Jaylene P.

Albay
BSEd 3 Social Studies
 PREFACE

This endeavors to introduce students to the study of Philosophy as an exploration of the

fundamental questions and issues that have faced humanity. It aims to help students better understand
themselves and the world they live in and enable them to navigate through the challenges of life. Our
study of philosophy aims to produce well-adjusted, productive individuals who are able to face the
opportunities and challenges of life successfully, and maintain a health relationship with others and their
society.
 INTRODUCTION

This course introduces students to the methods of rigorous philosophical reasoning;

introduces students to the philosophical questions, methods, and figures that have played key roles in
shaping the Jesuit approach to education and scholarship; and teaches students to critically examine
assumptions about reality (especially assumptions about our natures as human beings). Each section
explores two or more of the following fundamental philosophical questions: the problem of human
knowing, the mind/body problem, the problem of personal identity, the problem of freedom and
determinism, and the problem of other persons. This course also aims to develop critical reflective skills
to prepare students for more in-depth study in ethics (in the subsequent Ethical Reasoning course),
improve critical thinking and writing skills, and enhance students' appreciation for complexity and
ambiguity.

A big part of living is spent pondering many questions, and our lives become more meaningful
because we search for answers to these innumerable questions. This is the essence of philosophy—the
search for answers to life’s question.
 CHAPTER 1

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

 Discuss philosophy and its importance as a discipline and a means for understanding life;
 Distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view;
 Recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection;
 Recognize reflection as an important aspect of philosophy;
 Realize the value of doing philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective on life;
 Do a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective; and
 Discuss their thoughts regarding the importance of philosophy in their lives.

What is philosophy?

The word philosophy comes from the two Greek word: philos (love) and sophia (wisdom).
The ancient Greek used this term to refer to ❝love of wisdom❞ and they soon applied it to the study or
discipline that uses human reason to investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles which govern
all things. People who engage in philosophy are called philosophers or ❝lovers of wisdom❞. Among the
ancient Greeks, the philosophers become pioneers in various fields of knowledge such as history, biology,
medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and even physics. It was quite common to hear of ancient
philosophers who were ❝experts❞ in various field of learning.

Since ancient times, philosophers have been pondering some of the most enduring questions
regarding human existence. The following are some of them.

 What is real? Are we able to perceive and understand reality and everything in it?
 How do we know what we know? Are the things that we know is true?
 What is the ultimate cause of all things? What is our purpose in this world?
 To what extent are our choices and actions considered “free”?

The following are the most notable ancient Greek philosophers.

 Pythagoras (570 BCE TO 495 BCE) — A mathematician and scientist, he was credited with
formulating the Pythagorean theorem. His work earned him many followers, and he established a
community of learners who were devoted to the study of religion and philosophy.
 Heraclitus (535 BCE TO 475 BCE)— He proposed that everything that exist is based on a
higher order or plan which he called logos. For him, changes is a permanent aspect of the human
condition as he was credited with the saying “No man ever steps in the same river twice”.
 Democritus (460 BCE TO 370 BCE) —He devoted himself to the study of the causes of natural
phenomena. He was among the first to proposed that matter is composed of tiny part particles
called atoms.
 Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE TO 323 BCE) — He was a known advocate of living a simple and
virtuous life. For Diogenes, one should not only talk of virtue but should show it in words and
actions. His emphasis on austerity and simplicity often went to the extreme, and he was said to
have lived like a beggar. He was also known to be a vocal critic of well-known philosophers such
as Plato and Aristotle. His teachings and views were later developed by his followers and
influenced the development of several schools of philosophy such as Cynicism and Stoicism.
 Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE)— He believed that philosophy could enable man to live a life
of happiness. His views gave rise to Epicureanism— a school of philosophy which believes that
wisdom and simple living will result in a life dree of fear and pain.
 Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE)— He was considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times.
He made great contributions to the field of ethics. Socrates was a known critic of intellectuals
during his time, but he himself did not claim to be “wise” and merely considered himself a
“midwife” that help inquiring minds achieve wisdom. He also believed that philosophy could
enable a man to live a life of virtue. He was credited with formulating the Socratic Method — a
means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let the learner examine and
analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic.
 Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE)— A student of Socrates, he wrote down his mentor’s teachings and
incorporated some of his own ideas into them. His teachings and writings were considered the
foundation of Western philosophy. Plato’s most significant ideas included his Theory of Forms,
which proposes that everything that exists is based on an idea or template that can only be
perceived in the mind; theses nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging. He also focused his
studies on the ideal society and proposed an ideal model of government and society which is
ruled by wisdom and reason. Plato is also known for his dialectic — a method inquiry where two
opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s lasting
contribution to learning was his founding of the Academy, an institution of higher learning which
was the first of its kind in the Western World.
 Aristotle (348 BCE to 322 BCE) — He attended the academy, and was a prominent student of
Plato. Aristotle, however, disagreed with Plato’s theory of forms and took a different stance in
interpreting reality. For him, all ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is based
on what we can sense and perceive. This view greatly influenced the study of the physical
sciences. Aristotle was involved in a great variety of disciplines such as zoology, psychology,
ethics, and politics. He also proposed a system for the classification of plants and animals. His
studies in logic led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise
to deductive reasoning— the process by which specific statements are analyzed to reach
conclusion or generalization.
 From their roots in ancient Greece, the thoughts an ideas of philosophers soon gained
philosophy in many places throughout the world. The development that started in ancient Greece brought
about the emergence of Western Philosophy. Meanwhile, Eastern philosophy emerged from the
communities and civilization in Asia. While both philosophies pondered the significant questions
regarding human existence, Western philosophy throughout the centuries became more systematic and
specialized in its approach. Eastern philosophy, on the other hand, is more fluid and places greater
emphasis on social relations, the family, and community.

At present, philosophy is an important field of study as it touches upon a diverse array of

topics and disciplines. Every aspect of human knowledge from the arts to science and technology has
benefited from the inquiring nature of philosophy.

Why is there a need to philosophize?

Philosophers have often wondered and argued about the role of philosophy in mans life.
One view is that each one of us is a philosopher, whether or not we have studied philosophy. We all have
the potential to philosophize since we have the tendency to wonder and doubt. We possess the capacity to
reflect on our experience, and we have a never-ending need to learn and discover.

The Greek philosopher Plato traced man’s need to philosophize to his sense of wonder.
Whenever we confronted with an experience, we always wonder how it came about. Man’s
overabounding curiosity drives him to ask questions, some of which has no definite answers. Where did
we came from? Why do we exist? For what purpose were we created? Consider a small child’s curiosity
about all the things around him, most of which he encounters for the first time. This perspective drives the
need of a philosopher to question, examine, and learn more.

The 15th century French philosopher Rene Descartes traced the need to philosophize to doubt.
Descartes was famous for rejecting or questioning established ideas, and he even went as far as doubting
his own ideas. His method of examining ideas and perspective became the basis of critical thinking and
analysis in the sciences. For example, a scientific hypothesis must first be tested and verified before it is
accepted as truth. In life, we will be faced with several ideas and arguments which present themselves as
“truths”. A critical and questioning perspective is necessary to determine if indeed the ideas or views are
correct or true.

The 20 th century Swiss-German philosopher Karl Jaspers saw the need to philosophize
because of experience. Jaspers believed that man is often confronted by experiences which challenge his
ideas and frameworks. Jaspers called these experiences limit situation, and these are often accompanied
by feelings of helplessness, anxiety or dread. For Jaspers, philosophy provides us a means to understand
and adverse or challenging conditions, and to rise above them and gain new knowledge and perspectives.

Finally, the need to philosophize is driven by the love of wisdom. To love wisdom is to have
an insatiable desire for truth. A philosopher does not seek knowledge to claim ownership of it; and one
who engages in philosophy is not satisfied with figuring out the answer to a question. He seeks to
continue to question, to probe, and to discus in order to get to the bottom of things. The philosopher who
exemplified this perspective was Socrates. He gained fame for his curiosity and his constant debates with
many of the intellectual elite in Greece. Socrates is famous for having said “I know that I do not know…”
and it is an accepting this state of ignorance that one can begin to learn and understand. By expanding
our knowledge through philosophy, we begin to realize that learn is unceasing—there is a lot more to
learn and experience in life. Socrates is also recognized for his motto: “The examined life is not worth
living.” And nowhere is it more appropriate to embark on philosophy than in an examination of our own
life.

How do we characterize the study of philosophy?

Just as there are many ways of looking at a problem, philosophers have employed varied
means of looking into the fundamental questions regarding the human condition. This has given rise to
various viewpoints, thoughts, and approaches in philosophy.

One way of looking at philosophy is to consider it as a way of analyzing frameworks. A

framework is defined as a way of thinking about the world and is composed of views and beliefs of a
person. Whenever a person encounters a problem or question in life l, he or she often goes back to his or
her own framework in order to make sense of the problem. Questions dealing with our own correctness
and values are considered internal questions which can be addressed using our own personal
frameworks.

Also, there are external questions that seek to question the very frameworks upon which
people based their own beliefs and views. For instance, a child who is going through the bitter experience
does not conform to his or her personal framework of what a family should be. In this case, the child
begins to question the very framework or concept of family that he or she has built based on previous
experience. By questioning his or her ideas and concepts, the child has already touch on an important
aspect of philosophy. The child seek to clarify, examine and evaluate the basis of frameworks which he or
she uses to deal with the world and give meaning to his or her own experiences.

Philosophy can also be thought of as an examination of a particular area of knowledge. The

central principle in philosophy is examination and questioning , and this is often applied in the analysis of
the frameworks of other areas or sciences. Philosophy goes hand in hand with other disciplines in
examining their fundamental purposes and evaluating the changes they experience. There is a philosophy
of science, which seek to understand the fundamental principles that guide scientific thought. There is
also a philosophy of religion, which examines the basic tenets of any faith. There is philosophy of
education, political philosophy, philosophy of history—every aspect of knowledge can benefit from the
inquiring nature of philosophy.

Philosophy itself is a distinct area of knowledge with its own goals, concerns, and ways of
doing things. It is often divided into several branches each of which deals with a particular aspect of life
or phenomena. The philosophy which deals with beauty and what make things “beautiful” is called
Aesthetic. Logic is the branch of philosophy which deals with correct reasoning, while Epistemology
discusses the nature of knowledge and knowing. Ethics is the branch which deals with moral questions
and dilemmas, while Political Philosophy studies governments and deals with questions of justice,
power, and the rights and obligations of citizens. Metaphysics is a branch philosophy which deals with
questions regarding reality and existence. Although not a branch itself; Philosophy of the Human
Person is an area I philosophy that understands the human person from a philosophical perspective—
integrating and synthesizing the different branches of philosophy and other fields of study to know truth
about human person. However complex and varied the perceptions, they suggest two important facts
about philosophizing: philosophy is a reflective and meditative activity, and it has no designated
subject matter of its own. It is also a method of mental exercise on any type of experience. When
confronting human experience, philosophers often employ tools that engage the mind in analyzing
problems and situations. For instance, in discussing complex philosophical issues, philosophers often use
thought experiments. Individuals also engage in this form of philosophizing when they ponder possible
consequences regarding their actions. When one imagines certain alternatives and possible outcomes, one
already engages in philosophy.

Additionally, philosophy does not limit itself to its own field. Philosophy make sense of information
gathered from various fields of knowledge(e.g., science, psychology, economics, politics, etc.) by
integrating and synthesizing them to have deeper and more complete understanding of reality.

What are the practical uses of philosophy in our lives?

Philosophy has an important place in our daily lives. Engaging in philosophical reflection
leads to the development of beneficial skill that individuals can apply in everyday situation.

Philosophy enables a person to engage in critical analysis and interpretation of

concepts, definition, arguments, and problems. It also trains us to be critical of our own ideas as well
as of others—meaning, we don’t simply accept or reject whatever is presented to us. One can apply this
critical and analytical mindset in processing information gained from media and addressing certain issues
encountered in life. Critical thinking skills can help us avoid being tricked by false claims or manipulative
schemes.

Philosophy also improves problem-solving and decision-making. The ability to analyze a

problem or dilemma, identify its significant aspects, and come up with alternative solutions in an
important skill learned through philosophy. A philosopher is good communicator who can clearly and
adequately present his or her ideas. Discussion and debate require skills in presenting and
communicating ideas. Philosophy can also help us to be more open to new and different ideas.
Communication skills are also enhanced by the study of philosophy because it trains us to be very clear
and precise about our thoughts and sentiments in order to express exactly what we want to say. Wisdom
is one intended product of philosophizing, and this refers to a person’s ability to apply knowledge to daily
life particularly in making sound choices and judgement.

Finally, knowledge of philosophy can contribute to self-development. One can be a better

student, scientist, artist, professional, and citizen if he or she has the capacity for inquiry, critical thinking,
and reflection. In addition, philosophy encourages a person to know oneself, his or her strengths and
weaknesses, establish an identity, and determine his or her purpose in life. Self-knowledge also grows
along with one’s understanding of the world and this is essential to the realization of the self.
Exercises/Drill

A. THINK:
What words come to mind when you hear the word philosophy? Copy the graphic
organizer and write the words in the blank circles.

Philosophy
 B. Identify the following: Write your answer on the space provided.

____________1.) It is the study or discipline that uses human reason to investigate the
ultimate causes, reasons, and principles which govern all things.

____________2.) The Greek term for philosophy, philosophia, means

____________3.) The Greek philosopher Plato believes that philosophy is brought about
by man’s sense of___?

____________4.) He believes that persona engage in philosophy in order to make sense

of difficult life experiences.

____________5) Rene Descartes consider this as a reason why people philosophize.

____________6.) It refers to a way of thinking about the world and as made up of a

person’s views and beliefs.

____________7.) There are questions that examine personal ideas regarding correctness
and values.

____________8.) It is an activity that requires a person to examine his or her thought,

feelings and actions and learn frim experience.

____________9.) It is a perspective that considers the “bigger picture” when looking at

problems and situations.

___________10.) It is a perspective that focuses on specific aspects of a situation.

EVALUATION

1. What other philosophical questions have you asked yourself? What led you to ponder
those questions?
2. Do you think that you will be able to figure out the answers to these philosophical
questions? Explain.
3. How can philosophy help you succeed as a student?
4. How can philosophy help you become a productive individual and citizen?
 CHAPTER 2

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

Learning objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

 Define the role of philosophy in determining truth and knowledge;

 Distinguish opinion from truth;
 Analyze situations that shows the difference between opinion and truth;
 Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth; and
 Evaluate opinions.

In today’s society, we encounter a lot of information from various sources such as the
media and our interactions with friends, family, and members of the community. Most of the information
we receive is helpful, but some may mislead us or may even be utterly false. These kind of information
often have a negative impact on our lives. For instance, many people have been misled by claims of
“miracle drugs” which were eventually proven to have no significant effects on health or may have
harmful effects for some people. In addition, “news” on the internet and social media sites often relies on
sensational headlines which often twist and distort the truth. These often results in heated online debates
and feuds. In some cases, innocent individuals become targets of harassment because of false claims and
testimonials issued online. Everyday we are confronted with news, claims, and announcements from our
peers, family members, figures of authority, the government and media. How do we know if they are
telling the truth?

Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry.
Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance. However, the concept of truth remains
highly debated and much-discussed topic among philosopher. Philosophers consider truth as a kind of
quality or value. For example, when we answer a “True or False” test, we judge if the statement we read
are true or false. This means that statements may have truth or may not have truth. Statements about the
world or reality are called propositions and theses propositions may or may not carry truth. Propositions
are usually stated as short statements or sentences.

What is truth and why is it important?

Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify knowledge, since it is through knowing that
we are able to determine what is true. Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something.
It is the product of questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts. Our knowledge is comprised
of ideas and beliefs that we know to be true.

Let’s explore your knowledge by completing the following statements:

I know that…

I know why…

I know how…

These statements correspond to one important aspect of knowledge — that it is based on reality.
This simply means that what we know is what is observable or evident in the real world. For example, we
say that “I know that fish live in water” because fish do live in water. Proposition or statements which are
observed to be real or truthful are considered facts.

There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to be true. For
example, we can say that “I know my school is the best school in the city”. However, this statement
cannot be taken as true since it is simply not immediately evident. This statement is a claim, and further
examination is required to establish whether it is true or false. You may know why reading is a better
activity than playing basketball, but the truth of your statement will be contested by other people..

Truthful statement, therefore, can be considered aa based on facts. Science considers truth as
something observable and empirical. This means that any claim can be proven by verification and
experimentation. Philosophy has various views which can help us tackle the concepts of knowing the
truth, and arrive at a reasonable assessment if a statement, idea, or event is believable.

How do we know if something is true?

There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers emphasize the importance of beliefs as
basis for determining truth. But what kind of beliefs is truthful? How do we know that what we believe is
true?

Ancient Greek philosophers approached the problem of truth by looking at the nature of
knowledge and how we know what we know. We assume that everything we knew about this world is
true. But philosopher ls who pondered upon the origins of knowledge doubted everything that there is to
know about themselves and the world. In doing so, they were able to better understand by which human
gain knowledge and determine the truth about everything. It is said that there are instances when we have
to unlearn something so that we may learn anew. Philosophers questioned what they knew and even
analyzed their methods of knowing in order to understand themselves and the world much better.
 Let’s embark on our own investigation of the nature of knowledge. Let’s start by stating the
very obvious things we know about ourselves.

I am alive.

I have a body.

I can breathe.

Do you believe that these statements apply to you? “But of course!” you will say. But
remember, as philosophers, we do not assume that every statement is true. Doubt has a very important
purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to discover truth. In philosophy, systematic doubt is
employed to help determine the truth. This means that every statement, claim, evidence, and experience is
scrutinized and analyzed. Nothing is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and evidence to prove
that it is indeed true. Let’s assume, therefore, that the truthfulness of these statements have yet to be
determined.

Using doubt as our starting point, let’s revise the statements to make them easier to scrutinize
and analyze. Lets rewrite the statements as questions so we can review and examine them further.

Am I alive?

Do I have a body?

Can I breathe?

Now, how will you figure out the answers to these questions? The obvious answer would be to
examine yourself to determine if indeed you are alive, that you have a body and you can breathe. Do you
have a pulse? Can you feel your heartbeat? Do you have arms, hands, legs, feet, and a head? Try to take a
deep breath, then exhale. Were you able to do it? If you answered “yes” to all questions then you can
conclude with certainty that the previous statements about yourself are true. You can now say:

I am alive!

I have a body!

I can breathe!

This is one perspective on truth — that a belief is true if it can be justified or proven through
the use of one’s senses.

Now, let’s tackle another statement and see how philosophy can help us determine if it is true.

I am a Filipino.

Are our senses sufficient means to determine the truth of the statement? If not, what other
means can we use to determine its truth?

Filipino (noun)
 1. A native of the Philippine Islands
2. A citizen of the Republic of the Philippines
3. The Tagalog-based official language of the republic of the Philippines

Which of these definitions apply to you? Definitions 1 and 2 are the ones that best apply to
you, since they refer to Filipinos as person. Based on the definitions outlined, you can say that you and
everyone in the community are Filipinos because 1.) You, your classmates, your teachers, your family
members, and other people in your community were born in the Philippines and are thus natives; 2) you
are all citizens of the Republic of the Philippines, which means you were born of Filipino parents and are
recognized as citizens by the government. Definition 3 cannot be used in this case because it refers to the
Filipino language and not to Filipinos as person.

This is another basis of determining truth: a belief or statement is true if it is based on facts.
We applied this perspective when we looked up the meaning of the word “Filipino” in a dictionary. We
assumed that what is stated in the definition in the actual meaning of the word.

Are you now convinced that you can call yourself a Filipino? If not, what additional proof
should you look for to prove, without a doubt, that you are a Filipino? You can try doing the following:

1. Ask your parents and their relatives.

2. Look for official documents that prove you are a Filipino.

When you survey your family regarding your question all of them may answer with a
resounding “yes!” Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common belief is another way of
determining what is true. But this approach has certain limitations. Getting everyone to agree on
something may not make that belief true. For example, if you can get your classmates to agree that you do
not need to study to become successful in life, it does not make that belief true. Also, if one of your
family members says “No” to your inquiries, it would frustrate your efforts to find the truth. Therefore,
you have to use other means to really answer the questions

Looking at official documents, particularly a birth certificate, is one recommended way of

proving that you are a Filipino. Your birth certificate shows factual information regarding your birth.
Since it is issued by an institution that has authority such as the government, you are sure that the
document and the facts it bears are truthful. Reliance on evidence and facts, however, also has limitations.
Evidence, especially documents, can be forged or falsified. Even the content of a genuine document may
be doubtful if there are mistakes in the information. A person may be issued an official birth certificate
but it may contain wrong information or typographical errors. If your name is misspelled in your birth
certificate, does your identity change?

Let us imagine however l, that in your search to figure out if you are a Filipino, you find out the
following:

1. All your parents and relatives agree that you are a Filipino.
2. Your birth certificate proves that you were born in the Philippines.

With these facts in mind, you can now be confident in calling yourself a true Filipino. You can
now proudly say:
 I am a Filipino!

Finally, let us explore the following statements about what you can do:

I can play basketball.

I can fry an egg.

I understand the lesson.

Let’s revise the statements so we can analyze the further.

Can I play basketball?

Can I fry an egg?

Do I understand the lesson?

Looking back at the approaches we applied in the previous statements, you realize that using
your senses and experiences, acquiring supporting facts, or getting other people’s views are insufficient to
fully determine the truth of these three statements. You will have to combine various approaches in order
to arrive at a correct judgement. It is true that in your mind you may have figured out the answers to these
questions. For this exercise, however, let us exhaust all means to determine the truth. For instance, how
will you really prove that you can play basketball? The obvious answer would be to actually play it.
Imagine if one of your friends brags that he or she can successfully shoot the ball from the half-court line.
You will not take your friend’s word for it and you will be satisfied only when he or she actually shoots
the ball from the half-court line. The same is true with cooking. To prove that you know how to fry an
egg, you will have to go to the kitchen and fry an egg. Some would argue that the proof is not only in the
act but also in the product. This means that you should not only show that you can fry an egg but that you
can make delicious fried eggs. Determining truth in this case requires a person to prove a statement
through an action. The statements, therefore, are only true if they can be applied in real life.

The final statement also requires proof through action. The best means to determine whether
you have understand the lesson is to take a test and get a good score. Philosophers also believe that
claims and beliefs should also be subjected to tests to determine truth. Any claim, therefore, should
be subjected to tests to prove their validity. All these approaches can help you determine whether the
statements are true or applicable in your case. The inquiry would result in any of the following
realizations:

I can play basketball. I can fry an egg

I cannot play basketball. I cannot fry an egg.

I understand the lesson.

I do not understand the lesson.

 Discovering truths about oneself is merely the first step towards exploring knowledge and truth.
As we encounter varied ideas and knowledge in our everyday interactions, philosophy can help us
determine which information we encounter is believable and acceptable, and which needs to ne examined
more closely to determine its truth.

How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing truth from opinion?

Now that you have an idea of how philosophizing recognizes truths, let is try and apply it in
various situations in your life. The ideas that we encounter in everyday life can be considered as truth or
opinion. But what distinguishes one from the other? For example, verifying the number of minutes it
takes for one to walk from home to school is possible. The second and third statements speak of actions
that can be verified by recalling an experience or providing evidences such as eyewitness accounts. On
the other hand, there is statement that could be considered as opinions. Theses statements go beyond with
providing facts. They also provide conclusions or perspectives regarding certain questions. Some of the
statements even advance a belief about a certain thing or person. Opinions are also the bases for making
arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a fact.

A conclusion is a judgement based on facts. The facts that form the bases of a conclusion may
not be disputed but the conclusion itself could still be contested or questioned. Meanwhile, beliefs are
statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. If a person states “ I
believe that God put me on this earth to spread His message of love”, we will find it difficult to prove his
or her statement as truthful if we rely only on facts. To judge the truthfulness of belief, we must also
consider things such as a persons experiences or views.

We should also be aware when statements go beyond the facts and provide additional ideas
and information. For example, “My sister is a selfish person because she ate the last piece of pizza pie and
did not share it with me”. For instance, this statement provides details or explanation in order to support
the idea “My sister is selfish”. Explanations are statement that assume the claim to be true and provide
reasons why the statement is true. Statement ask the reader to simply accept the fact that “the sister is
selfish”. Arguments, meanwhile, are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or
listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. Arguments are made with the assumptions that the truth of the
claim or opinion is still to be determined. You often encounter arguments in a formal debate, where
participants explain two sides of a proposition, and judgement regarding the truthfulness of the
proposition is made after hearing the arguments of both sides.

Logic is a branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments. Arguments are
given great importance since these are used to convey ideas that influence the thinking, actions, and
behavior of people. It can lead people to either right or wrong decisions and actions. Thus we need to be
very careful when we listen to arguments since not all arguments are truthful. In addition, not arguments
have the same merit because some are better presented and substantiated than others. It is also possible
that claims and arguments are given by persons who have ill intentions and wish to twist or manipulate
facts to suit their own purposes. As we analyze what is presented to us, we must always keep in mind the
standards of critical thinking.

What should we consider when looking at arguments or opinions?

 Arguments often take the form of statements that are either claims of facts an are phrased in
such a way that they seem reasonable. However, a number of arguments may be based on faulty
reasoning. These kind of arguments are called fallacies. Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the
person making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her arguments.

When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the personal views of the person presenting it.
Biases are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or influences which affect the views
of people. Bias cannot be avoided in any discussion or debate. What is important is that the people
engaging in the discussion are aware of their personal biases and have an open but critical attitude toward
other views which conflict with their own.

How can an understanding of the difference between truth and opinion lead us to wisdom?

An understanding of opinions and facts and the means to distinguish one from the other can
further improve our understanding and appreciation of varied views and ideas. The ability to determine
truth goes hand in hand with the holistic perspective and enables us to make wiser decisions, especially in
choosing the ideas and views which we find acceptable.

An individual cannot live his or her life just agreeing with everybody he or she meets. A
critical mind aided by philosophy can help is form our own personal point of view that can guide us in
making decisions and actions when faced with a problem. Each individual’s point of view is unique but it
should be based on sound and reasonable ideas and views. Philosophy can help us determine ideas that
are truthful and acceptable, which we can then use to form our own views regarding certain matters.

Continue philosophizing on the other issues that you encounter everyday as this will help you
define your thoughts, actions, and behavior. This will hopefully enable you to be more discerning and
lead you to actively involve yourself in discussing and clarifying issues and taking appropriate action to
address them.

Exercises/Drills

A.) Identify the following. Write your answer on a space provided.

________ 1. It is the clear awareness and understanding of something.

________ 2. These are statements which are observed to be real or truthful.

________ 3. These are statements which need to be examined to determine whether they are
true or false.

________ 4. These are comprised of statements that provide views on a certain matter.

________ 5. This is a judgement based on certain facts.

________ 6. These are statements that express convictions that are not easily explained by facts.

________ 7. These are statements that assume a claim is true and provide reasons to support
them.
 ________ 8. This is a series of statements that provide reasons to convince a person that a claim
or opinion is truthful.

________ 9. These are arguments based on faulty reasoning.

_______ 10. These are tendencies or influences that affect the views of people.

B.) Evaluation
Discuss the following:
1. How can philosophy help identify things that are truthful?
2. What traits and values can help us in determining truth?
3. How will knowing truth help us become more wise and discerning individuals?

CHAPTER 3

THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT

Learning objectives:

 Explain that they are human persons possessing a body and spirit;
 Identify the traits that distinguish them as human persons;
 Explain how embodiment defines them as a persons;
 Recognize that human nature brings the possibility of transcendence;
 Recognize their own limitations and possibilities;
 Evaluate their own limitations and possibilities for transcendence;
  Recognize how the human body imposes limits on and possibilities for transcendence; and
 Distinguish the limitations on and possibilities for transcendence.

The human person is an important subject in Philosophy and an understanding of the nature and
condition of the person is one of the foremost goals of the discipline. Philosophers have long pondered
human nature, what it means to be human, and what sets us apart from other beings and things in
existence.

We often ask ourselves, “What makes us special?” Pondering our human nature allows us to
determine the special traits that make us humans unique as a species. Further reflection on our nature as
humans will also help us figure out what makes us special as individuals and how this uniqueness is
shared with our fellow human beings.

The following terms are related to the discussion of the human person:

Man is the general term commonly used to refer to the entire human race. Other related terms
include humanity, mankind, and humankind. Human refers to man as species─ Homo sapiens sapiens or
modern human beings. The term human being is also used to distinguish man from other animals.

Person is a much more complex term which generally refers to a human being granted
recognition of certain rights, protection, responsibilities, and dignity, above all. Philosophers refers to the
human person as the totality of an individual, possessing awareness, self-determination, and the capacity
to interact with others and with himself or herself. Personhood refers to the state of being a person.

Human nature refers to the characteristics that distinguish humans from all other creatures.
These traits are assured to arise independent of the influence of culture and society. Examples of these
characteristics include thinking, feeling, and acting. These traits are considered to form the essence of
humanity, and without them, an individual may not be considered a human person.

What is the human person?

The most basic definition of a human being relates to the nature of humans as animals.
Philosophers, however, believe that the human being is not just a mere animal. There ia something in the
human individual that seta him or her apart from other beings. These special traits make a human a
distinct individual person.

So how do we know that we are human persons? Let us first compare ourselves to the following:

Ask yourself the following questions:

Am I a rock?

Am I a lamp?

Am I a dog?

There are several obvious reasons why you replied NO to each of these questions. However, let
us explore the reasons why you cannot consider yourself as one of those pictured. Based on a purely
physical comparison, we can confidently state that we share no physical similarities with a rock and a
lamp as they are non-living things composed of inorganic materials.

Looking at the dog, however, you may see a number of shared traits or features. Human and
animals are living beings and thus share many attributes. We both have eyes, ears, a nose, a mouth, a
body ─ though these are shaped in different ways. Being a living, breathing, functioning organism is a
characteristic that we share with other organisms that occupy this planet. Though living is an essential
features of being human, it cannot be the defining feature that sets us apart and make us human persons.

We need to look deeper within ourselves and figure out what really sets us apart from other living
things. So how do you differ from the dog? Look at the dog a little more closely and try and exercise your
imagination.

Let us say that we make this dog your pet. Think back on how you treat your pets. Oftentimes we
treat our pets as if they are similar to us. The following are ways pet owner treat animals as people.

You put clothes on your pet.

You give your pet a toys to play with.

You make it live in your house.

You teach it to behave properly around other world people.

You give it birthday parties and invite other people to attend and celebrate.

By doing this things, do you make your pet a human person? The answer is, of course, no.
Despite the actions and intentions of people who really love animals, animals are fundamentally different
from us, humans. Though we share a number of similarities with other members of the animal kingdom,
there are certain things that we possess ─ traits and capabilities ─ that are not found in other organisms.

Now, look at your pet more deeply to really make sense of personhood.

Is your pet truly aware of what is happening around it?

Can your pet truly feel emotions in the same way that you do?

Is your pet capable of reflection? Can it question its nature or identity as a dog?

Can your dog reflect on its actions and behavior? Do you think it can feel guilt or
satisfaction in the same way you do?

Studying these questions will give you an idea of what defines humans as persons and what
philosophers look for in their search to define the human person.

The first trait that defines a persons is self-awareness. Self-awareness refers to the person having
a clear perception of oneself, including his or her thoughts, emotions, identity, and actions. Human
awareness goes beyond perception and reaction to the environment. The human person is defined by a
deeper awareness which is driven by rationality or human thought. A person is aware of both his or her
surroundings and himself or herself. A human person knows that he or she is living an experience and is
an active participant in this experience. We do not experience life aa an audience watching a movie on a
screen; we are stars in our own movies, acting and starring in a story of our own making.

This awareness gives rise to the notion of “self”, which philosophes describe as the person who is
actively aware that he or she is perceiving and experiencing reality.

Try saying these words aloud:

I am a person.
I am alive.
I exist.
I am here. I am present.
I am living at this

Do you believe that these statements are true? If yes, then congratulations! You are a person
possessing awareness of yourself.

This awareness of the self also enables us persons to experience an “inner world” that is defined
by our personal thoughts and ideas. The fact that we can daydream, get lost in our thoughts, imagine l,
fantasize, and reflect shows that we are able to reach within ourselves and experience interiority, which
is the quality of being focused on one’s inner life and identity. This interiority enables person to exercise
creativity. It allows us to imagine the sky in different colors, draw fantastic animals and landscapes,
create new music, and think of lyrics to a song. Additionally, creativity also means that a person can
create within himself or herself what is not yet existing outside. Having an inner world allows a person to
create goals, dreams, and plans which may be realized through activity. A person can also create himself
or herself within and realized this self without.

The self also enables us to reach out and interact with things outside of ourselves. These means
that we are not only aware of our surroundings and everything around us―but we are also aware of other
human beings. When we see a stranger smiling or nodding at us, we are aware that another person has
seen us and acknowledge us as a person. We know that the people we encounter are also other persons
who possess the same awareness as we do, as well as the other traits that define a person.

Another trait that defines a person is. Self-determination. These refers to the capability of
persons to make choices and decisions based on their own preferences, monitor and regulates their action,
and be goal-oriented and self-directed. We are persons because we act and we are aware of our actions.
Try and raise your right hand. Are you able to do it? Who makes you raise your hand? You may argue
that you are instructed to do so. However, the actual action of raising your hand is yours alone. Your
teacher does not have a remote control that can control your bodily actions. Neither do printed words in
this book possess the power to directly control your body. You alone decide to comply with the
instructions given to raise your right hand and it is you alone who make your arm move to raise your right
hand.

Recall the instance in class when your teacher asked those who knew the answer to a question to
raise their hands. You only raised your hand if you knew the answer to the question. Alternatively you
may have known the answer to the question but refused to raised your hand. Our free will enables us to
do actions whenever we want to and make self-determination possible. Free will is the capacity to choose
a course of action from various alternatives. The existence of free will enables a persons to act willfully,
control his or her actions, and recognized himself or herself as the source of action.

Imagine a small boy, Carlo, playing in the living room of their house while his mother is in the
kitchen. Suddenly, the boy accidentally bumps into the table, causing a vase to fall. Upon hearing the
sound of something crashing to the floor, Carlo’s mother immediately goes into the living room and sees
him standing near the broken vase. Carlo’s mother ask him, “Did you break the vase?” What do you think
his answer will be?

I broke the vase, Mama.

I bumped into the table and the vase fell, Mama.

No. I did not break the vase, Mama.

The first two statements show that Carlo is aware of himself as the cause for the vase breaking.
The second statement gives more details but note that Carlo admits to bumping the table, which in turn
caused the vase to fall and break. His answers shows that Carlo is aware of himself as the source of action
and has acted accordingly, owning up to the fact that he indirectly broke the vase. Carlo also exercises
self-determination in determining which response to give. Carlo can choose to admit breaking the vase, or
he can choose to deny that he broke the vase.

A discussion of self-determination and free will eventually leads to a discussion of consequence.

Consequence is the result or effect of an action or condition. As persons, we are aware that each actions
we perform has a consequences. Imagine holding an egg in your hands. What will happen if you squeeze
the egg? What will happen if you open your hand and let the egg fall? The simple scenario shows the
relationship between action and consequence. Philosophers assume that a person acts freely and with due
regard for the consequences of his or her actions.

Now, think back and reflect on your daily actions. What are the intended consequences of you
everyday “normal” actions? What are the consequences of waking up early? Eating breakfast? Taking a
bath? Going to school? Sleeping on time? Oftentimes, reflection is needed to uncover the intentions and
consequence of our actions. There may also be instances when our actions produce unintended
consequences. For example, you decide not to go home at six o'clock in the evening but instead spend
time with your friends. Back home, a delivery track arrives at 6:30 PM carrying a package from your
relative. But since no one is hone, the delivery man is unable to give the package to your family.

Let us go back and analyze Carlo’s situation. Let’s plot the various actions in a diagram to
understand the nature of the consequences he has experienced.

Carlo plays in the room.

Carlo bumps into the table.

Vase falls to the floor and breaks.

Mother goes into the living room to

investigate

Mother ask him if he broke the vase.

Carlo responds

???

Looking at the diagram, you will see that there is a chain of actions and events that have cause-
and-effect relationship. One major consequence brought about by Carlo's action is the vase falling to the
floor and breaking, which happened because he bumped into the table when he was playing. Was it
Carlo's intention to break the vase? We can argue that he had no intention of doing so, and in fact, it
might not have crossed Carlo's mind that playing in the room would cause him to break something.
Person exercise self-determined actions but often encounter unintended consequences of their actions.

Now try and complete the sequence. What do you think will happen if Carlo admits to breaking
the vase? What will happen if he does not admit to breaking the vase?

Carlo may not have intended to break the vase, but he now has the free will to choose how he will
respond to his mother's question. This brings us to another element of human action, which is morality or
the goodness or the badness of an act. As an observer, in this situation, how will you judge Carlo if he
admits to breaking the vase? You may consider him a good boy because he is honest. You may also
describe him as a brave boy because he faces the risk of being scolded by his mother for breaking the
vase.

If Carlo denies breaking the vase, what will be your reaction? Surely you will say that he is lying,
and he is being a bad bod. Put yourself in Carlo's shoes and imagine yourself lying to your mother. This
act will result in feeling guilt or nervousness because we are aware of the fact that we are lying and what
we are doing is wrong. Imagine that Carlo's mother figures out that he is lying, what will be her reaction?

Human action is such an important aspect of the person that many philosophers consider human
action as a way to reveal a person's true nature. For example, we may find a person attractive, but if he or
she acts in a rude or offensive manner, our initial favorable impression may change. Human acts complete
the person, as it is through higher actions that his or her inner self is revealed to others, and it is through
action that a person is able to explore and fulfill his or her potential.

Now let us try and say these statements.

I am a person

My actions are my own and are made freely.

I know that I am the cause of my actions.

I know that my actions have consequences.

If you believe these statements apply to you, then you are now closer to a fuller realization of
yourself as a person. Another important trait that defines a human person is externality or the
capability to reach out and interact with others and the world. Earlier, we discuss the concept of the self
and the capability of the person to relate to other person that he or she encounters. The realization that
we are not alone and that there are the other persons around us enables us to reach out and established
meaningful relationship with others.

Philosophers considered man a social being, and that a person never exist in isolation. We may
able to experience interiority-we imagine and think for ourselves - but we also share these thoughts
with other persons. Man has a natural tendency to seek out fellow human beings, and the relationship
establish by this interaction is a vital component for survival.

Imagine waking up one morning and finding all the people in your community have
disappeared. Your family, friends, and all other persons are gone without a trace. Can you imagine
living in a place or a world where there are no people? Will you be able to provide for your needs now
that you're alone? How will you get your food and other things needed for survival? Do you see
yourself living normally now that you've no one to talk to- no family and friends to interact with?

Our interactions with others define our existence as a persons. We grow and develop not only
through our thought and actions, but also through the influence of other people in our lives, and the
individuals we meet and interact with.
 Reflect on the relationship you have established ever since. Can you say that you have grown as a
person because you had meaningful interactions with the people you met throughout your life? If your
answer Yes, then you can say the following statements with conviction.

I am a person.

I value others.

I interact with others in meaningful ways.

I value my relationship with others.

The final trait that distinguishes the human person is dignity or the innate right to be valued and
respected. Philosophers considered all humans as having an inherent worth or value. Philosophers,
however, do not equate value or worth with any quantifiable measures such s a price. Each person is
worth the same as another person in the sense that every person is priceless, unique, unrepeatable, and
irreplaceable. We do not value another person in the same way that we assign the values to things such as
cars or houses. Putting a price on person diminishes human dignity since we tend to value some people
more while we may diminish the worth of others. This is why we consider the statement "You're
worthless!" an insult, since it attacks the very notion of a person having value or worth.

The value of a human person is also proven by the fact that no person is dispensable or
interchangeable. Each person is his or her own being an there is no one in the world who is exactly like
him or her. The other people in our lives are also irreplaceable. Imagine being told that you will have to
leave your family and live with strangers. The relationship between you and the "new" people in your life
will not be as meaningful as the one you had with your original family. If you were told that you will be
moving to another school, one of the concerns you may have is that you will be leaving your friends
behind. This is the reason why any form of separation from other people we love and value is difficult
and painful experience.

Human dignity is rooted in the nature of the human being. This means that a human person has
dignity simply because of the fact that he or she is human. Dignity is not defined by outside forces or
characteristics such as intelligence, ability, skills, or attractiveness. Whether one is genius or mentally
challenge does not remove the individuals dignity as a person. This also applies to people with handicaps
or disabilities. A person who loses an arm or a leg does not become less human or less of a person. Also,
a person retains his or her dignity in spite of his or her actions or behavior. This means that criminals who
my have committed very heinous offenses are still persons even if others considered their acts cruel or
inhuman.

Human dignity also drives us to seek what is good. Doing good actions, therefore, upholds and
promotes the dignity of the human person. Since we recognize ourselves as persons with dignity who
deserve to be treated well and respected, we should also treat other persons in a respectful manner. The
recognition of the dignity of the human person is the basis for the recognition of human rights. Many of
the rights we enjoy are provided in recognition of the natural dignity of the human person.

If you believe that you and all other human beings are persons with dignity, then you will agree
with the following statements.

I am a person.
 I am a person with dignity.

I recognize that other have dignity, as well.

I must uphold human dignity in NY thoughts and actions

WHAT IS IN OUR HUMAN NATURE THAT ENABLES US TO BECOME PERSONS?

So far we have focused on traits and behavior that define human persons. Philosophers have
delved deeper into the questions of person hood. They tried to identify the substantial elements that gives
rise to the characteristics that enables us to become persons. They asked what enables human to have a
sense of self and the traits that define the person. To find the answer, philosophers began to ponder the
essential nature of the human being.

The first question philosophers pondered was whether or not the person is truly defined by his or
her body and what he or she experiences through the senses. The initial view was that the person is a
purely physical being defined by his or her body and what his or her body experiences. This emphasis on
physicality is seen when we describe ourselves as "tall" or some one with "brown hair" and "brown eyes".

Our body is not the only thing that defines us. Philosophers believe that a person cannot be
simply reduced to his or her physical body. For instance, if a person has an accident and loses an arm and
a leg, does that person lose a part of his or her identity? Does he or she become less of a person? If we
were to base person hood on the ability to perceive using our senses, does that mean that blind and deaf
people cannot be considered persons?

If you describe yourself as someone who is “hopeful”, “happy”, or “friendly”, are these traits
evident in your physical body? The characteristics are very much part of us, but are not seen in any
physical traits we possess and are only made evident through our actions.

Philosophers point to another unseen aspect of the human person which, along with the body,
defines us as person. This intangible element is the spirit which enables us to exercise thought, possess
awareness, interiority, and the capacity to reach out to ye outside world and other persons.

HOW ARE THE BODY AND THE SPIRIT RELATED?

Philosophers consider the human person as defined by the union of the body and the spirit. The
human person is an embodied spirit. Not only are the body and spirit united, but they are also
integrated with each other. This means that we cannot separate the two and the go hand-in-hand in
making us who we are. Whatever effects the body also affects the spirit, and this unique trait of the person
enables him or her to experience both the physical world and the spiritual world. Embodiment enables us
to do and experience all the things that make us human persons.

To understand the embodiment better, let us talk about love. What has love got to do with
embodiment, you ask. This would all depend on if you have ever been in love. If you have not yet
experienced falling in love, it is certain that you know people who have been in love, or know what being
in love is like from what you have read in books or seen in movies and television.

People often associate this feeling with the symbol of the heart. Many believe that the heart is the
center of the feelings of love and affection, as love seems to cause the heart to flutter or beat faster.
Scientists, however, consider love a result of various biological reactions associated with an increase of
hormones, which have certain affects on the body. Some even identify a part of the brain, the
hypothalamus, a responsible for the feelings we associate with being in love.

Philosophers, on the other hand, argue that reducing a profound experience such as love to
biological functions or the activities of certain body parts is absurd. We love not just with the heart nor
with the brain, but we love another person with our entire being. Embodiment, therefore, is the one thing
that enables us to feel love and love others.

Our experience is also a product of embodiment. The human mind processes information through
the senses, which are experienced through the body. Aside from perceiving our surroundings, we also
react to the things we experience emotionally. Most of our meaningful experiences are often closely tied
to emotions such as happiness, anger, or sadness. If you are to recall a happy moment in your life, you not
only remember the people you were with and the events that happened at the moment, you also feel the
happiness you felt at that moment.

The human body also stands as the mediator between the material world and the spiritual world.
Being an embodied spirit, the person is able to encounter the world of objects (including other personal
subjects) in a manner that transcends the physical. This feature of a person allows him or her to form an
intimate relationship with those outside him or her. Human embodiment allows person to attach certain
feelings or ideas not only to people, but also to objects. For example, a pair of rubber slippers may not
mean much to most people, but a particular pair of rubber slippers could be someone’s treasure. How is
this possible? Because the pair of rubber slippers in question is not just a material object to someone, but
it could be something meaningful as a present from a loved one.

With human embodiment, physical acts are no longer purely physical acts, because the body
conveys something from a person’s inner world. These emotions and ideas are given to another person
who, because of interiority, recognizes the thoughts that the other wishes to convey. This explain why
people who are in love with each other seem to communicate effortlessly without words. The mere act of
“holding hands” conveys a powerful message between lovers, as it is through this act they can express
their affection towards each other. A smile from a stranger will not elicit a reaction from you, but a smile
from your crush will immediately cause an intense emotional reaction in you. A pat on the shoulder may
mean a lot to a person if it comes from someone he or she looks up to. These examples shows that it is
though embodiment that a person is able to have a very unique relationship with the world. And it is this
unique relationship that defines us as humans.

HOW DOES MY HUMAN NATURE ENABLE ME TO EXPLORE MY LIMITS?

Though the nature of a person as an embodied spirit provide numerous opportunities to explore
everything around us and even within us, our human nature still imposes limitations. It is true that the
human person enjoys a number of advantages compared to other beings, but there are still a number of
things that humans naturally cannot do.

It can be said that the person is a very biologically deficient being. This means that we are not
equipped with the best physical attributes among all the beings in the world. For instance, we do not have
the natural ability to fly. We also cannot breathe underwater without the aid of breathing apparatus. We
cannot survive in certain environments like other animals. Compared to other animals, we have limited
capabilities with regard to strength, speed, and the use of our senses. Despite these natural limitations, we
have used our intellect to devise means to achieved several feats. We now use airplanes to fly, employ
scuba gear to swim underwater for extended periods, and invented tools and machines to life great
weights and perform other feats well beyond our physical capabilities.

The ability to surpass limits is called transcendence, and it is also one important trait that
distinguishes the human person from other beings in existence. Analyze the following questions and
check if you have ever found yourself asking or wondering the same things.

Have you ever wondered about what is beyond our world or universe?

Have you ever wanted to become better at something or to learn something .

new?

Do you see yourself becoming a better person over time?

Have you ever imagined a life that is better than what you are living now?

Our mi d is an important tool that allows us to go beyond many of our physical limits. As
persons. We are able to exercise our imagination and reflection to go beyond your own thoughts and
experiences. For example, we can imagine ourselves in other places without traveling there. Even if we
are seated inside the classroom, we often find ourselves daydreaming that we in other places or doing
other things. We cannot travel through time, but we use our minds to recall the past and even imagine the
future. We can even think of things that do not exist in reality like fire-breathing dragons, winged horses,
and flying elephants. Although we have physical limitations, we can transcend them because of our
spiritual dimensions. Being physically limited in our abilities does not prevent us from hoping for or
aspiring to greater things

It must also be understood that as human persons, we have natural tendencies or inclinations.
Some of these are felt bodily functions and they are experienced as a persons goes through life. The
feeling of hunger reminds us that the body needs food and nourishment. The feeling of fatigue is a
reminder that the body has limits and needs to rest and recover. Transcendence also means overcoming
oneself or being in control even if the body reminds us of certain tendencies. Although these tendencies
are felt, the person can govern them and ensure that they are exercised within the bounds of reason. A
person who has no control over his or her eating habit eventually becomes unhealthy and develops an
eating disorder; a person who allows the pleasure of dangerous drugs to rule over him becomes a drug
addict.

Each individuals carries within himself or herself the possibility of transcending his or her limits.
Most of our personal limits often involve facing a challenge or obstacle or overcoming a weakness. These
limits, however, can be overcome with enough effort and perseverance. Philosophy gives us useful too to
explore our limitations and possibilities for transcendence. The essence of transcendence is to
acknowledge our limitations, identify possibilities for development, and change ourselves for the better. It
may be a physical or behavioral change such as trying a new sport or hobby or adopting a healthier
lifestyle. You can also take on a mental challenge such as learning a new skills or doing better in your
studies. Another aspect of transcendence is opening yourself to new experiences and ideas. Our capacity
for transcendence give us the opportunity to work towards becoming better version of ourselves.

Exercises/Drills/Evaluation

A. Identify the following

1. This terms refers to man as species and distinguishes man from other animals.
2. This refers to the totality of an individual who possesses awareness, self-determination,
and the capacity to interact with others.
3. This refers to an individual who is actively aware that he or she is perceiving and
experiencing reality.
4. These refers to the ability of the person to experience an “inner world” that is defined by
personal thoughts and ideas.
5. This is the capability to act an be aware of one’s action.
6. This enables the person to act whenever he or she wants to and makes self-determination
possible.
7. This is the capability to reach out and interact with the others and the world.
8. These is the inherent value of a person which cannot be expressed in quantifiable term.
9. This is the intangible element that enables us to exercise thought, possess awareness, and
reach out to the outside world and others.
10. These is the ability to surpass limits.

B. Explore your own possibilities for transcendence. Copy and fill out the table with the
appropriate responses.

I want to be… I can achieve this by…

I want to do the following.. I can make this happen by…

 CHAPTER 4

THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Learning objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Discuss philosophical views and how they influence human action regarding the environment;
2. Notice disorder in their environment;
3. Notice things that are not their proper places;
4. Organize things in an aesthetic manner;
5. Show the care for the environment contributes to health, well-being, and sustainable
development; and
6. Demonstrate the virtues of prudence and frugality towards the environment.

Have you wondered about the changes happening in our environment? What have you noticed
about the weather and your surroundings? Which of the following statements regarding its state are true
for you and your community?

It is hotter now than it usually was during the summer months.

Typhoons are stronger and there is more rain during the rainy season.

We experience more flooding in our community.

We evacuate our homes more frequently due to natural calamities.

Our community is now dirtier and more disorderly compared to the past few . years.

Scientists also monitor the changes in our environment. Their studies show that our world is
changing not for the better but for the worse, and humanity is responsible for this.

But why are these things happening to our world? How do our actions lead to negative effects on
the environment? Should we even worry about these changes at all, or is it safe for us to go about our
business as we usually do?
 To quote the English poet John Donne, “No man is an island, entire of it self; every man is a
piece of the continent, apart of the main.” This means that as human persons, we interact not only with
our fellow human beings but also with the other living and non-living elements in our environment.

Try to put yourself in the following situations. Have you ever participated in a mountain trek?
Imagine yourself on top of a mountain looking down at the land below. Have you ever taken a trip to the
beach? Recall the moment when you stood on the shore watching the sunset. Have you ever laid down on
a grassy field and gazed at the sky? How did you feel during these instances? Did you feel at peace with
yourself and the world? Did you feel that you were part of something much larger than yourself? Did you
feel that you were one with nature.

Humankind is part of the world, we significantly effect our environment in the same way that
changes in our environment affect us.

HOW DOES PHILOSOPHY DEFINE THE PERSON'S RELATIONSHIP WITH THE

ENVIRONMENT?

Like the physical sciences, philosophy also seeks to explore the relationship between humanity
and the environment. Environmental philosophy or environmental ethics is discipline in philosophy
that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and it’s non-human contents.
Environmental philosophers tackle issues such as humanity's role in the natural world, the interaction
between nature and human activities, and humanity’s response to environmental challenges.

Philosophers believe that the person has a special relationship with nature. Unlike other
organisms that are merely par of ecosystems and exists to perform certain biological roles, the person has
the ability to change the environment to change the environment to suit his or her purposes. The early
history of humankind shows that wherever humans came together to form communities, the landscapes an
the environment changed. Forests gave way to Farmlands, mountains were mined for minerals, and
metals, and rivers and lakes were transformed to yield more resources for mankind. The pattern continues
to this day.

It is an orderly environment where human person thrive best. Disorder can give rise to several
problems and challenges for humankind. This is most evident after any natural disaster such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and severe typhoons which result in great damage to property, injuries,
and even loss of lives. Normal activities are disrupted in cities and communities.

As a rational being, the person is not the only capable of transforming the world, but also of
understanding that laws which govern nature. It can be said that the world is a text which the person can
read and understand in order to live a better life. Because of this ability to “access” nature, the role of the
person in relation to it can take different forms. He or she may opt to treat the environment as an object,
as a source of raw materials to be used in any way he or she pleases. A person may also view the
environment as something that envelopes and surrounds him or her, thus they have a special and unique
relationship with it. The raw state of environment can be likened to a blank canvas that needs to be
painted on. Persons have the unique ability of cultivating nature, bringing it closer to the intended ends.
These means that persons can help the environment become greater than what it originally is if they take
the task.
 There are major views regarding the relationship between humanity and the environment. One
view, anthropocentrism, focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature
as the means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive. This view believes that humans
are the most important species on the planet and they are free to transform nature and use its resources.
Look around and you can see evidence of humans transforming the environment to suit their needs.
Landscapes were reshaped so schools, buildings, and other structures can be built on them. Farmers till
vast tracts of land to grow crops, logger clear forests for lumber, and mining companies dig IP land and
even level mountains to access minerals and metals.

Biocentrism, on the other hand, believes that humans are not the only significant species on the
planet, and that all organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view drives the activities
of humane organization that advocate the rights of animals to be treated kindly, such as R.A. 8485 or
“The Animal Welfare Act of 1998”.

Finally, ecocentrism places great value on ecosystem and biological communities. This view
believes that humankind is part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a
significant role as stewards or guardians of nature. This view also promotes the idea that order and
balance in nature brings about stability and beauty. Several philosophical views on the environment, such
as “Deep Ecology” and the “Gaia Hypothesis “, emphasize the important role of the interaction between
the living and non-living components of the environment. Biologist believe that all biological organisms
interact with each other and that each organisms occupies a significant niche within an ecosystem.

The influence of humanity on the environment can be best understood if we consider the
individual person as a dynamic source of change within his or her particular environment. Look around
your classroom and reflect on the state of your surroundings. Do you consider your classroom clean and
orderly? Will you be able to conduct your activities if your classroom is messy and disorganized? As a
responsible member of the school community, how should you respond to this situation?

We benefit greatly from a clean and orderly environment. Clean and orderly surroundings
contribute to safety, well-being, and health, while dirty and disorderly surroundings results in disease or
accidents. Environmental aesthetics is one philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the
environment will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the
people and other organisms living in it. The appreciation of natural beauty brings about concern for the
environment and helps people relate more effectively with nature.

It cannot be denied, however, that disorder exist in our environment. Disorder can be brought
about by sudden changes in nature. For instance, natural calamities such as typhoons, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and landslide bring about destruction in our surroundings. These have a great effect on
human communities as these disrupt normal activities and result to damages to property and loss of lives.
On the other hand, human activities can also bring about disorder in our environment. The human factor
can be clearly seen in environmental problems such as pollutions, environmental degradation, the
depletion of natural resources, global warming, and climate change. Human actions that contribute to
environmental problems including littering and improper use of resources. Communities that do not
practice proper waste disposal often have dirty surroundings, with garbage littered on the streets. The
accumulating garbage cause flooding and becomes a health hazard because it spreads dirt and disease.
Factories often release harmful smoke and fumes into the air, while other dump their waste into nervy
bodies of water. These harmful actions contribute to disorder in our environment.
 A 2014 study on global warning conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) finds clear evidence that human activities have contributed to the rise of global temperatures
through the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The report highlights the indications of
global warming such as steadily warming ocean temperature and glancing melting in the Arctic. It warns
that unchecked global warming will result in climate change that has a severe and widespread impact on
communities throughout the world. Among the environmental phenomena associated with climate change
are changes in global weather patterns resulting in intense storms and heat waves; the acidification of the
oceans that affects countless marine life.; and increased global sea levels.

HOW CAN HUMANITY ADDRESS THE DAMAGE INFLICTED ON THE ENVIRONMENT?

Our important development that arose during the late twentieth century was environmentalism.
The perspective advocates to address the growing environmental problems. Philosophy has a significant
role in the development of environmental awareness and action. Several ideas and perspective regarding
environmental action have emerged.

One important philosophical view from environmentalism is environmental ethics. This is a

moral approach that analyzes the relationship between humans and the environment. It also discusses
environmental problems caused by human activities and social issues that impact the environment.

Have you ever thought about how your actions affect nature? When throwing away a piece of
trash, do you reflect on what will happen should you decide to just throw it anywhere in your school or
community? Do you see the importance of cleaning your surroundings, throwing trash properly,
segregating waste, and saving water?

Environmental ethics serve as a basis for reflecting on how our actions show our regard for
nature. We often complain about the trash scattered around our community, but what steps have we taken
to be an example of cleanliness and order in our homes and communities?

Environmental ethics also guide us in upholding the welfare of the environment and everything in
it. As a person, it is our responsibility to start with our own actions and how they affect our immediate
environment. Have you ever taken the iniative to tidy up your room or help clean your house? Starting in
your own home is an important step towards becoming a more responsible steward of nature.

Apart from individual action, environmentalism also encourages governments, institutions,

organizations, and corporations to commit to responsible action for the environment. Many of the major
environmental problems we experience, such as pollution, deforestation, and the loss of natural resources
are caused by the actions of mining and logging companies, factories, business, and even government. An
important part of environmentalism is collective action spearheaded by environmental groups that call
attention to environmental problems and environmental abuse.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ETHICAL VIEWS REGARDING THE ENVIRONMENT

 Environmental ethics emerged in the 1970s, advocating human responsibility and action with
regard to environmental issues. Its main ideas are the following:

 All nonhuman elements of the world, including animals and natural resources, have intrinsic
value and should be preserved.
 The preservation of the environment will benefit humans by providing for the needs of present
and future generations.
 Humankind has the responsibility to safeguard the planet as stewards of creation.

Environmental ethics has resulted in the development of varied views:

 Social ecology applies an ecological and ethical approach in analyzing society, and sees a
relationship between social problems and environmental problems. Society should, therefore,
implement changes in order to address issues regarding the environment.
 Concept such as climate ethics and climate justice arose from the growing concern with climate
change, and consider it a significant ethical, social, and political issue. These views were greatly
influenced by the concept of environmental justice, which refers to the fair distribution of
environmental benefits, as well as the burden of meeting environmental challenges. Advocates of
environmental justice emphasizes equity and the meaningful involvement of communities and
government’s in addressing environmental challenges and in planning and implementing
environmental policies.
 Another perspective in environmental awareness is environmental aesthetics, which originally
focused on concepts of beauty in nature, but has become increasingly influenced by
environmental concerns. Environmental aesthetics began in the twentieth century, concerned
primarily with natural beauty in the context of maintaining order and balance in the environment.
For its adherents, knowledge about nature will not only enable humans to appreciate nature’s
innate beauty but will also help then relate more effectively with the environment.

Significant social movements that were inspired by increased environmental awareness include
the environmental protection and conservation movement, animal rights, and green politics. Activism and
increased organize action are indications of the growing awareness of environmentalism in today’s
society. Environmentalism has also become an important issue in international as governments and
international organization have devoted efforts to discuss environmental issues and formulate plans to
address them. Significant development includes the signing of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, where various
nations committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in order to curb globe warning. The
celebration of Earth Day, first instituted in 1970, is a global effort to raise awareness of environmentalism
issues and inspire action among communities. The Philippines is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol and
our environment has enacted laws to address environmental problems that contribute to global warming
such as the Clean Air Act of 1999, Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, and the Wildlife
Resources Conservation and Protection Act.

WHAT CAN I DO TO UPHOLD ENVIRONMENTALIS AND CARE FOR NATURE ?

 Recognizing the urgent need for humanity to address the challenges in our environment,
philosophers urge action to directly address environmental problems. Environmentalist views have given
rise to varied perspective regarding the best means for humanity to take action and uphold its mission as
stewards of nature. One of the major concepts that drive environmentalism is sustainability or
sustainable development. This concept focuses on reconciling human activities and economic
development with the protection of the environment. One of the major ideas of sustainability is that we
must make wise decisions regarding the used of natural resources to ensure that there is still enough left
for future use.

You might have been told to finish all of your foods whenever your parents see that you have
leftovers on your plate. Have you ever wondered what happens to the unconsumed food? Imagine, in a
single day, how many people throughout the world have leftovers. If we put these together, it might as be
tall as a mountain. According to a 2011 report by the World Food Programmed, about one third of the
total food supply is wasted throughout the world. In 2008, a study of the Philippine Rice Research
Institute estimates that every Filipino wastes about 3.2 kilograms of rice every year. That food could have
fed other people but sadly it often goes to wastes. This facts highlights one important idea related to
benefit from it.

Look back at how you have been using other natural resources like water and electricity. Have
you been using them in a responsible and efficient manner? How can you improve the way you use
resources to make them more sustainable?

Sustainability relies on three important principles: environmental integrity, economic efficiency,

and equity. Environmental integrity refers to maintaining the state of the environment. This means that
human activities should not unduly disrupt the ecosystem and human communities located in the area.
Care should be taken that the surrounding landscapes is not drastically impacted by human activities.
Economic efficiency refers to prudence in decision-making regarding the use of resources to ensure that
there is minimum to zero waste. Finally, equity demands that we use our natural resources in such a
manner that these are conserved so that the next generation will be able to use them. The values of
prudence and frugality can guide us in our own personal use of resources. Prudence is the ability to
regulate one’s action and behavior while frugality is being thrifty with the use of ones resources. Reflect
on how you have been using resources at home and in school,. How can you apply prudence and frugality
in implementing changes to become a wiser and more considerate consumer? How will these values guide
you in addressing environmental problems in your home, school, and community? As a human persons, it
our responsibility to treat with respect not only our fellow humans but also everything in our world.
Upholding environmentalist and sustainability will enable us to take the first step in addressing
environmental issues and contribute to solving the greater environmental challenge of climate change.
Drills/Exercises/Evaluation

A. Circle the letter of the correct answer.

1. This is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and
humanity’s place in it.
a. Environmentalism
b. Environmental philosophy
c. Environmental aesthetics
d. Environmental Justice
2. The view considers man the most important species on the planet.
a. Biocentrism
b. Ecocentrism
c. Anthropocentrism
d. Environmentalism
3. This view believes that all organisms have inherent worth and should be valued and
protected.
a. Anthropocentrism
b. Environmentalism
c. Biocentrism
d. Ecocentrism
4. This view places great value of ecosystems and biological communities.
a. Ecocentrism
b. Biocentrism
c. Environmentalism
d. Anthropocentrism
5. Which of these statements about humankind and nature is not true?
 a. Humankind can use natural resources without regard for the consequence.
b. Humankind has a unique relationship with nature.
c. Humans are able to transform and change the environment
d. Humans are stewards of nature.
B. Write an essay explaining how will you apply prudence and frugality in using natural
resources at home, school, and in your community. Cite a situation where these values can
help address environmental problems and describe how your actions will contribute to
solving the problem. Share your essay in class.

CHAPTER 5
Freedom of the Human Person

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. discern the essence of true freedom;
2. discuss moral responsibility and accountability in their exercise of freedom;
3. realize that all actions have consequences;
4. evaluate the exercise of prudence in choices;
5. realize that choices have consequences, and some things are given up while others are
obtained in making choices; and
6. Show situations that demonstrate freedom of choice and the consequences of choices. What is
freedom? What is the essence of freedom?

Freedom is an intrinsic and essential property of the person. This means that the human person by
nature is a free being and that it is in his or her nature to seek freedom. An important indication of human
freedom is the ability to make choices and perform actions. Our freedom to act sets us apart from other
beings.
Let's compare how animals and human persons behave to get a better understanding of freedom.
We see some animals behave like human beings because they seem to perform actions in response to
commands. A well-trained dog can perform certain tasks on command such as "stay or "fetch because it
has been trained and conditioned to perform them. The same cannot be said about human beings. You
cannot just approach a stranger, toss him or her a ball, and say "Fetch" Surely, you will be met with
curious and suspicious stares. A person will not respond automatically to the command to "Fetch! because
he or she is not conditioned to obey like the dog.
The human person does not experience the world in the same way that animals do. Animals act
instinctively, meaning, their actions are more like predetermined responses to certain stimuli. A person,
on the other hand, can choose the course of action to take when given a stimulus or faced with a certain
situation. You expect your dog to always respond in the same way to your commands. With us humans,
our 1nherent freedom makes us very dynamic creatures and our actions do not necessarily follow a set
pattern or a pre-determined course. Your mother may ask you to clean your room one day and you will
follow her instruction. The following week, however; you may decide not to clean your room when told
because you feel lazy. The week after, you may decide to clean your room without even being told. These
varied actions indicate that you are exercise your freedom.
Freedom is also understood as the power to be what you want to be and the ability to decide and
create yourself. You may have a good idea of your personal i1dentity at this point in your life. Though we
have certain inherent traits such as physical attributes and temperament, many of the characteristics that
define our personality are often a product of our choices. Our talents, for instance, are developed to their
fullest only if we choose to dedicate time and effort to improve them. Our preferences and views are other
aspects of our personality that we freely adopt. You may have also imagined yourself as a successful
professional in the future. Your nature as a human person gives you the ability to imagine that future.
Your freedom, meanwhile, gives you the ability to strive to achieve that goal.
Freedom is rooted in the human person' s self-determinati1on and the exercise of intellect and
free will. This means that a person's every action is freely determined and these actions define him or her.
We can freely choose to be a good person and to act in a good way. A good act makes a person better
while its opposite has a negative impact on him or her as a person. This is the nature or sell-
determination: that a person's actions determine what kind of person he or she becomes.
Look at the situation below. Samuel is carrying a heavy load of books along the hallway when he
suddenly loses his balance and drops all the books.
 Imagine that you are one of his classmates who witnessed this. Which among the situations
pictured will be your most truthful reaction?

The pictures present three possible reactions: you may choose not to help Samuel and just watch
or ignore him while he picks up his books; you may also choose to help him pick up his books; or you
may laugh at him and refuse to help.
 Freedom gives us the choice to undertake one of these possible actions. It also enables us to come
up with choices. For instance, some may laugh at Samuel, but decide to help him later. The essence of
freedom is that it does not confine our actions to those see or expected by others; we can imagine new
actions and decide to undertake them. Now, recall your answer and ask yourself why you chose to take
that action. Reflecting upon your actions will enable you to know yourself better as a person. Your
actions also determine if you uphold human dignity and freedom. Having freedom, however, also entails
certain responsibilities. It is possible for a person to diminish or negate freedom through the choices and
actions' that he or she makes.
Freedom also requires a degree of control from the person who exercises it. A person becomes
more free when he or she exercises control over himself or herself. On the other hand, a person becomes
less free when he or she is no longer in control of himself or herself and is instead controlled by other
forces, For example, persons suffering from addiction are less free because they are overpowered by their
addiction to certain substances and can barely control themselves when presented with these things.
People who act solely based on their emotions are also less free because they allow themselves to be
controlled by their feelings without any regard for ethical considerations. People who behave impulsively
and erratically are more similar to animals than persons. To lose control of oneself diminishes human
freedom and dehumanizes the person.
Persons who are denied their freedom by other individuals, groups, and institutions are also
dehumanized. Slavery is a dehumanizing act because a person is forced to work for life without the
possibility of leaving a life of bondage. A person who is imprisoned is also dehumanized because he or
she is denied his or her freedom and is confined to prison life. That same person, however, also
dehumanized the person whom he or she wronged.
Kinds of Freedom
1. Physical Freedom
Physical freedom refers to the absence of any physical restraint. The person has the freedom of
mobility to go where he or she wants to go. He or she is not impeded in his or her actions by any physical
force. Granted that the person has natural limitations, physical freedom allows him or her to act and move
in a determined manner. You cannot be everywhere at once, but your freedom allows you to move from
one place to another and to go wherever you want to go.
2. Psychological Freedom
Psychological freedom is also called freedom of choice. The person is free to perform actions that
he or she considers right and wise. A person is also free to act or not to act. Psychological freedom is
innate and cannot be denied a person. No outside force or influence can compel a person to take action
against his or her will.
3. Moral Freedom
Moral freedom refers to using freedom in a manner that upholds human dignity and goodness.
Freedom is not an object that a person may use in whatever way he or she pleases. A person must use his
or her freedom to grow as a person. A person becomes more free when he or she uses freedom well, but
becomes less free when he or she uses it in a bad way. Humans have a natural inclination for what is true
and good, and when a person uses his or her freedom to do acts that violate human dignity and goodness,
he or she dehumanizes himself or herself and effectively negates human freedom.
What makes us free? How does freedom shape our experiences?
There are two elements that define freedom. Voluntariness refers to the ability of a person to act
out of his or her own free will and self-determination. This means that a person may decide to act or not
to act, and these decisions are made out of his or her own free will. Voluntariness also means that a
person may act even if he or she is not required or called to take action. Voluntary acts are free acts which
can be assigned a corresponding moral value.
Lets analyze the following scenario and figure out how voluntariness was expressed in the
situation.

Mang Lito was walking down a street when he suddenly saw a boy crossing the busy
road. The boy was chasing after a basketball that had bounced off into the road. The boy had his
eyes on his ball and did not realize that there was oncoming traffic on the road. At the same time,
a taxi was passing along the road, Its driver saw the boy suddenly crossing and he quickly
applied his brake to stop the car. The taxi was about to hit the boy when Mang Lito decided to
take action, ran across the road, and grabbed the boy to safety.

Reflect on the actions and choices that were made in that situation. Why did the boy suddenly
cross the street? W/hat did the taxi driver do when he saw the boy on the road. What did Mang Lito do
when he realized the boy was about to be hit by the car?
Did Mang Lito really have to save the boy? You can argue that he had the freedom to just stand
by and not get involved in the incident. If he did that, what would be the result of his inaction? Would it
be possible for the other people on the sidewalk to risk their lives like Mang Lito did? What can you say
about Mang Lito and his actions? What do you think will be the result of his actions?
Reflect on your own experiences or actions. Have you ever made a voluntary action to address a
bad situation? You may have come across some situations where you knew that something bad was
happening. Did you make a voluntary action to prevent something bad from happening, or did you choose
not to act?
Look at the following pictures below, figure out what is happening and discuss what would be the
best course of action in these situations.

Whenever we decide to take action, this results in a certain consequences. All human actions have
consequences, and these affect not only the person who commits the action, but also other people and our
surroundings. As a free being, the person must accept the consequences of his or her action and take
responsibility for them. The second element of freedom, responsibility, refers to the person being
accountable for his or her actions and their consequences.
 Taking responsibility can either mean a person voluntarily taking responsibility for his or her own
actions, or being held responsible by other people. Whenever you know you committed a bad action, you
can either voluntarily confess to it or other people will point it out and hold you responsible.
Responsibility can also have a positive or negative meaning, and it goes hand-in-hand with voluntariness
in determining the morality of an action.
Let's go back to the situation presented earlier. If Mang Lito was able to rescue the boy from
being hit by the car, he could take responsibility for his heroic action. The people who saw his act may
regard him as a hero and express admiration for him. On the other hand, if Mang Lito was unable to save
the boy in time, the taxi driver could be held responsible for hitting the boy. Mang Lito could even hold
himself responsible for failing to save the boy.
Voluntariness and responsibility g0 hand-in-hand in determining a person's freedom. In any
situation where a person is forced to do an action against his or her will, it follows that he or she cannot
be held responsible for his or her involuntary actions. A person who is forced by bank robbers to open the
safety vault in a bank may not be held fully responsible for the crime of robbery, since he or she acted
without much voluntariness. On the other hand, a person who had no awareness of the effect of his or her
actions can be considered as acting with diminished freedom. One example may be a person who tried to
scare his or her friend by jumping out of a corner wearing a scary mask. The surprised friend decided to
run away but in his or her panic, he or she hit a wall and was injured. It was not the intention of the
person who committed the prank to get his or her friend hurt, but it happened because he or she did not
fully consider the consequences of his or her actions. Without these two elements, human freedom is
diminished, and the person makes imperfect actions and unwise decisions which may have negative
effects on the self and others.
The realization of voluntariness and responsibility in the exercise of our freedom gives our
actions and experiences a whole new meaning. We can now reflect on our actions to better understand
them and guide us toward making the best possible decision.
We can therefore begin to examine our actions, habits, and behavior by asking ourselves the
following questions:
What should I do?
Why should I do it?
What will happen if I do it?
How will my actions or behavior affect myself, others, and my surroundings?
Will my actions or behavior be considered correct, proper, beneficial, and moral?

Another reality that we have to face as we exercise our freedom is the fact that freedom is
experienced through the act of making choices. Although human freedom gives us the ability to think of
countless decisions and possible actions, we only get to choose to enact one of these possible actions or
decisions. Having the ability to choose and enact a course of action does not automatically mean that we
should take action every time. It is also possible that the choice not to take action may be an acceptable
and moral choice in a given situation.
When we make the choice to do a particular action, we can never go back and redo our actions
and make another choice. Real life is not a movie where we can stop and rewind events and get a second
take on the situation. Therefore it is very important that when confronted with choices, we exercise
caution and prudence and reflect on our possible courses of action.
 Self-reflection is vital in the proper exercise of human freedom. As persons, we cannot allow
ourselves to be slaves to sudden emotions and moods whenever we act. As free and rational beings, we
must recognize the importance of exercising freedom responsibly. This requires us to reflect on our
actions, consider their effects, and make the proper choices regarding the most beneficial decisions or
actions.

How can l exercise my freedom in a responsible and beneficial manner?

You may have heard the saying: "My freedom to swing my fist ends where your nose begins" This
simple statement points to the fact that human freedom, though essential is not absolute. Human freedom
should be exercised with control and a recognition of reasonable limits. We set limits to our own
freedom and learn to moderate or control our thoughts, emotions, and actions depending on the situation.
A person can even choose to limit his or her own freedom or even surrender it entirely if it will result in
greater benefits
A person may choose not to enter the jeepney first despite being first in line to give way to an
elderly woman. A young professional may choose not to speak up in a meeting regarding serious
concerns about a worker, but instead directly confront the person concerned in private. You may be very
angry at your teacher for scolding you in front of the entire class but you refrained from answering back
at him or her since it will be considered a disrespectful act. Citizens may be angry about corruption in the
government but they do not go to the streets and engage in violence just to express their anger. Instead,
they find other more reasonable and lawful means to express it.
Limiting our personal freedom requires us to sacrifice certain self interests and accept certain
realities that are beyond our control. You may have the freedom to pursue a degree in medicine but,
realizing that your parents do not have the means to send you to medical school, you decide to take a less
expensive course. Our sense of right and wrong guides us in recognizing and deciding on the limitations
to our freedom.
Our society also imposes restrictions on our individual freedom. From determining places where
we can cross a street to controlling our actions through laws and relations, society implements reasonable
restrictions to personal freedom in order to maintain order and harmony and uphold the welfare of the
public.
Freedom should also be exercised with regard for knowledge and truth. As rational beings, it
is natural for us to think before we act. We use our freedom to act and acquire more knowledge, and we
use this knowledge in order to come up with decisions and courses of actions when confronted with
difficult situations. To correctly answer a multiple choice item in an exam, a student should study and
prepare beforehand to know the correct information needed to answer the test. Otherwise, he or she will
be unable to answer the test correctly.
The ability to acquire information and truthful knowledge regarding a particular situation is very
important, since it aids us in making wise and informed choices. For instance, in voting for officials in
your student council elections, some students may choose to vote for candidates they know and like, or
even candidates that they find attractive or appealing. More discerning students, however, will choose to
find out each candidate's views on important school issues and cast their vote based on their judgment of
who is the better candidate to address these concerns. A courtroom judge has the freedom to make any
decision on any case. But if he or she wishes to uphold justice and render proper judgment, he or she must
carefully study the facts of the case in order to arrive at correct conclusions regarding the issues. Truthful
knowledge is also needed for people who wish to invest in business ventures to determine if they are
getting into legitimate transactions or are just being deceive into participating in a scam.
Determining the proper information needed before we choose the best course of action is not
easy, but it is a necessary step to ensure that our choices, decisions, and actions are proper, reasonable,
and just. If we make a choice and act on false or incomplete information, we may end up making
decisions which will bring harm to ourselves and others. It is therefore necessary to cultivate the
intellectual virtue of prudence to be our guide in making sound choices.
As human persons, our nature drives us to uphold human dignity and goodness. In exercising our
freedom, we should also recognize and uphold not only our individual freedom but also the freedom of
others. This view has led to the assertion that freedom is a recognized and guaranteed right for all
persons. Many societies identify certain freedoms that should be enjoyed by all, as these contribute to the
quality of life of the individual and the welfare of society. These include the freedom to live and
determine one's identity; freedom from slavery and other constraints; freedom of speech; and freedom of
thought, conscience, and religion. Freedom should be exercised with due regard for the welfare of other
persons and one's freedom should be exercised not as a tool to restrict the freedom of others, but as a
means to enable others to fully enjoy their own freedom

FINAL NOTE: The Given and the Chosen

People often think that the fullness of freedom is found in one's ability to make decisions about
one's life. Choice is indeed an element of freedom, but freedom goes beyond mere choosing. Freedom is
not absolute, and in our fives, there are a lot of things that we could not choose. For example, we were not
given a choice if we wanted to be born: we were simply given life. We also did not choose our parents,
some of our physical traits and personal characteristics were simply genetically handed down and already
form part of us. We are not in total control of everything around us, and we sometimes find ourselves
with very limited choices, such as being stuck in traffic, getting mugged by someone on the street, and
having strong emotions for someone. Many things in life are given. Although some things are given, it
does not mean that we do not really have freedom. On the contrary, there are instances when we can
exercise our freedom because we are not determined by these forces or situations. Difficult situations may
not always be avoidable, especially if we happen to be victims of circumstance, but we may take these
difficult situations positively or negatively. We may not always have the best family, but it does not mean
that our future family will turn out the same way as our current one. A person with an indifferent attitude
may find it hard to be motivated and excited about things in general, but it doesn't mean that he or she is
incapable of being interested and inspired to act passionately. These "givens" or predetermined things do
not negate our freedom but give us opportunities to exercise our freedom when we determine ourselves.
The key idea is that we should always act well in any given situation because the self is determined by the
self. We have given the tendencies or inclinations, and the world allovers some forces over us, but we
cant transcend all of these and determine ourselves in the manner we want because we are free. As much
as possible, we must use our freedom on a good ways so we that we may become better people and better
versions of ourselves for our own sake and the sake of others.
EXERCISES:

Identify the following. Write your answers on a separate piece of paper.

1. This is the ability to make choices and perform actions, and is an intrinsic and essential property
of the human person.
2. This is freedom from any physical restraint.
3. This is the freedom of choice.
4. This is the ability to act out of one's own free will and self-determination.
5. This refers to the person being accountable for his or her actions and their consequences.

EVALUATION

1. In what way can you change or improve your behavior so that you will be better able to uphold
human freedom?
2. What is the most significant decision that you have made in your life so far? Describe how this
has affected you.
 CHAPTER 6 : INTERSUBJECTIVITY

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. discuss intersubjectivity and how it defines human interactions and relationships

2. realize that intersubjectivity requires accepting differences and not imposing on others;
3. appreciate the talents and contributions to society of persons with disabilities and those from the
underprivileged sectors of society;
4. explain that authentic dialogue means accepting others even if they are different from themselves;
and
5. perform activities that demonstrate the talents of persons with disabilities and those from the
underprivileged sectors of society.

Humans have the natural and universal tendency to relate, to establish attachments, and seek close
relationships with other people. Our human nature drives us to reach out to other people and interact with
them in meaningful ways. Take a look at the following pictures and try to describe the relationship
between the family members.

Which of these situations do you prefer? We understand that a harmonious relationship between
people is very important. You have to maintain good relations with your family, friends, schoolmates, and
the people in your community for your activities to be productive, meaningful, and beneficial.

How do we as human persons relate with others?

Our ability to engage in meaningful interactions with other people, our surroundings and
everything around us is rooted in our capacity for self-awareness and transcendence. Before we begin to
relate with others, we must first be aware of ourselves as rational individuals capable of determined and
reasonable action. Interpersonal relations are made possible when the self becomes aware of the other,
which includes everyone and everything outside of the self.

Take a moment to look at your seatmate. Are you aware of his or her existence? The answer is
yes, since you can perceive your seatmate through your senses. Your classmate is the other, or a being
that exists outside of your self. Now take a look at an object on your desk. It may be a pencil, ballpen,
piece of paper, or any object. That object is also an other, as it is a thing that also exists outside of your
self. Now, which of the following actions is more reasonable?
 You begin talking to your classmate, telling him or her about a funny experience you had
in school.
You begin talking to the ballpen on your desk, telling it about a funny experience you had
in school.

Of course, you will select the first statement, since it describes a reasonable logical human act.
You only interact with objects when you need to use them. You reach out for the pencil and paper only
when you need to write, and you do not to talk to these objects to enable them to enact their purpose.
Interacting with other human beings however, is a more complex act. What drives human persons to
interact with their fellow humans in a more meaningful way?

Our human nature not only enables us to recognize the self that defines our individuality, it also
enables us to recognize that other human beings also possess a self. We are able to relate meaningfully
with other human beings because we consider ourselves as essentially the same. This notion of
recognizing the self in the other is how philosophers define interpersonal relations.

The interaction between the self and the other is related to the philosophical concept of
intersubjectivity, which is the mutual recognition of each other as persons. It cannot be denied that at
with are persons and must be recognized as such. Intersubjectivity also carries the meaning of “ a unique
relationship between distinct subjects”. It refers to the characteristic of the human person to engage in
a very intimate and personal relationship with others who are different from him or her but who are also
like him or her. This is possible because the person has an inner life or interiority. Having an inner life
allows the person to give himself or herself to others. This also allows the individual to receive others in
his or her life and relate with them. Intersubjectivity also allows a person to become closer to others in
many different ways. In everyday social interactions, persons have the ability to agree and cooperate with
each other. There is also the experience of shared or common knowledge and shared emotions such as
grief, joy, and love.

A closer look at everyday interactions reveals instances where the self interacts with the other.
Philosophers identify various levels of self other interaction. The first is the simple awareness of the
existence of the other. When we see other people walking down the street we are aware that there are
other beings- unique from us, and that they exist outside of our own awareness or perception.

Having an inner life allows the person to give himself or herself to others. This also allows the
individual to receive others in his or her life and relate with them. Intersubjectivity also allows a person to
become closer to others in many different ways. In everyday social interactions, persons have the ability
to agree and cooperate with each other. There is also the experience of shared or common knowledge and
shared emotions such as grief, joy, and love.

A closer look at everyday interactions reveals instances where the self interacts with the other.
Philosophers identify various levels of self other interaction. The first is the simple awareness of the
existence of the other. When we see other people walking down the street we are aware that there are
other beings- unique from us, and that they exist outside of our own awareness or perception.
 The unique phenomenon of the human gaze is considered a defining characteristics which sets
apart human interaction from the interaction of other species. Also, the awareness of the “self in the
other” is an important element in all other aspects of interpersonal interactions. The way we act with
other people is often influenced by our ideas of how these people see us. Therefore, if we have the idea
that our parents think of us as quiet and obedient, we often act that way with them. However, when we are
with our friends and we think that they see us as outgoing and boisterous, we also adjust our behavior to
conform with how we think they expect us to act. This is also true when considering social contexts: how
we behave in church is different from our behavior in a lively party.

These actions are referred to as "seeming"- where an individual presents himself or herself in a
certain way when dealing with others. Persons take on “roles” or act out characters when dealing with
certain people or when in certain situations. This is considered as an unconscious, natural act on the part
of humans. However, there may be instances when people behave a certain way in order to intentionally
deceive or manipulate other people. Surely you have heard of the terms “plastic” and “sipsip" which refer
to manipulative behaviors that are done by some people in pursuit of selfish interests.

What characterizes a genuine human interaction?

Most human interactions, however, are not based on deception. Since our human nature drives us
to uphold dignity and goodness, our interactions with others a geared toward what is good and beneficial.
These lead humans to strive to achieve deeper and more substantial interactions and relations with other
people. This deeper and more genuine interaction is called a dialogue, and this is made possible when the
self realizes that the other is a genuine and unique individual. When two individuals begin to view each
other as an other -that is, truly acknowledging each others presence-then that is the beginning of an
authentic relationship and a dialogue.

A dialogue is an interaction between persons that happens through the use of words, expressions,
and body language. The person is a being who is open to others, and is capable of receiving others in a
dialogue. Ordinarily, we think of it as a kind of communication that usually occurs through a
conversation. However, it must be noted that a dialogue is not confined to words. Actions, gestures and
other expressions may be used to convey a person's inner life. Because persons are beings with inner
lives, the words uttered during a dialogue are rooted in each person's inner life. Whenever a person
speaks, he or she expresses a personal interiority and communicates this part of himself or herself to
another person. This is the reason why it is not possible to have a dialogue with a material object, a plant,
or even a pet. Only beings with interiority or an inner life can engage in a dialogue.

A person s words, expressions, and body language become the means by which he or she is able
to express a part of himself or herself to another person. Apart from expressing and conveying oneself,
the person is also capable of receiving the words, thoughts, emotions, and ideas of another person. The
dialogue, therefore, becomes a means by which persons are able to share in each other's lives.

The notion of a dialogue becomes clearer when we reflect on the nature of our conversations with
other people. The conversations you have with casual acquaintances are different from those with people
who are closest to you. Casual conversations with other people often consist of discussing news or
occurrences. We often conduct our normal conversations in this manner. But when we are with friends
and family, we are comfortable discussing more personal issues like life goals, emotional problems, or
moral dilemmas. You will not engage a random stranger on the street in a conversation about whether or
not you should give up your ambitions in life for the welfare of your family. Instead, you will seek out a
person whom you consider most trustworthy and reliable to listen to your thoughts and concerns.

Dialogue occurs when two persons "open up" to each other and give and receive one another in
their encounter. Genuine dialogue occurs when persons are willing to share themselves with one another.
The awareness of each other's presence as a true person is defined by the acceptance of each other's
uniqueness and differences. When each individual enters into a dialogue with this mindset, then it is truly
a dialogue between equals.

How does intersubjectivity define our interactions with other persons?

 Philosophers agree that it is important for humans to pursue and achieve genuine relationships to
attain development. Human persons naturally seek and are able to achieve and maintain genuine,
meaningful relations with each other. The human person is considered as a "being with others", which
means that his or her identity and destiny are shaped by relating with others. Human existence is a
continual dialogue with the other, and that the self becomes whole through interaction with other people
and his or her surroundings.

Empathy, or the ability to share emotions, is an important aspect of intersubjectivity. This

emotion is driven by a person’s awareness that the other is a person with thoughts and feelings. Human
persons are actively aware of the emotional states of other people, and they use this information to
determine their own actions and behavior. Empathy enables us to experience another person s emotions,
such as happiness, anger, and sadness. In a manner of speaking, sympathy is “feeling with” and empathy
is "feeling in." For instance, how would you behave around a friend who just informed you that his or her
parent has died? Empathy enables you not only to share your friend's grief and offer him or her comfort
during a difficult experience, but also to feel the grief of that person even if it wasn't your own relative's
death. Persons can also share more positive emotions such as joy and pride. Examples include basketball
enthusiasts celebrating their favorite team's victory, and parents taking pride in their child's achievement
during graduation by allowing us to share in another person's emotions, empathy also enables us to place
ourselves in their shoes.

Another characteristic of meaningful and genuine

human relationships is availability, or the willingness of a
person to be present and be at the disposal of another. You
may have encountered a situation where you needed help. For instance, you went to an unfamiliar place
and cannot locate the place where you are supposed to go. What will you do? You might think of asking
directions from the people living in the area. How will you feel if you were asking for directions, but the
people you were asking kept ignoring you? What will you think about these people? Let's say a stranger
approaches you in the street asking for help. What will be your first reaction? Will you try and help that
person or will you ignore him or her?

The ethics of care is an ethical theory that

emphasizes the moral dimension of relationships and
interactions. This moral perspective encourages
individuals to help other people, most especially the
vulnerable. Proponents of the ethics of care believe
that people have a moral obligation to respond to the
needs of other people; and one cannot turn a blind eye
on the problems of others. People relate to each other
in different ways and this gives rise to varying
degrees of dependence among people. Those who are
able to help or give assistance should consider the
specific needs of the people they are helping. Look at

the following pictures. What can you do to lend assistance to these people?

Not all human interactions, however, are positive. There are those who view other people
negatively and consider human actions as being influenced by selfish interests. This pessimistic view
considers human relationships frustrating and often inauthentic or deceptive. A person that adopts this
negative view is said to be experiencing alienation. This arises when a person ceases to view the other as
a distinct and authentic person and merely considers the other person as a mere object or a means to
satisfy personal interests.
 You might have encountered people who behave in a rude and offensive manner against others
whom they consider "different" from them. We often hear the term "matapobre” used to describe well-off
people who look down on other people that they consider "poor". In restaurants, you might have heard a
customer berating the serving staff and even insulting them for committing a mistake. How did you feel
when you encountered these situations?

Our human nature drives us to feel indignation against these kinds of behavior because we know
that these actions are an insult to human dignity. Feelings or views of alienation, if left unaddressed, give
rise to negative views and actions directed against a person or group of persons. Alienation goes against
the concept of personhood because this view discounts the humanity and dignity of a person and leads to
dehumanization.
 Imagine that your schoolmates cease to call each other by their names and instead choose to
highlight their physical flaws. Those with dark skin will be called "Negro” or “Negra”, those with a
speech impediment will be called "Ngongo', those who lack height will be called ‘Pandak', and those who
are not attractive will be called "Panget'. And let's imagine that those who do not possess these physical
flaws will consider themselves superior and act as if those with flaws do not deserve to belong in school
and should therefore be treated unfairly. Do you think that there will still be harmony in your school?
Imagine if you were one of these people being ridiculed. How would you feel if you were treated in this
manner? What do you think will happen if this behavior becomes prevalent in our society.

Society must be founded on relationships and bonds established through mutual respect and
recognition of human dignity. If we recognize that the other person is the same as ourselves, if we
consider him or her as an individual with dignity, as a person no different from us, then we will be able to
forge ties and build a community of harmony.

How can philosophy help you evaluate your relationships with others?

Important values related to intersubjectivity include acceptance of differences and embracing

diversity. We understand that each person is unique, therefore, differences will exist among groups of
people. When we look at physical traits and even behavior, we can see that no two persons look and think
the same. When we consider views, beliefs, and ideas the differences become much more pronounced.
We have to accept that people will have different views and beliefs. What unites us all is our shared
humanity and dignity.

The recognition of our shared humanity and dignity is what drives us to extend assistance and act
with concern towards others, especially toward individuals or groups that experience hardships and
discrimination. For instance, those who are physically and mentally challenged often experience
hardships because of their condition. We have to realize, however, that these individuals, despite their
limitations, can have the same skills as those who are fully able in mind and body. They also have hopes
and aspirations like us, and many of them have successfully transcended their disabilities to become
productive and happy individuals. Examples of people with disabilities who have successfully risen above
their physical limitations to live productive lives include Helen Keller, Nick Vujicic, and Roselle
Ambubuyog.

Helen Keller (1880-1968) was an American author, political activist, and the first deaf-blind
person to earn a bachelor's degree. She lost her hearing and sight when she was an infant due to an illness.
Growing up, she developed a system of signs to communicate with her family. When Helen was seven
years old, she met Anne Sullivan, a teacher who was herself visually-impaired. Anne taught Helen to
recognize objects and learn their names, and Helen quickly learned. Helen went on to attend an institute
for the blind and deaf, and at the age of 16 entered the Cambridge School for Young Ladies. Four years
later, she was admitted to Radcliffe College. Helen was accompanied and guided by Anne Sullivan
throughout her studies. Despite being blind and deaf, Helen learned to "hear" people's speech by feeling
their lips with her hands. She became proficient at using braille and reading sign language. She eventually
learned how to speak, and became a well- known public speaker. Soon after graduating from college,
Helen spent her time giving speeches and writing books. At age 22, she published an autobiography, The
Story of My Life, which described her life and struggles growing up. The book became the basis of a
popular play titled The Miracle Worker.

Nicholas James "Nick" Vujicic (born 1982) is an Australian evangelist and motivational
speaker who was born with phocomelia, a condition in which a person is born with no arms or legs. Nicks
condition meant that his early years were full of challenges. Nick was born with two small and deformed
feet, and an operation enabled him to use his toes to grab and manipulate objects. Because of his
condition he was bullied as he grew up, but it did not stop him from pursuing his dreams. At 21, he
graduated with a degree in Commerce and went on to pursue a career as a motivational speaker and
evangelist. In 2005, he founded Life Without Limbs, a non-profit organization and ministry. He currently
lives in California with his wife and two sons.

Roselle Ambubuyog (born 1980) is the first visually-impaired Filipino to graduate summa Cum
laude from Ateneo de Manila University in 2001. Roselle lost her eye sight at the age of six due to an
illness. Despite her handicap, she was a consistent academic honor in her school, graduating valedictorian
in both elementary and high school. Her excellent performance in school enabled her to participate in
regular classes with sighted students. In Ateneo, she studied Mathematics and the university supported
Roselle by purchasing software and equipment that made braille copies of exams, lecture notes, and other
classroom materials. Due to her outstanding academic performance, she gained many awards and
recognitions. Among them were Ten Outstanding Students of the Philippines, the BPI Science Award
from the BPI Foundation, and the Gawad Sentenaryo Award from the National Centennial Commission.
Upon her graduation, Roselle continued to study for a master's degree and also devoted her efforts helping
visually-impaired students. She initiated "Project Roselle together with the Rotary Club of Makati-Ayala,
and provided schools with software and equipment, such as computers and printer, that will aid blind
students in their studies. She worked at Freedom Scientific, Inc. as a consultant in developing software for
people who are visually-impaired and those with learning disabilities. She also worked as product and
support manager at Code Factory, which is the world's leading provider of software that allow the
visually-impaired to access mobile devices such as cellphones. Roselle is also a motivational speaker and
has given several talks and seminars to students, teachers, and professionals.

Various advocacies supporting persons With disabilities have resulted in the institution of events
and commemorations such as the Paralympics, an international Sports competition modeled after the
Olympics that features athletes with disabilities. The United Nations has also instituted days of
awareness, such as World Down Syndrome Day (March 21), World Autism Awareness Day (April 2),
and International Day of Persons with Disabilities (December 3). Countries around the world are
encouraged to celebrate these days with activities that highlight individuals with disabilities. In many of
this events, people with disabilities come together to showcase their abilities and talents in talent shows,
symposiums, and conventions. These events bring together "able" and disabled people in the spirit of
friendship and cooperation.

Another group of people who experience hardship and discrimination are the underprivileged.
They have less in terms of material possessions. Despite the differences in lifestyle, social class, and
experience, our shared humanity allows us to engage with each other respectfully and render assistance to
each other. The act of assistance of giving, however, must be done in the spirit of mutual respect. One
must extend help wholeheartedly, without reservation or a patronizing attitude. We help those in need not
because we need to feel better about ourselves, but we do it out of an obligation to uphold the dignity of
our fellow persons.

Apart rom people with disabilities and the underprivileged, there are also others who are left out
or isolated from groups or society because they have been deemed different. Who among your classmates
is considered by many to be "weird" or different. How does this view affect the way you treat this
particular classmate? Do you see yourself befriending him or her? If you reflect on the way you relate to
your classmate, can you say that you have been treating him or her as a person?

Reflect on the people closest to you and evaluate if you have been engaging in genuine dialogue
with them. Can you say that your friends have helped you become a better person? Think of the other
people in your life. Who do you feel can benefit from having a friend?

Reflecting on our interactions can better inform s of the motivations that drive us to reach out and
interact with others. Knowledge of our capacity for intersubjectivity and the opportunities it provides for
fostering personal growth and welfare will enable us to make better choices and decisions as we continue
to relate with others and uphold positive relationships in our lives.
Exercises/Drills

A. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong. Write your
answer on a piece of paper.
1. Man has the natural tendency to establish relationships with other people.
2. We are primarily aware of people as objects and not as persons
3. The views and ideas of other people, as well as social context, do not influence our behavior as
individuals.
4. Intersubjectivity refers to shared awareness and understanding among people
5. "Seeming refers to the capacity of individuals to engage in genuine interaction with others.
6. An authentic relationship is possible only if individuals acknowledge each other s presence as
persons.
7. Availability refers to the willingness of a person to make himself or herself available for another.
8. All humans find it difficult to have meaningful relationships with others.

B. Reflect on your experiences and determine moments when your actions and behavior
embodied “seeming” behavior, dialogue, or alienation. Copy the table and fill in the
columns with the appropriate responses.

“Seeming” Behavior Dialogue Alienation

Evaluation:

1. Have you had an opportunity to apply the ethics of care in your everyday life? Describe your
experience.
2. Do you believe that people who are disabled and underprivileged are still able to contribute to
society? Explain your answer.
 3. How will you be able to show appreciation for the skills and talents of persons with disabilities
and the underprivileged?

CHAPTER 7

THE HUMAN PERSON IN SOCIETY

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

 recognize how individuals form societies and how individuals are transformed by
societies;
 Compare different forms of societies and individualities;
 explain how human relations are transformed by social systems; and
 evaluate how social systems transform human relationships, and how societies transform
individual human beings.

What is society? What drives human beings to establish societies?

Have you ever pondered how your world has defined you? Have you ever thought about your
place in this world and among the people you interact with every day? Have you ever reflected on how
your presence has affected the world and people around you?

The human person exists to relate with others. The person is by nature a social being because he
or she has a tendency to go out of himself or herself to form bonds and relationships with others.
Throughout a persons life, he or she experiences a variety of relationships that help shape him or her as a
person. Infants first relate with their immediate family and guardians as the source of basic needs. As they
grow, they expand their horizons and start relating with people who are not part of their immediate
family. They establish friendships beginning in their childhood and into their teenage and adult years.
They also learn how to deal with other figures of authority aside from their parents or guardians. As we
grow into adulthood, our relationships and responsibilities also change because we play more significant
roles in the communities we live in.
 Our freedom gives us the opportunity to pursue goals and attain well-being or happiness. As we
live our lives and expand our experience, we also encounter other people who are acting in similar ways.
However, the pursuit of our goals is made easier by the fact that we do not need to do our activities alone,
that we can live our life and pursue our happiness with other people by our side

The tendency to form groups is not exclusive to human beings. Other animals also form groups
for mutual protection and survival. Humans, however, are the only beings capable of establishing a
society, which is an organized group of people whose members interact frequently and have a common
territory and culture. Society a refers to a companionship or friendly association with others, an alliance, a
community, or a union.

Philosophers consider society the product of deliberate actions by individuals who come together
in pursuit of a common goal. Society is considered unique among all other groups because of the nature
of the human persons that compose it, as well as the relationships among its members. As individual
persons, members of society are able to transform themselves and attain development through their
interactions within society. In turn, humans are also able to influence society through their actions.

Society also makes possible the emergence of certain individualities. The survival of a human
being is essentially rooted in society and human relations. If there is no family to take care of an infant,
the infant will eventually die. As the individual grows, he or she begins to experience life outside the
home and begins to interact with other people in different settings. This also leads the person to form
other relationships or groups, such as establishing friendships in school or at places of work. Society and
its various aspects provide support that ensures the development of the human person. For instance, your
education first starts at home with your family members teaching you the rudiments of speech, reading,
and writing. This education continues and is further developed as you go to school and interact with other
children, your teachers, and other people in school. When you finish your basic education, society has
already equipped you with knowledge and skills that enable you to effectively interact with your society
as a productive individual. Society also provides you opportunities to further your growth in the coming
years. An evident influence of society on individuals is the emergence of specific traits and characteristics
unique to a certain society which are manifested by its members. For example, we Filipinos value our ties
with family members. This is seen in our practice of taking care of our elderly family members. Many of
us prefer to have our elders live in our homes so we can take care of them directly and continue to interact
with them. Western countries, however, give more emphasis on independence and individuality rather
than family ties. Therefore, it is a common practice for Western families to send their elderly to
retirement homes. In Western culture, parents also expect their children to move out of their homes once
they have graduated from high school. Filipino parents, on the other hand, continue to support their
children and even allow them to live with them even into adulthood.

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY

During the Enlightenment, social philosophers pondered the natural laws that govern human
societies, and in their discussions, several philosophers put forth their theories regarding the formation of
societies.

Enlightenment philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau
were among the most prominent social theorists who tackled the origins of human society. To fully
understand the true character of society, they imagined humans as living in a so-called "natural state,"
removed from modernity and civilization. Examining humans in their natural state afforded these
philosophers an opportunity to discuss the origins of society and relate them to other concepts such as
man's intrinsic nature and liberty. various views emerged to explain the developments that brought about
the emergence of human society.
 For Thomas Hobbes, persons in their natural states are governed by their desires and these often
lead to conflict with their fellowmen. Society, therefore, is the means by which people seek to control
their natural tendencies and impose order. Individuals who establish societies enter into a "social
contract"—an agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of their freedom and submit to a higher
authority. In this way, society is able to function and meet the needs of the many, ensuring the survival of
humanity.

John Locke proposed his own ideas on the social contract with a different assumption. Unlike
Hobbes, Locke considered persons in their natural states as more cooperative and reasonable, and that
society is formed through the consent of the individuals that organized it. This concept is known as the
consent of the governed. Locke's social contract is a covenant among individuals to cooperate and share
the burden of upholding the welfare of society. Also, the authority established to run society should
reflect the ideals of the people who organized it. Should this authority fail to uphold its obligation or live
up to the ideals of the people, it will be discarded and replaced with a new one.

Jean Jacques Rousseau's ideas on the social contract led him to advocate the concept of the
"general will Rousseau believed that even if the people are the ones who organized society and
established an authority or government, in extreme cases, the government is able to impose its will on the
people. This is based on the assumption that the people have empowered the government to act on their
behalf, and that it is considered to be the best judge of what is most beneficial for society.

More recent views on the social contract give emphasis to individual decision-making in society.
John Rawis redefined the social contract and explained that human beings approach social cooperation in
a rational manner in order to meet their individual self-interests. Rawis introduced a version of the natural
state which he called the original position to explain social formation. He imagined humans as having a
"veil of ignorance", or no knowledge of one s own characteristics such as gender, race, or social status. In
this state, humans would naturally seek a just and fair society in an effort to look out for their own
interests. David Gauthier described people's self-interest as a significant factor in building and
maintaining societies. People choose to cooperate since it is beneficial to meet their self-interests. But this
selfish interest benefits society as a whole, since the actions of individuals in meeting their individual
needs also further the interests of the other members of society.

Although there are variations on the social contract theory, perhaps one common feature they all
have is the fact that the different individuals enter into a kind of agreement with one another to form a
society. Individual members put aside their self-interest in order to create a community where they may
live in harmony with others. It is important to note that in society, one is not compromised for the sake of
the other: the individual is not in anyway violated for the sake of the community and vice versa. Only a
society which ensures the development of the individual and his or her community may be considered a
proper and humanizing society.

It is important to note that society is founded on the concept of the common good. Philosophers
who discussed the origins of society traced the emergence of society to the human desire to achieve the
goal of survival. Apart from this, human beings are compelled to come together, establish relationships
with each other, and work together as a united group because of the natural desire for goodness. Our
nature as human persons drives us to do what is good, and we recognize that other persons also desire
goodness as well. When more than one person desires and works to achieve the same good, then it can be
said that a common good exists among them. The common good refers to the social conditions which
enable persons and groups to fulfill their goals and achieve well-being. On a larger scale, examples of the
common good may include peace within the community, clean and safe public spaces, an efficient
transport system, and efficient public service. The common good applies to all members of society. This
means that not only do all members benefit from it, all have the responsibility to work for it. By working
to attain the common good, a person is now able to create opportunities for himself or herself as well as
others. The collective effort of individual persons towards the common good ensures that each member of
the community will be able to live in a world where they can pursue their own perfection and fulfilment.

What are the different forms of societies?

The development of societies throughout history shows the development of humankind in

response to changing surroundings and historical developments. The various forms of societies that
emerged include the following:

Hunting and gathering society ─This is recognized as the earliest and simplest form of society. It is
generally characterized by its small size and is composed mainly of families. They are nomadic because
they spend most of their time searching for food and thus, have no permanent territory. The hierarchy in
this type of society is not very varied. Its members are generally treated equally and decisions are usually
arrived at through a consensus. Because of this, the roles of its members and the division of labor is not
very clearly defined.

Pastoral society ─ This type of society is characterized by the domestication of animals for food for a
more stable and predictable food supply. Pastoral communities have larger populations than hunting and
gathering societies and remain longer in one place. In addition, pastoral societies often produce surplus
food and resources, which they trade with other societies. This relative prosperity enables the people to
engage in other activities apart from those necessary for survival, such as handicrafts. This eventually
leads to the emergence of specialized tasks in the community.
Horticultural society — A horticultural society primarily engages in the small—scale cultivation of
plants, fruits, and vegetables and the domestication of animals. Horticultural societies are semi-nomadic,
which means that they travel to another place when they have already depleted the resources in one area.
In this society, roles and responsibilities are more clearly defined with many tasks assigned according to
gender. Similar to the pastoral society, there is also a surplus of goods, which sometimes leads to
inequalities among its members.

In early societies, the individuals were often very family- and clan-oriented, and their behaviors
and actions were restricted by tradition. The assignment of tasks and occupations were often based on
gender, with women doing mostly domestic work in the home, while the men engaged in hunting and
farming.

Agrarian or agricultural society ─This type of society is a further evolution of the pastoral and
horticultural societies. Agriculture involves the large-scale and long term cultivation of crops and
domestication of animals. This society is characterized by improved technology and the use of tools to aid
in farming. Improved technology and farming methods result in increased production, giving rise to a
growing population in agricultural societies. The large population of agricultural societies leads to a more
structured social system that helps manage resources and its members. The increasingly complex social
organization and growing importance of territory often result in conflicts among neighboring societies
over resources and land.

Feudal society -A feudal society is based on the ownership of land. Feudal societies arose out of
developments in Western Europe during Medieval times, when rival kingdoms were engaged in conflict
over resources, particularly land. In a feudal society, rulers grant their followers or vassals the right to
manage parcels of land. These vassals, in turn, are served by peasant workers who cultivate the land and
tend to the animals in the farms. In return for their services, they are provided military protection.
Members of society are organized based on status. Those who own land are considered the most powerful
and influential members of society, while the peasants are considered the lowest group. Social relations
are characterized by dependence. The lord depends on his vassals to provide him with resources, the
vassals depend on the peasants for their service, while the peasants depend on their vassals for protection.

An agrarian and feudal society gives rise to individuals who value relations among family
members and with other members in the community. People are often very conscious of their place within
society and are mindful of the hierarchy. People who belong to the "higher classes" are treated with
respect by the members of the community. They are often traditional and are resistant to social change,
preferring to maintain the way things are in their community.

Industrial society — An industrial society is based on the use of specialized machinery in the production
of goods and services. The advances in science and technology in the late 18th century resulted in the
Industrial Revolution, which in turn gave rise to new production and industrial methods, as well as
innovations in transportation and communication. These technological advances resulted in improved
trade and commerce and better life conditions for many people. Work is done in factories and public
education is more prevalent. However, the emergence of industrial societies is characterized by greater
inequalities in wealth, power, and influence. Industrial societies are often defined by the nature of work
and the prevailing industry in an area. The capitalists or business owners are considered the most
influential. This type of society is also characterized by cultural diversity and the presence of bureaucratic
forms of organization.

An industrial society is a significant departure from the agrarian society, as many of the relations are not
family or community-based. An important factor in social relations is the workplace, and people often
interact with individuals who do not come from the same family, clan, or community. Impersonal
relationships prevail among individuals. The difference between social groups is even more marked and is
defined by access to economic
Post-industrial society —The post-industrial society is marked by the establishment or societies based
on knowledge, information, and the sale of services. Led by the human mind and aided by highly
advanced technology, the trend has shifted from industry to the generation, storage, manipulation, and
sale of information. Information influences the behavior of people and has thus become a very important
commodity in the post-industrial society. Members of this society have higher educational attainment,
better training, and specialized roles. The virtual society, where people organize themselves through
communication technology and the Internet, is a product of a post-industrial society. Individuals in a
virtual society often engage in complex relationships. They often have fluid identities and do not
necessarily subscribe to certain norms or established standards of behavior. The freedom allowed in
virtual worlds means that a person is able to engage in various activities, as well as access various kinds
of information.

The growth and development of the various forms of societies highlight the growing complexity
of human interactions over time. The technological advances and cultural changes that brought about
these changes result in the expansion of communities that now include people from varied ethnicities.
These developments have led to innovations in human interactions such as language and the
establishment of governments. Many countries around the world are industrial societies, and a number of
developed countries have evolved into post-industrial and virtual societies. But despite these
advancements and changes, the human person still remains the heart and center of society. The person is
the primary agent of change, as he or she drives social changes based on responses to events and
developments affecting society.

How does society influence our development as persons?

What makes us Filipino? Being born in the Philippines is not our choice, but as we grow up in
Philippine society, we begin to adopt the traits, traditions, and characteristics that distinguish Filipino
culture. We learn to speak our mother languages through our interactions with family members and other
members of society. It is also through our interactions with other individuals and institutions that we learn
how to behave appropriately, what beliefs and traditions to practice, and what ideas and perspectives to
consider acceptable. All these come together to define our identity not only as persons, but as members of
Philippine society.

It can be said that you cannot think of a person outside of society and you cannot think of a
society without persons. The person and the society have a very dynamic relationship in which one
cannot exist without the other. Because of this reality, it is important to consider society’s role in the
growth and development of a person, and the persons role in transforming society.

Society influences our development as persons in various ways. Society is the backdrop by
which we adopt the prevailing culture, identity, values, ideas, and knowledge of the persons, groups, and
communities that surround us. Think of the various groups and institutions in society that have
contributed to your identity as a person, Your interactions with your family, friends, schoolmates,
teachers, and other people in your community have all left indelible marks on your identity. Society
shapes all individuals that are part or it, though each person is influenced by society in different ways.
 An important way society influences us as persons is its ability to define the relationships and
interactions among its members. Society influences the interactions of its members through the
establishment of norms, which are a set of traits and behavior that society considers acceptable, and are
thus encouraged and passed on to other members.

When you meet a person for the first time or when someone is introduced to you, what do you
do? The first thing that comes to your mind is to say "Hello" or "Nice to meet you!" Some will offer a
handshake to the other person as a greeting. A handshake is a simple gesture, but it shows how society
expects us to behave when we are with other people. Ever since you were a child, you have been
constantly reminded to greet your elders respectfully. Filipinos have a unique gesture to greet and show
respect to elders: the mano or pagmamano.
 Let's imagine that when you are told to greet or give respect to your elders, you tells us to do so.
What do you think will be the reaction of the people around you? Surely, your actions will be considered
disrespectful and you will be considered a disrespectful person. When members of a society do not
conform to established norms, they often experience negative consequences, such as punishment or social
stigma. Norms are one of the ways that society regulates the behavior and interactions of its members and
establishes and maintains social order.

Think of the rules established by your family and school. Why do you think these rules are put in
place? What happens when these rules are violated? How have these rules influenced your behavior?

Society, through the establishment of norms, can also influence knowledge and ideas. For
instance, if the traffic light flashes red, what does it mean? We all know that the red light means stop, but
who established that the color red will be the universal signal for STOP on the road? We have learned to
accept the statement "the red traffic light means stop as truth because society has established that fact and
we have been exposed to it since we were young. Now imagine that tomorrow, the traffic signals get
switched red now means go, green means caution, and yellow means stop. What do you think will happen
in the streets? Now think of all the rules and traditions that have been in place in our society for a long
time. How have these rules influenced our knowledge? What rule in our society would result in chaos it it
were changed? Laws are more formal and stringent norms that establish and define acceptable behavior of
citizens. These also prescribe the consequences or penalties that will be imposed on violators. Folkways
are less formal norms that arise from tradition and do not result in punishment when violated.

Norms, laws, and other rules that regulate human interactions give rise to a social system, which
is an organized or patterned set of relationships among individuals and groups that compose a society.
Members of society act and interact with an established social system. Each member is assigned a social
role, which are actions and behaviors expected of a certain individual. Individuals who share similar
backgrounds or perform similar roles are grouped together into social groups or social classes. Certain
groups that perform vital functions in society are recognized as social institutions, and these include the
family, school, government, and religion. Our lives are a continuous interaction with different social
classes, groups, and social institutions. These relationships contribute to shaping our view of the world
and defining our identity. A well-functioning social system where all members, groups, and institutions
work in harmony will ensure that society remains harmonious and continues to uphold the welfare of its
members.

Society also transforms human relations, which leads to the transformation of its members.
The historical development of society has brought about significant changes in the way human beings
relate to each other. Early societies were initially centered on the family and the clan. But the emergence
of industrial societies transformed human relations, as interactions were no longer based only on family
and community ties, but also interactions in the workplace. Virtual societies have brought about another
great transformation in human relations, as improved communication technologies make it possible for
people from faraway places to interact closely with each other. Today's modern society enables various
people from diverse backgrounds and varied societies to interact and establish close ties with each other

Over the course of his or her life, a person will undertake various social roles as he or she
continually interacts with other members of society. An individual is not just a member of a family, he or
she is also a neighbor, a citizen, a worker, and a member of an organization, group, or religion. These
roles entail sets of responsibilities that the person must undertake. As the person navigates through
various roles in society, his or her relationships with other people also change. Throughout our life, we
undergo changes in the way we relate with the people in our lives. When we were children, we were very
close to our parents and family members, But as we grow up and our social circle expands, our
interactions now include our friends, schoolmates, workmates, and other acquaintances. Adults also
experience change in their roles and expectations as they become breadwinners and take on additional
responsibilities. Taking on adult roles often means that many of the bonds established during the earlier
years will have to change. It is possible that you have lost contact with your childhood friends because of
some changes that happened in your life. As you lose friends and acquaintances, you also gain new ones
over time.

Our various roles in society also change the way we relate to people. In our family, we may relate
more closely to our parents, siblings, and relatives. In school, however, we may not treat our classmates
and teachers like our family. A person may be the head of the family in his or her home and he or she
takes charge of making decisions in the household. But when this person goes to work, he or she may no
longer find himself or herself in a decision-making role, since he or she is merely an employee. When a
person gets elected to an important post in the government, he or she should no longer treat members of
his or her family or community in a preferential manner, but should now strive to treat all members of the
community equally.

Another way society shapes us is through social values, which are actions or ideals that are
considered important by society. Values such as cooperation, obedience to the law, concern for others,
and respect for others are considered vital to maintaining an orderly society. A society that upholds
positive social values will influence its members to uphold these positive values. On the other hand, a
society that is defined by negative values will, in turn, produce individuals who embody these negative
values.

Other aspects of society that contribute to the formation of the individual include language,
religion, and historical events. Compare your beliefs and ideas with those of your parents or elders, In
some cases, you Will have similar views since you belong to the same family, but you will differ in some
of your ideas, beliefs, and views. One reason for this is that you have gone through different life
experiences. Your parents and elders were born to an earlier generation and nave thus gone through some
experiences that you will never encounter. In the same way, you were born into a generation that has
unique experiences and characteristics. This disparity in experience and views brings about the
"generation gap, which often leads to conflict among people of different ages when discussing certain
topics. But whatever our differences, society ensures that we are able to interact in meaningful ways, and
that each member benefits from the relationships they have established with the people they encounter.

How does society enable me to become a better person?

Although society greatly influences the development of the self, the human person still has the
freedom to choose not to be fully defined by his or her background or society. We have the freedom to
rise above our circumstances and make ourselves into something different or better. For instance, a child
who grew up in the slums or squatters area can choose to rise above his or her social condition through
education and hard work. By exerting effort, that child will eventually become successful and achieve a
better life. A person who comes from a family of doctors may feel that he or she has a different calling in
life and thus may choose not to pursue a career in medicine. Some Filipinos have even decided to
renounce their citizenship to become citizens of other countries. As much as we are influenced by our
surroundings, our physical limits, and our society, our personhood still provides us an opportunity to
transcend and define ourselves on our own terms.

Society recognizes the capability of the person to develop, and provides its members with
opportunities to better themselves. Effective and efficient public Service, education, and the
maintenance of peace and order are some of the ways society ensures that we are able to have productive
lives and realize our potential. Through its various institutions, society endeavors to develop well-
adjusted and productive members who can make significant contributions to it. Social systems are in
place to ensure the welfare of the person in society. Through the various institutions and groups, society
strives to recognize and promote the individual dignity of persons and guarantees that they are able to live
harmoniously with others.

Apart from choosing not to be fully defined by society, persons can also undertake to
contribute to society through their decisions and actions. One important way a person can contribute
to social change is by enacting his or her social responsibilities well. A son or daughter is expected to
respect and obey his or her parents and elders and help each member of the family. A parent is expected
to provide for the needs of the family and raise his or her children well. A student is expected to study
well and participate fully in school activities. A citizen is expected to support democratic values and
cooperate with members of the community and other institutions to uphold the welfare of the country and
the common good. You embody all these roles and therefore should do your utmost to uphold the
responsibilities that go with them. All members of society are expected to do their share in upholding the
values and goals of their respective societies and ensure that their society continues to be oriented toward
what is good and beneficial for all.

An individual's actions can also cause great changes in society. Previously, it was thought that
only "great", "influential", or "powerful" individuals can bring about change in their respective societies.
We often equate social change to the actions of heroes, political figures, and famous personalities.
However, the numerous opportunities provided nowadays by improved technology and access to
information have given ordinary people the means to be source's of social change themselves. You may
have heard of stories that have gone viral on the Internet. Many of these stories come from ordinary
citizens who call attention to problems or issues that need to be addressed, such as damaged
infrastructure, inefficient public service, and crime and safety concerns. These stories soon gain attention
and sometimes prompt the government and related institutions to take action. Another way that
individuals can bring about social change is by organizing themselves into groups that advocate certain
causes. Organized action is often the best means to bring about changes in society, and the concerted
effort of many groups often bring about a social movement, which is a large-scale action done by various
groups and organizations in pursuit of a common goal to bring about change.

Are you a member of an organization that upholds a social cause? Have you ever taken the
initiative to call attention to problems in your community? What social issues are you most passionate
about Do you see yourself making a significant contribution to society in the future? Taking action to
bring about positive changes at home and in your community is one way that you will be able to fulfill
your role as a productive member of society. In taking action to bring about positive changes in our
society, we are able to fulfill our purpose as human persons who are living and interacting with our
greater community and working toward achieving the greater good.

Exercise:

A.Identify the following.

1. This is an organized group of people whose members interact frequently and have a common
territory and culture.
2. This refers to the social conditions which enable person groups to fulfill their goals and achieve
perfection
3. This is an agreement among individuals to sacrifice some of their wants and submit to a higher
authority.
4. This philosopher believes that mankind is governed by desire which leads to conflict among
individuals.
5. This philosopher believes that society is organized based on the "consent of the governed"
6. This philosopher believes that humans naturally seek a just and fair society because of self-
interest.
7. These are a set of traits and behavior that society considers acceptable and are encouraged and
passed on to other members.
8. This is an organized or patterned set of relationships among individuals and groups that compose
a society.
9. These are composed of individuals who have similar backgrounds and perform similar roles in
society
10. These are actions or things that are considered important by society.

B. Determine which form of society is referred to by the following statements. Write the letter of your
answer on a separate piece of paper.

a. Hunting and gathering society

b. Pastoral society
c. Horticultural society
d. Agrarian or agricultural society
e. Feudal society
f. Industrial society
g. Post-industrial society

____1. This society is based on knowledge, information, and the sale of services.

____2. This society is based on the ownership of land.

____3. The earliest and simplest form of society.

____4. This society features large-scale and long term cultivation of crops and domestication of animals.
____5. This society primarily relies on the domestication of animals for food.

____6. This society is generally small in size and is composed of families.

____7. This society uses machinery in producing goods and services.

____8. This society has given rise to the virtual society.

____9. In this society, those who own land are considered most powerful and influential.

____10. This society engages in the small-scale cultivation of plants.

Evaluation

1. Do you believe that your community and society have enabled you to become a better person? In
what way has society contributed to your growth as a person?
2. What positive changes, in your view, should occur in our society? How will you be able to help
achieve that change?

CHAPTER 8:

HUMAN PERSONS AS ORIENTED TOWARDS THEIR IMPENDING DEATH

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. explain the significance of death in the existence of the person;

2. recognize the meaning of their own lives;
3. enumerate the objectives they want to achieve and the projects they want to do in life
4. explain where their lives will lead to; and
5. reflect on the meaning of their own lives.

Have you ever wondered about how nothing seems to last forever? Objects get worn out until
they can't be used anymore, food and drinks expire, and trends become outdated after some time. Even
more, what about the cycle of being born, growing up, getting sick, and aging? These point to one very
important reality about our human condition: we are temporal beings or "beings oriented towards
death."
 Have you ever thought about what it means to die? Surely, the idea makes you a bit
uncomfortable. You may feel that thinking about death at this time in your life is a bit inappropriate or
unnecessary since you are still young and you have your whole life ahead of you. We do not really think
about the reality of our own death because it is difficult to imagine when and how we will die. In fact,
scientists and philosophers still have many unanswered questions about death. However, we cannot deny
the fact that death exists in our world. We may have seen our beloved pets die; experienced the death of a
family member, relative, or an acquaintance; and have heard of news about death in television and other
media.

The very thought of death and the mystery surrounding it certainly cause a lot of grief and anxiety
to a person, but it is an essential element in the human condition which definitely deserves attention. Only
in reflecting on the reality of death can we begin to explore and understand the meaning of our own
existence.

How does the reality of death define our lives?

Death is commonly understood as the end of bodily functions which the end of a person's life. It
also refers to the separation of the body and the spirit. As mentioned earlier, the human person is an
embodied spirit. The body, being material, is bound by the laws of time and space and is subject to
growth, death, and decay. The spirit, signals being immaterial, will continue to exist even after the body
has passed.

It is true that a person's spiritual nature allows him or her to transcend his or her temporality and
physical limits. However, we also cannot deny the material nature of the person, that he or she is still
bound by the same laws of nature and reality that apply to all objects in existence. Everything that came
to being in this universe will eventually come to an end. We are born into human life, we grow and age,
and we eventually die. This paradox defines the uniqueness of human existence.

It can be said that we are also beings who are moving towards our impending death. This makes a
person's life limited in time. The focus on this limit has led to several attitudes towards death. There are
people who deny the idea of human decline and death. Some people rely on anti-aging treatments and
products to make them look, feel, and think that they are younger than they really are. Others focus on
experiencing intense moments and feelings in order to feel alive because no one really knows when lite
will end. This has given rise to various expressions such as #YOLO (You Only Live Once) and "eat,
drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die." Additionally, people also put great importance to speed and
efficiency we are concerned about doing more things in a shorter span of time so we can do more in a
lifetime. We find means and ways to travel faster and do things more efficiently by spending less time
and energy because we wish to experience more of the world.

These attitudes are not necessarily bad but they may prevent us from reflecting on the reality of
death. We must embrace the fact that death is an integral part of our life. Once we behave come to terms
with that, we can focus not just on the quantifiable aspects of life (e.g years lived, material things owned)
but also on its quality. Ultimately, the acceptance of our temporality can bring about a sense of freedom
in us. It can also give us a clearer purpose and focus on our activities. Since we cannot do everything in
our lifetime, we must be able to reflect on what we need to do and identify the goals we need to achieve
so we can say that we have lived a meaningful existence.
How should I live my life before it finally ends?

Understanding the person as a being-towards-death brings us back to a very important topic:

freedom. It has been discussed previously that the essence of freedom is self-determination - the capacity
to choose and act for oneself. While there is no freedom in the inevitability of death, a person can still
exercise freedom in choosing how to face the reality of death in their lives. For example, a person cannot
stop himself from growing old. However, he or she can choose to embrace aging gracefully. You may
have seen older people who take pride in their gray hairs, wrinkles, and the fact that they have
grandchildren. Other people, however, take a different path and use any means to mask their physical
aging such as getting cosmetic surgery or availing of age-defying treatments.

As biological beings bound by natural laws and the inevitability of death, we cannot stop aging
and the eventual decline of our bodies. However, we can definitely choose to spend our lives doing good
and reasonable things or even go against what is good. The person, therefore, is the author and
protagonist who determines the development and conclusion of his or her life story.

The temporal existence of a person means that his or her life is temporary; he or she is not a being
who exists permanently and for eternity. Accepting the fact that we have a limited time in this world
allows us to determine the course of our life to paint a picture of how our life will progress and how we
envision it to end. While most people would prefer to not have any sort of limit, it makes perfect sense to
appreciate the beauty of something as it is framed within certain lines. The key idea is that we all have a
vocation to live life in the best possible way that we can - by being excellent persons. It would be nearly
impossible to measure this, but look at how having a finish line makes us appreciate the efforts of runners
even more than if there was none in the first place. Ordinarily, we celebrate the fastest runner, but we can
also appreciate the runner who improved the most given the same set of conditions.

Temporality challenges us to make choices that will be good for us and the people around us. It
must also be noted that since we have a body, we are always in the moment we exist in the here and now.
The person is always in the present although his spiritual nature allows him to transcend the present.
Whenever we make a choice, we cannot undo that choice because that present moment has now gone into
the past. On the other hand, the choices we make in the present are not always Confined to the here and
now as they also have an impact on the future. Past, present, and future are not exclusive and isolated
moments in time, but they are experienced together by the person because of the dynamism provided by
being an embodied spirit.

Given all these considerations, we may ask: what is the end of this life? The term end can be
understood in two ways. Some philosophers view end as a terminus which means the full stop or end of a
line. For them, life ends and nothing follows. Others, however, consider end as tells which means goal,
purpose, or fulfillment. Although we are oriented towards our death, death is not the goal of life. The
human person is not born into this world just so he or she could die. Man is put on this earth to live a
meaningful life, to be virtuous, and achieve excellence. With this in mind, we can look at two experiences
which make us reflect on the meaning of life: happiness and suffering.

What makes you happy?

What brings you happiness? Is it the food you eat? The clothes you wear? The gadgets you own?
The achievements you reap as a student? The moments you spend with your family and friends?
 Ancient Greek philosophy considers happiness as an achievement and it must be gained by living
a productive and moral life. Religious philosophers consider happiness as a union with God. Other
contemporary views define happiness as “whole-life satisfaction," based on our evaluation of our overall
life experiences. Ethics plays a significant role in defining the means to achieve happiness. Various
philosophical views emphasize the importance of setting worthwhile goals in life to achieve personal
happiness. Happiness also has a social element, as we should not only be concerned about our own
happiness, but also the well-being of others.

How do I define true happiness?

As we understand ourselves better, we also come to realize that happiness is a state of being and
not merely an emotional experience or a chosen mental attitude. We do not really choose happiness
because we all have a tendency towards it, but that we choose the means to achieve it. What makes a
person happy is that which fits his nature we are made truly happy by things that are true and good. On
the other hand, what is false and evil does not make a person happy.

As an embodied spirit, we must also consider the goods or sources of happiness which are proper
to a person. A noble good is one which is pursued for its own sake; it is good in itself. Love and
friendship are some examples. A useful good is considered good so long as it serves as a means to an
end; its goodness is found only from what it can provide. For example, money is good as it can buy you
something. Finally, a pleasurable good is good so long as it provides some form of pleasure, though it
does not have to be physical. It must be understood that a specific good cannot be categorized strictly
under one kind. For example, friendship may be a noble good because it is good to be a friend to
someone. However, pursuing it with incorrect intentions (e.g., befriending someone for academic or
career advancement) makes it only a useful good. The kind of happiness that can be gained from a good is
also closely tied to its nature example, material things may satisfy bodily needs and can somehow make a
person happy, but they cannot provide permanent happiness because what is material will fade over time.
On the other hand, friendship is a noble good and definitely provides a more permanent kind of
happiness. Happiness from a material thing diminishes as soon as you own it, while happiness gained
from friendship only grows as it progresses. This brings to a very important lesson in life: real happiness
can be found in more permanent and meaningful things.

Why do we suffer?
 When was the last time you experienced suffering? What was the reason behind it? How did you
overcome it? Suffering takes place when we patiently endure unpleasantly can come in the form of
physical suffering sensations such as discomfort, hunger, distress, and pain. This often caused by injury,
disease, and the lack of basic needs. It can also be in the form of mental suffering, which involves
emotional and mental states such as depression when we experience physical such as depression, anxiety,
fear, loneliness, unpleasantness, discomfort, and grief. These may be caused by unexpected situations in
life such as sudden changes in lifestyle, loss of employment, stressful situations, and grief caused by the
death of a loved one. The tension between what a person is and what he wants to be may also be an
experience of suffering.

What causes suffering

We normally experience difficulties in life, and how we deal with them is often determined by
our mindset regarding suffering. Generally, suffering is viewed as an undesirable condition, and that we
naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain. Those who adopt this perspective often focus on the various
means to avoid suffering or eliminate it entirely from life. Another view considers suffering as necessary
because it helps existence. Without it, we are unable to grow and improve, and our positive experiences
lose meaning and significance.

Negative experiences are part of our lives. We cannot shelter ourselves from suffering, but we
can be prepared to deal with it so it does not break us. Philosophy helps us understand how suffering
defines the state or condition of the person before, during, and after the experience. It is important to
remember that difficulties are not without reason. They can bring about good things even if we do not
fully understand our circumstances at present. More often, our hardships bring about realizations and
opportunities for us. Even if the outcome of a difficulty is unfavorable, dealing with suffering can
improve our attitude towards life and other people.

How do happiness, suffering, and death give meaning to your life?

As we approach our death, we experience both happiness and suffering. Although these are
distinct experiences, the two are not really meant to be complete opposites, for there may be instances
when they enrich one another. The pursuit of happiness requires that we go through the effort to achieve
it. Our efforts are often marked by difficulties and discouragement.

For example, a person who wishes to pass his or her exams must spend time to study and exert
effort to perform well in his or her academic tasks. Athletes who wish to become the best in their sports
often experience hardships in training, injuries, and several setbacks before they are able to gain victory.
Look back at an achievement in your life which you consider your most significant triumph. Certainly,
that victory was coupled with trials and difficulties, but that victory was made more significant and
"sweeter" by the fact that you were able to surmount the challenges you faced.

lf we are willing to suffer through adversities and maybe even suffer cheerfully, it makes the
pursuit of happiness even more worthwhile. As a result, we not only attain the happiness that we want,
but we also become better persons in the process. The reality of death means that our existence is unique
and that we will not always get another chance to do the things we want in this life. Therefore, we should
not easily give up on pursuit of good things. Reflecting on the reality of death enables us to think of how
we can best Iive a meaningful life. We can strive to leave behind a legacy either in the form of an
inheritance, a reputation, or a significant achievement.

We have the tendency to form bonds with others. This is in our nature as human persons. This
also means that we also find meaning in life when we open ourselves to others. Therefore, we have an
opportunity not only to enrich our lives but also to touch the lives of others. A person lives a truly
meaningful life when he or she lives in unity and harmony with others. Although we are different from
each other, we are all made to love and serve one another. People are able to become truly great when
they live for people other than themselves. When we have genuine relationships with others, we not only
share in each other's happiness but we also bring happiness to others. We also share in each other's
suffering and help each other in difficult times. We eventually become part of someone else's life, and we
are able to live on in them in the same way that those whom we hold dear live on in our lives. When a
person passes away, he or she continues to live on because a part of that person is now with us.

Because of our freedom, how we choose to live our lives is entirely up to us. Against bring us
closer to our happiness and bring happiness to others as well. Our lives are works in progress, stories in
the process of being Written, and songs that are about to be sung. Life is a gift given to each person and it
is important to turn this life into a gift for others the backdrop of death, we are now called to use our
freedom in the best way possible to as well.

Exercises/ Drills

A. Identify the following. Write the correct answers in another sheet of paper.

1. It refers to the separation of the soul and the body.

2. It takes place when we patiently endure unpleasantness, discomfort, and pain.
3. It refers to how our lives are temporary.
4. It is a kind of good that is good so long as it provides some form of pleasure.
 5. According to ancient Greek philosophy, it is an achievement and must be gained by living a
productive and moral life.

B. Based on what you have learned about happiness, suffering, death, and the meaning of life, give
advice to the following people in various situations. Write your answers on a sheet of paper.

1. Your brother is an overachiever. Being on top or the class is what makes him feel fulfilled.
However, for this quarter, he got grades lower than usual. He is extremely saddened by this and
becomes withdrawn and aloof.
2. Your best friend is dating a married man. Despite her family's disapproval, she does not want
to break up with him. She says that he is the only one who makes her very happy.
3. Your classmate is going through tough times. His parents died in a car accident, his family is
experiencing financial difficulties, and his long-time girlfriend broke up with him. He constantly
talks about taking his own life to end his problems.
4. Your cousin is battling a terminal disease. She has a loving and helpful support system
comprised of family and friends, yet her fear of dying is getting worse. She feels depressed and
loses sleep over the the idea of passing away soon.

EVALUATION:

1. What is that one thing that, if taken from you, would take away the meaning of your life?
2. How would you have turned out as a person if you have not experienced happiness? How
about if you have not gone through any suffering?
3. Have you experienced dealing with the death of a loved one? How did you cope with the
situation?

REFERENCES:

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://Plato.Stanford.edu.about.html

The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.IEP.utm.edu/

Philosophy Project: Introduction to Philosophy.

http://philosophyproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Introduction-to-Philosophy-Chapters-1-5-
2013.pdf

Book Reference:

Roberto D. Abella, M. Div., D. Min., et.al 2019. The Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person.