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
• Tortora, G.J. & Derrickson, B. (2017). Principles of
anatomy and physiology (15th ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
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