Lesson 1: What is Philosophy?

Philosophy: What is it and where did it originate?

The word philosophy comes from two Greek words: philos (love) and sophia (wisdom). The
Ancient Greeks used this term to refer to a “love of wisdom” and was soon applied to a science
or discipline which uses human reason to investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, and
principles which govern all things. The mathematician Pythagoras was the first to call himself a
philosopho, a term which means “a lover of wisdom.”

Since ancient times, people have been reflecting on and discussing various issues related to
philosophy. Asian communities already had thriving schools of thought and belief systems since
2000 BCE. In the west, the first philosophical schools emerged in ancient Greece around the 6th
century BCE. These first schools of thought gave rise to changes and developments which
brought about the emergence of philosophy as we know it at present.

What developments brought about the emergence of Western Philosophy?

Western Philosophy is primarily concerned with uncovering the truth through systematic
argumentation and theory. There is greater emphasis on the use of reason rather than faith,
and an increased focus on man as an individual. This perspective has led to the development of
a more scientific and theory-based approach in philosophy.

Greece was home to one of the great civilizations during the Ancient Period. Among the most
notable characteristics of ancient Greek civilization was their love of learning. For a Greek to
claim himself a wise and learned person, he must know a lot of things from various disciplines.
The first philosophers of Ancient Greece were primarily preoccupied with the study of nature
and the universe. They were concerned with questions regarding the process of change and the
unifying principle of the world, answering questions like “What is permanent in existence?” and
“What is the universe made up of?” The first philosophers raised questions which started the
intellectual activity and method of inquiry of philosophizing, pondering upon the ultimate
nature and cause of things.

The first philosophers are called the Pre-Socratics since they came before the time of Socrates.
Thales was the earliest philosopher to inquire about the world and explain the composition of
things and the changes in the physical reality. This is why Thales is considered to be the father
of Western Philosophy. After the Pre-Socratics, a group of intellectuals known as the Sophists
emerged and they influenced learning in Ancient Greece. They taught a way of argumentation
called eristic, which aimed to win arguments rather than arrive at the truth. The Sophists were
excellent public speakers and they travelled throughout Greece and taught young people a
wide array of subjects such as grammar, mythology, political virtue, and rhetoric.

This style of teaching, however, soon met resistance from other thinkers who believed that
teaching is more than just training people to win arguments. Teaching and learning should be
an opportunity to learn the truth of all things in this world, and all real wisdom should strive to
achieve truth aside from knowledge. Their central belief was that man need not know all things
in the world, but one must continue to inquire and seek to understand and learn about the
human condition.

From their roots in Ancient Greece, the thoughts and ideas of philosophers soon gained
popularity in many places throughout the world. Among the ancient Greeks, the philosophers
became pioneers in various fields of knowledge such as history, biology, medicine,
mathematics, astronomy, and even physics. It was quite common for an ancient philosopher to
have areas of interest and expertise in various fields of learning. These philosophers often
pondered upon the nature of all things and the means to live a good life.

The following are among the most notable ancient Greek philosophers:

Thales (624 BCE to 546 BCE) – He believed that the ultimate composition of all things is water.
Thales believed that all things take nourishment from water and he considered heat as being
generated and maintained by the amount of moisture in an object.

Anaximander (610 BCE to 546 BCE) – A student of Thales, Anaximander agreed with his teacher
that everything comes from a single, basic material. He argued, however, that matter is not
composed of water or any other element. It is his view that all things are created and emerged
from an indefinite and boundless realm called apeiron. When things decay or are destroyed,
they go back into the apeiron.

Anaximenes (586 BCE to 528 BCE) – He was a young associate of Anaximander who followed
Thale’s view of matter being created from a single element. Anaximenes, however, believed
that it is air that makes up all things and that different elements and substances are merely
different phases of air. Anaximenes also considered air as the source of all life.

Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE) – A mathematician and scientist, he was credited with the
formulation of the Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers, and he
established a community of learners who were devoted to the study of religion and philosophy.

Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE) – He proposed that everything that exists is based on a higher
order or plan which he called logos. For him, change is a permanent aspect of the human
condition. Heraclitus is credited with the saying, “You cannot step twice into the same river, for
fresh waters are ever flowing upon you.”

Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE) – He devoted himself to studying the causes of natural
phenomena. He was among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called
atoms.

Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE) – He was a known advocate of a simple and virtuous
life. For Diogenes, one should not only talk of virtue but should show it in words and actions.
His emphasis on austerity and simplicity often went to the extreme, and he was said to have
lived like a beggar. He was also known to be a vocal critic of well-known philosophers such as
Plato and Aristotle. His teachings and views were later developed by his followers and
influenced the development of Cynicism.

Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE) – He was a practical philosopher and believed that philosophy
could enable man to live a life of happiness. He denounced certain pleasures of the body that
were unnatural and stated that continuous indulgence in bodily pleasure often leads to
dissatisfaction. Therefore, one should indulge in the needs and pleasures of the mind instead of
the body. His views gave rise to Epicureanism – a school of philosophy which believes that
wisdom and simple living will result in a life free from fear and pain.

Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE) – He was considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times
and made great contributions to the field of ethics. Socrates was a known critic of intellectuals
during his time, but he himself did not claim to be “wise” and merely considered himself a
“midwife” that helped inquiring minds achieve wisdom. He also believed that philosophy could
enable a man to live a life of virtue. He was credited with formulating the Socratic Method – a
means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that lets the learner examine and
analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic.

Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE) – A student of Socrates, he wrote down his teacher’s writings and
incorporated some of his own ideas into them. His teachings and writings are considered as the
foundation of Western philosophy. Plato’s most significant ideas include his theory of forms,
which proposes that everything that exists is based on an idea or template that can only be
perceived in the mind; these nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging. He also focused on
political theory and wrote the Republic that discussed what he proposed as the ideal society
and ideal form of government ruled by wisdom and reason. Plato is also known for his dialectic
– a method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at new
knowledge. Plato’s lasting contribution to learning was his founding of the Academy, an
institution of higher learning which was the first of its kind in the West.

Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE) – He attended the Academy, and was a prominent student of
Plato. Aristotle, however, disagreed with Plato’s theory of forms and took a different view in
interpreting reality. For him, all ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is
based on what we can sense and perceive. This view greatly influenced the study of the physical
sciences. Aristotle was involved in a great variety of disciplines such as zoology, psychology,
ethics, and politics. He also proposed a system for the classification of plants and animals. His
studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise
to deductive reasoning – the process by which specific statements are analyzed to reach a
conclusion or generalization. Aristotle, like Plato, founded his own school called the Lyceum.

Archimedes (287 BCE to 212 BCE) – He is known for the practical aspects of his philosophical
inquiries and was considered a leading scientist in ancient times. A mathematician, physicist,
engineer, inventor, and astronomer, Archimedes’ inquiries into mathematics led to earlier
developments which gave rise to modern calculus. He pioneered the use of mathematics to
analyze natural phenomena. He is credited for several inventions such as the Archimedes
screw, a devise for raising water, and a method for determining volume using displacement.

These and other ancient philosophers contributed greatly to the development and spread of
philosophy in Greece and throughout Europe. Many of their ideas survived through the
centuries, and these formed the basis for the development of modern and contemporary
Western Philosophy.

How did Western Philosophy develop into a modern science?

The science and discipline of Philosophy, as we know it at present, is primarily a product of

developments and changes in the Western world. From the early developments in Ancient
Greece, various historical developments in Europe and the Western world led to the gradual
shaping of Western Philosophy from an ancient discourse into a modern science.

• St. Thomas Aquinas

• Petrarch
• Rene Descartes
• Soren Kierkegaard
• Edmund Husserl
• Michel Foucault

The development of Western Philosophy is defined by the emergence of various schools of

thought in various periods in history.

• Stoicism
• Scholasticism
• Humanism
• Rationalism
• Empiricism
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Positivism
• Utilitarianism
• Pragmatism
• Existentialism
• Phenomenology
• Absurdism
• Postmodern, Post-structuralism

What developments and characteristics define Eastern Philosophy?

As the ancient Greeks were laying the foundation of Western philosophy in Europe, several
belief systems and philosophies were already prevalent in many communities in Asia. Eastern
Philosophy consists of schools of thought which are often closely tied with religious beliefs.
Eastern philosophies are often described as “wisdom” literature, where stories, sayings, and
texts encourage people to adopt an ethical and harmonious way of life. There is great emphasis
on social relations, and the family and community are considered a central aspect of life. The
goal of Eastern Philosophy is to achieve a balanced life and find one’s role in society.

• Judaism
• Hinduism
• Shinto
• Jainism
• Buddhism
• Confucianism
• Taoism
• Islam
• Sikhism

How do we characterize the study of Philosophy?

Dividing the discipline of Philosophy into Western Philosophy and Eastern Philosophy is just one
way of classifying the discipline based on developments that defined it throughout history.
When viewing Philosophy as a field of study, we can see that it is a discipline with great variety
and diversity. Just as there are many ways of looking at a problem, philosophers have employed
varied means of looking into the fundamental questions regarding the human condition. This
has given rise to various viewpoints, thoughts, and approaches in Philosophy.

One way of looking at Philosophy is to consider it a way of analyzing frameworks. A framework

is defined as a way of thinking about the world and is composed of the views and beliefs of a
person. Whenever a person encounters a problem or question in life, he or she often goes back
to his or her own framework in order to make sense of the problem. Whenever we are
confronted by a question of morality or correctness, we go back to our own personal beliefs
regarding integrity and spirituality. Questions dealing with our own correctness and values are
considered internal questions which can be addressed using our own reasoning from our
personal frameworks.

Also, there are external questions that seek to question the very frameworks upon which
people base their own beliefs and views. For instance, a child going through the bitter
experience of his parents’ separation will be in a state of confusion as his experience does not
conform to his personal framework of what a family should be. In this case, the child begins to
question the very framework or concept of family that he or she has built based on previous
experiences. By questioning his or her ideas and concepts, the child has already touched on an
important aspect of Philosophy. The child seeks to clarify, examine, and evaluate the basis of
frameworks which he or she uses to deal with the world and give meaning to his or her
experiences.

Philosophy can also be thought of as an examination of a particular area of knowledge. The

central principle in Philosophy is examination and questioning, and this is often applied in the
analysis of the frameworks of other areas or sciences. Philosophy goes hand-in-hand with other
disciplines in examining their fundamental purposes and evaluating the changes they
experience. There is a philosophy of science, which seeks to understand the fundamental
principles that guide scientific thought. There is also a philosophy of religion which examines
the basic tenets of any faith. There is a philosophy of education, a philosophy of law, philosophy
of history – every aspect of knowledge can benefit from the inquiring nature of Philosophy.

Philosophy is often divided into several branches which deal with a particular area. There is a
Philosophy of the Human Person, which looks into the nature of man. The philosophy which
deals with beauty and what makes things “beautiful” is called Aesthetics. Logic is the branch of
philosophy which deals with correct reasoning, while Epistemology discusses the nature of
knowledge and knowing. Ethics is the branch which deals with moral questions, dilemmas, and
standards for human behavior while Political Philosophy studies governments and deals with
questions of justice, power and the rights and obligations of citizens, and right governance.
Finally, Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which deals with questions regarding the nature
of reality and existence.

However complex and varied the perceptions are, they suggest two important facts about
philosophizing: philosophy is a reflective and meditative activity and it is a way of exercising
critical thinking on any type of experience.

Why is there a need for man to philosophize?

Philosophers have often wondered and argued about the role of philosophy in man’s life. One
view is that each one of us is a philosopher, whether or not we have studied Philosophy as a
science.

The Greek philosopher Plato traced man’s need to philosophize to his sense of wonder.
Whenever we are confronted with an experience, we always wonder how it came about. Man’s
over-abounding curiosity drives him to ask questions, some of which have no definite answers.
Where did we come from? Why do we exist? For what purpose were we created? Consider a
small child’s curiosity about all the things around him, since many of the things he sees he
encounters for the first time. This perspective drives the need of a philosopher to question,
examine, and learn more.

The 15th-century French philosopher Rene Descartes, meanwhile, traced the need to
philosophize to doubt. Descartes was famous for rejecting or questioning traditional or
dogmatic ideas, and he even went as far as doubting his own ideas. His method of examining
ideas and perspectives became the basis of critical thinking and analysis in the sciences. In the
sciences, there is a need to verify an information or explanation before it is accepted as truth.
In life, we will be faced with several ideas and arguments which present themselves as “truths.”
A critical and questioning perspective is necessary in order to determine if indeed these ideas
or views are correct or true.

The 20th-century Swiss-German philosopher Karl Jaspers saw the need to philosophize because
of experience. Jaspers believed that man is often confronted by experiences which challenge
his ideas and frameworks. Jaspers called these experiences limit situations, and these are often
accompanied by feelings of helplessness, anxiety, or dread. For Jaspers, philosophy provides us
a means to understand adverse or challenging conditions, and to rise above them and gain new
knowledge and perspectives.

Finally, the need to philosophize is driven by the love of wisdom. To love wisdom is to have an
insatiable desire for truth. A philosopher does not seek knowledge to claim ownership of it; and
one who engages in philosophy is not satisfied with figuring out the answer to a question. He
seeks to continue to question, to probe, and to discuss in order to get to the bottom of things.
Perhaps the one philosopher that exemplified this perspective was Socrates, who gained fame
for his curiosity and his constant debates with many of the intellectual elite in Greece. Socrates
is famous for having said “I only know that I know nothing” and it is in accepting this state of
ignorance that one can begin to learn and understand. By expanding our knowledge through
philosophy, we begin to realize that learning is unceasing–there is a lot more to learn and
experience in life. Socrates is also recognized for his motto: “The unexamined life is not worth
living.” And nowhere is it more appropriate to embark on philosophy than in an examination of
our own life.