SCIENCE:

Building on the discoveries and knowledge of civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia, among
others, the ancient Greeks developed a sophisticated philosophical and scientific culture. One
of the key points of ancient Greek philosophy was the role of reason and enquiry. It emphasised
logic and championed the idea of impartial, rational observation of the natural world. The
Greeks developed philosophy as a way of understanding the world around them, without
resorting to religion, myth or magic. The ancient Greeks did not make a distinction between
philosophy and science nor did they recognise the range of disciplines such as physics,
chemistry, mathematics, astronomy etc. There simply wasn't the depth of knowledge and range
of information that later made separate disciplines practical. People expected an individual
knowledgeable in one area to also be proficient in others. Early Greek philosophers, some
influenced by Babylonians and Egyptians, were also scientists who observed and studied the
known world-the earth, seas, the mountains, as well as the solar system, planetary motion and
the phenomenon of the stars. The Greeks had great success in the areas of mathematics,
particularly geometry, borrowing heavily from the Egyptians and raising the theoretical and
intellectual bar to new heights. We owe our basic ideas about Geometry and the concept of
mathematical proofs to ancient Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras, Euclid and
Archimedes. Euclid's classic book on the "Elements of Geometry" was the world's main
textbook for almost two Millenia.

Physics, the study of nature of things, began seriously in Greece in the 6th century BC. With few
exceptions, the study was an intellectual pursuit unaided by much in the way of controlled
experimentation, which is standard practice today. It was Aristotle, equally at ease as a
philosopher and as a scientist, whose several treatises on animals laid the foundation of
Zoology. Aristotle also did important works on plants and had a strong influence on other
scholars, such as Theophrastus, who laid the groundwork for the science of Botany. The ancient
Greeks also made their mark in astronomy. An understanding of astronomy was important in
understanding and regulating the business of agriculture. It was also essential in developing an
accurate calendar and critical for navigation. While the Egyptians and Babylonians had made
great advances in astronomy, their work was heavily based on centuries of observation. It was
the Greeks who introduced mathematics into astronomy greatly expanding the range of
questions that could be asked and answered about the solar system. In the 3rd century BC, the
Greek astronomer Aristarcus advanced the theory that the sun, not the earth, was the center of
the solar system. Erathosthenes, another Greek astronomer, accurately calculated the earth's
circumference and its diameter. Ancient Greeks like Thales, Pythagoras and Aristotle developed
ideas in mathematics, astronomy and logic that would influence western thought, science and
philosophy for centuries to come.

There were several factors that influenced the development of medicine in ancient Greece.
Firstly the potent force of religion which made people to believe that illnesses originated with
the gods and evil spirits, influence of trading contacts with Egypt and Mesopotamia and the sad
result of war - wounds and amputations. Hippocrates, the most famous physician in ancient
past, and his followers took a giant step forward in the science of medicine when they asked
themselves the question, 'how did the illness come to be'?, instead of, 'what god or force of evil
caused this illness??. Hippocrates established a medical school, wrote many medical treatises,
and is, because of his systematic and empirical investigation of diseases and remedies, credited
with being the father of modern medicine, The Hippocratic oath, a medical standard for
doctors, is named after him.

PHILOSOPHY:

Ancient Greek philosophy (literally, the love of wisdom) arose in the 6th century BC, marking
the end of the Greek Dark Ages and is defined largely by the three great thinkers Socrates, his
student Plato and Plato's student Aristotle. Socrates was the first of the great thinkers of
Athens. We get some understanding of his ideas from the writings of Plato. Socrates came up
with the Socratic method- a way of studying issues and problems through a question and
answer technique. Socrates challenged the morale and quest for power of his fellow citizens
and paid the ultimate prize of his life. He is remembered as the Father of the study of Ethics.
Plato wrote much of his philosophy in conversations called dialogue which feature Socrates as
one of the speakers, wrote dialogues on a variety of philosophical subjects such as metaphysics,
ethics, psychology, politics and aesthetics. Plato's most famous work is called the Republic. In
this work, Socrates discusses the meaning of justice and how cities and governments should be
ruled. Plato founded his own school - the Academy in Athens, where he lectured and taught his
students how to think. Aristotle was a student of Plato and was a great thinker and philosopher.
Aristotle encompassed diverse subjects covering almost all areas of thought. He founded his
own school called the Lyceum. He thought that reason was the highest good and that it was
important to have self control.

RELIGION:

Ancient Greek religion probably resulted from the mingling of religious beliefs and practices
between the incoming of Greek speaking peoples who arrived from the North during the
second Millenium BC and the indigenous inhabitants whom the Greeks called Pelesgi. Ancient
Greek religion is a mixture of beliefs, mythology, rituals and daily practices. The Greeks strongly
believed that there were invisible, all powerful gods and goddesses that

controlled every natural phenomena and occurence. As a society, therefore, it was important to
maintain a good relationship with the gods through prayer, sacrifice and leading a good life. The
Greeks had a god for each natural phenomenon and believed that through prayer and sacrifice,
the gods could be appeased to control the phenomena.

Greek gods and religion: The ancient Greeks were Polytheistic, meaning that they worshipped
multiple deities as well as other supernatural beings. At the center of their religious belief
system were 12 gods and goddesses known as the Olympians, who were venerated around
Greece, as well as in Greek cities around the Black sea and other colonies in the western
Mediterranean. These deities existed within a hierarchy, with Zeus (king of the gods) holding
the top position. The gods were tied closely to individual cities - Athena, for example, was
closely associated with Athens, while Zeus was linked with the sacred site of Olympia, in which
the ancient Olympic games were held in his honor. The ancient Greeks also looked to different
deities to help them with specific circumstances or needs, such as Hera for weddings and Ares
for matters of war. The ancient Greeks had no word for religion. The closest terms were
Eusebeia (piety) and Threskeia (cult). Nevertheless, religious faith and practices were
intertwined with daily life. Unlike many religions followed today, the ancient Greeks had no
common religious text supporting their belief system. Religious beliefs and traditions were first
recounted only orally as there was no sacred text in Greek religion. Later, attempts were made
to put in writing this oral tradition, mainly by Hesiod (Greek poet) in his Theogony and in
Homer's Iliad.

Rituals: Religious practices and events were typically organised at local level, with ceremonies
under taken at altars and later temples- devoted to individual gods. One particular ritual was
Pharmakos in which a person perceived to be ugly was selected, fed and paraded around
before being beaten with green twigs. The person would then either be ostracised from their
community or stoned to death. The celebration of Ares (god of war) was celebrated through
rituals transpired at the beginning and the end of military campaign. The rituals of Demeter
(goddess of agriculture) centered around the agricultural season. The rituals commonly
consisted of a parade, dancing priests, animal sacrifices or praying at a particular site.

Festivals:

Festivals were expressions of religious social aspect and attracted large gatherings. Among the
more elaborate was the Panathenaea. Its main purpose was offering sacrifice and was held
every fourth year. The ancient Olympic games were also a part of the religion of ancient Greece
as the games were dedicated to the king of the gods-Zeus. These festivals included feasting,
animal sacrifice and athletic competitions and competitive games such as chariot race.

Priesthood: There were two ways of becoming a priest in ancient Greece-the position was
either inherited from a parent or a person was appointed by a priest on its deathbed. Priests
were generally associated with one god. The priests organised religious ceremonies and prayers
but were not necessarily religious experts.

Religious sites: The ancient Greek people built religious sites, such as temples and shrines, to
honor the gods. The ancient Greeks believed that the gods lived within the temple or visited the
temple at prayer time. The temple of Partheneon was dedicated to goddess Athena and the
temple of Poseidon was dedicated to Poseidon, god of the sea. These religious sites featured
statues and artwork depicting the celebrated god within the temple.

Ancient Greek religion lasted for more than a thousand years. It was formed by a mixture of
religious beliefs, rituals, ancient stories and a number of intellectuals understanding of life. The
ancient Greek religion evolved through time becoming more complex and fascinating.
Gradually, it became more rooted in Greece from the Archaic times through the Hellenistic
period and to the period of the Roman empire.