MODULE 1:


HUMAN VARIATION
WHAT MAKES US HUMAN? WHAT MAKES US
DIFFERENT?
• Look at your seatmates. Notice the shape of their nose, the color of their hair, and
the color of their skin. Are theirs similar to yours? Do you speak the same
language? Do you eat the same food?
• These are some of the questions that you could ask to see the difference among
humans.

WHAT MAKES US DIFFERENT?

• ENVIRONMENT and HISTORY are two of the primary factors that shape the
behavior of human groups.
• This behavior, which serves as an adaptive tool for the varied stimuli projected by
the environment, is influenced by beliefs, practices and material possessions.
• Through constant practice, these sets of behavior form human traditions, which
are passed from one generation to the other.
• As each human group experiences differing environmental conditions, CULTURAL
VARIATIONS are established.

Maasais of Kenya Eskimos of Alaska

REFLECT UPON

Form a group with five members. For 10 minutes, share with one another the
following information:
1. Your parents’ cultural background (Ilokano, Visayan, Kapampangan, etc.)
2. The languages and dialects that you can speak
3. Your nationality (Filipino, Chines, American, etc.)
After your group discussion, summarize in two paragraphs your similarities and
differences.
NATIONALITY AND ETHNICITY

• The concepts of nationality and ethnicity are not interchangeable.

• Both, however, are capable of informing an individual’s behavior and habits due to a set of
cultural norms that each category provides.
• NATIONALITY is the identity that is tied to being part of a nation or country – a “group of
people who share the same history, traditions, and language” and who inhabits a particular
territory delineated by a political border and controlled by a government.
• Nationality can be acquired by being born in a country or by the process of legal application
called NATURALIZATION. If one is born in the Philippines, he or she is called a FILIPINO
citizen
PHILIPPINE CITIZENSHIP LAW

There are 3 bases in Philippine nationality law:

By birth a.k.a Jus soli is quite self explanatory. It means you’re an automatic citizen
if you were born in the Philippines soil or territory.

By blood a.k.a. Jus sanguinis is also obvious. You are a citizen if any of your parents
is a Filipino citizen on your birthdate according to the Philippine Nationality Law.

By Naturalization according to the Bureau of Immigration of the Philippines is the
judicial act of adopting a foreigner and clothing him with the privileges of a native-born
citizen. It implies the renunciation of a former nationality and the fact of entrance into
a similar relation towards a new body politic.
NATIONALITY AND ETHNICITY

• Within a nation are smaller cultural groups that share specific environments,
traditions and histories that are not necessarily subscribed to by the mainstream
culture. These are called ETHNIC GROUPS.
• There are about 180 indigenous ethnic groups in the Philippines and more than
100 tribal groups who are mostly inhabiting ancestral domains in the lowland,
upland, and costal areas.
BEYOND WALLS 1.1 GO ONLINE

Visit the following Web site to see a list of all known existing ethnic groups in the
Philippines.

http://www.ethnicgroupsphilippines.com/
people/ethnic-groups-in-the-philippines/
Using the information that the Web page provides, create a portfolio of an ethnic group that
interests you. The portfolio should contain data (visual, text, numerical) on the ethnic
group. Your data may include the group’s clothes, food, environment and language.
• Aside from varying cultural backgrounds and ethnicity, human population also
experience SOCIAL DIFFERENCES, which include categories on gender,
socioeconomic class (social class and economic status), political identity, and
religion
GENDER

• According to the World Health Organization (2013), GENDER “refers to the socially
constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers
appropriate for men and women.”
• Unlike SEX which refers to the biological characteristics of humans such as male or female,
GENDER categories are more varied, accommodating identities such as LESBIAN, GAY,
BISEXUAL, TRANSGENDER, QUEER, and INTERSEX (LGBTQI), among others
• In some societies, gender becomes a basis of one’s identity, as social norms allow for their
acceptance or neglect by the majority of the population. In cases of neglect, individuals
who subscribe to alternative genders create communities where they can articulate their
thoughts and aspirations.
GENDER (CONTINUED)

There are several types of gender based on a person’s orientation. Depending on

the community, these gender identities can be further subdivided into more specific
categories.
HETEROSEXUAL. A person with this gender is inclined to be sexually attracted to a
person of the opposite sex
HOMOSEXUAL. When a person is sexually attracted to a person of the same sex
GAY. A male who is romantically and sexually attracted to another male
LESBIAN. A female who is romantically and sexually attracted to another female
GENDER (CONTINUED)

BISEXUAL. Individuals who are attracted to both sexes

ASEXUAL. Individuals who are totally incapable of being attracted to any sex
POLYSEXUAL. Individuals who are attracted to multiple types of gender
PANSEXUAL. Individual who accommodates all types of gender
GENDER (CONTINUED)

• Finally, there are people whose gender identities do not match their biological
identity as male or female. These people identify themselves as
TRANSGENDER. Their sexual orientation is not related to their genitalia, which
allow them to identify with any other type of gender such as heterosexual,
homosexual, pansexual, bisexual, and asexual. Under this category are people
who identify themselves as TRANSEXUAL. These individuals believe that the
discord between their internal gender and the gender role that they have to
perform can be addressed through medical sexual reassignment.
BEYOND WALLS 1.2 GO ONLINE

You might have questions about people whose gender identity is not within society’s
prescribed norms. This link will direct you to a video entitled “Bekitaktakan.”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SV96IYVhyxo
Through this video, you will be further enlightened with the different types of gender and
the common misconceptions that people have regarding people they consider as
sexually different. Before watching the video, list down your thoughts regarding people
who belong to gender identities that are different from yours. After watching the video,
check which of your listed thoughts were proven correct and which one were faulty.
SOCIOECONOMIC CLASS

• The concept of socioeconomic class varies between societies as the ideas

associated with being poor or rich differ based on the collective experiences of
individuals. As such, Filipinos who are from the Global South (developing countries)
would perceive poverty differently from Singaporeans who are from the Global North
(developed countries or industrialized nations). People falling into different social
classes are bound to experience life differently such as in the form of transportation
and the type of food that they can afford and consume daily. The typical
determinants of one’s social status include income, value of assets and savings,
cultural interests and hobbies, and economic status of his or her peers and relatives
• GLOBAL NORTH refers to the political and economically advanced societies in the
world

• GLOBAL SOUTH refers to the countries whose political and economic indicators are
within the developing category
• In Great Britain, a new survey revealed the fragmentation of the
British traditional three-class system which includes the upper,
middle, and working classes, to the seven-class system: “elite,
established middle class, technical middle class, new affluent
workers, traditional working class, emergent service workers, and the
precariat” (Smith, 2013). This shift is primarily attributed to the
diversifying global economy. This phenomenon was also observed in
the United States as the predominantly middle class has been
recorded to shrink in percentage as the poor grow in number.
The seven social classes by Professor Mike Savage from the London School of Economics
• Elite - This is the wealthiest and most privileged group in the UK. They went to private school and elite universities and enjoy
high cultural activities such as listening to classical music and going to the opera.
• Established middle class - This is the most gregarious and the second wealthiest of all the class groups. They work in
traditional professions and socialise with a wide variety of people, and take part in a wide variety of cultural activities.
• Technical middle class - This is a small, distinctive and prosperous new class group. They prefer emerging culture, such as
social media, and mix mainly among themselves. They work in science and tech and come from middle-class backgrounds.
• New affluent workers - These people are economically secure, without being well-off. This class group is sociable, has lots
of cultural interests and sits in the middle of all the groups in terms of wealth. They're likely to come from working class
backgrounds.
• Traditional working class - This group has the oldest average age, and they're likely to own their own home. They mix
among themselves and don't enjoy emerging culture. Jobs in this group include lorry drivers, cleaners and electricians.
• Emergent service workers - These young people have high social and cultural capital - so they know people from all
different walks of life, and enjoy a wide range of cultural activities - but are not financially secure.
• Precariat - The poorest and most deprived social group. They tend to mix socially with people like them and don't have a
broad range of cultural interests. More than 80% rent their home.
• In the Philippines, our indicators of social class are different,
given the economic and political context in which our country
is in. Although government surveys take into account the
factors enumerated earlier such as income, and value of
assets, Filipinos often describe their social class in the
personalized contexts. Hence, when you ask a Filipino what
his or her social class is, the response can be any of the
following: MAHIRAP, MEDYO MAYAMAN, SAKTO LANG,
MAYAMAN, and the like.
WHAT HAVE I LEARNED SO FAR?

1. What are the traditional indicators of social class?

2. What factor caused the shift in social class categories in Great Britain?
3. How do Filipinos describe their social statuses? Would you be using these
terms to refer to your family’s status?
BEYOND WALLS 1.3 GO ONLINE

The distribution of the population within social categories provides information on the general status
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/
of a society. Through this Web site:
resources/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html, list the data on the specified social
categories.
1. Ethnic groups
2. Religion
3. Sex ratio
4. Unemployment rate
5. Literacy rate
POLITICAL IDENTITY

POLITICAL IDENTITY as a social category refers to the set of attitudes and

practices that an individual adheres to in relation to the political systems and actors
within his or her society. Petryna (2001) discussed the context of “biological
citizenship” as an adaptive tool utilized by individuals who were biologically affected
by the explosion of Ukraine’s Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in 1986. She argued:
“the damaged biology of a population has become the ground for social membership
and the basis for staking citizenship claims.”
• Political parties in the Philippines such as Ang Ladlad, a party that negotiates for the welfare of
the LGBTQI community, and Kabataan, a party that promotes youth empowerment, are
examples of how sectors in our society use their identities as political vehicles to negotiate
their needs. Religion can also offer political identity to its followers. Members of the religious
group Iglesia Ni Cristo promote the practice of block voting, a church-based exercise of one’s
right to suffrage wherein the ministers and the members agree to unanimously vote for a
chosen candidate or political party line-up.
• In a more rigid context, an individual can acquire political identity by subscribing to a political
belief such as communism, democracy, or socialism

Members of the Ang Ladlad

and Kabataan Party List
staging their protest
RELIGION

• The belief in the supernatural has been one of the universal

preoccupations of humans as early as 60,000 years ago. The
earliest form of religion revolved around making sense of
natural occurrences such as extreme weather conditions,
natural and man-made calamities, sickness, and even death.
• Early human art exuded ancient forms of superstitions that
included beliefs in the afterlife and that of superhuman
capabilities. The Sorcerer of Les Gabillou is an example of a
Paleolithic artwork. The artwork depicts the supernatural
ability of a religious practitioner to become half-man and half-
animal.
RELIGION (CONTINUED)

• Today, religion has evolved to promote far complex forms of understanding

human nature, the afterlife, and natural events. Some are monotheistic,
believing in the existence of one god, whereas others are polytheistic,
believing in the existence of multiple gods. Some religions have gods
arranged in a hierarchy, and others are with gods that equally coexist. What
must be noted is that religion is a mirror of the society that affiliates with it,
such that a society with a strong caste system such as India is expected to
have a set of gods that are placed in a hierarchical system as well.
Here is a graphical distribution of the world’s population and its religious affiliations
BEYOND WALLS 1.4 READ AND ANSWER

One of the negative repercussions of religious affiliation is the disagreement with other
religious sectors that have a wholly different perspective and claim than the other. Sometimes,
such disagreements escalate to political misunderstandings and are used to justify war.

Visit the following link to read an article on the war at Gaza Strip between Israelis and
Palestinians: http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/20436092

After reading the article, answer the following questions

1. What role does religion play in this conflict?

2. How are the actors’ identities defined by their religious belief?

EXCEPTIONALITY/ NON-EXCEPTIONALITY

• Some individuals do not conform to behavioral or cognitive norms, not because they
intend to deviate from such, but because they are exceptional. The concept of
exceptionality leans on non-average capacity of an individual. This could be
understood in a spectrum of capabilities, wherein you have the geniuses in one
extreme and you have the disabled and challenged in the other extreme. Such
characteristics would place an individual in compromising situations as the
environment demands conformity. Issues relating to both status can range from having
fewer employment opportunities due to being physically disabled to not reaching one’s
full capacity due to the lack of advanced mechanisms to support an exceptional talent.
CULTURAL VARIATION

• The variation in human conditions promotes diversity and plurality in cultural traditions.
This could lead to discrimination and ostracism. ETHNOCENTRISM is a perspective
that promotes an individual’s culture as the most efficient and superior; hence, the
individual who exhibits ethnocentrism feels that his or her culture is the most
appropriate as compared with other cultures. This may also manifest in a belief that
one’s set of moral codes is better than those of others, such that one’s religion is
accepted as a truer form of belief system. This perspective evaluates a particular
culture based on the observer’s understanding of the other, which is often problematic,
given the bias of the observer due to his or her own culture’s preconditioning.
• Using this perspective as a lens in understanding society is problematic on the basis
that each culture is efficient and appropriate for the environment where it finds its
practice. Forcing the Maasais to wear fur-based clothing that Eskimos typically wear
would be inappropriate due to the difference where these two groups come from.
• When faced with a plurality of culture, you may adapt the conceptual tool of
CULTURAL RELATIVISM, which promotes the perspective that cultures must be
understood in the context of their locality. Using this perspective makes you tolerant
of the differing attitudes and practices of others – a characteristic that is essential to
a highly globalized world that we live in.
• Traditions, social norms, and political identities are not static because they are often
affected by the environment. Social change occurs as human populations adapt to
their dynamic surroundings. Other factors that trigger social change include
technology and globalization. (This will be further discussed in Module 15)
• Ferraro and Andretta advocate a more culturally relative approach to understanding other
human groups. They said that one can build emotional resilience by understanding that
other do not necessarily mean to offend, but that their actions are guided by their own
cultural norms. And with such a predisposition, one can balance the contradictions within
his or her team and appreciate other perspectives that can enhance the potential for
collaboration.
• Another problematic form of classification for human groups is rooted in race. From the 17th
to the early 19th century, the term RACE was used as a form of human classification that
was based on observable human traits and characteristics. Some of the earlier categories
include Caucasoid, Australoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. These categories merely reflect the
differences in skin color, size of skull, height, body frame, and other physical characteristics.
The clear delineation among these categories is blurred by the constant intermarriages
among people of various ethnic origins producing offspring who possess mixed traits of the
parents. In the Philippines, an individual whose parents have differing ethno-biological
backgrounds is often dubbed as a mestiza (female) or a mestizo (male).
• Due to the social contexts associated with racial groups, discrimination was further
exacerbated. In countries that practiced slavery of African populations, racial
discrimination against individuals of African descent by the colonizers became a highly
observable phenomenon.
• From racial slurs to unequal access, and to benefits and opportunities, racism creates a
deep social cleavage that further marginalizes the subjects of racial oppression. In a
2013 study of the Pew Research Center, it was noted that “all black men were six times
as likely as all white men to be incarcerated.” This vulnerability to incarceration is
attributed to the distinctly lower household income of black families than their white
counterparts. Such economic conditioning creates ripples in other facets of their life,
which include lesser access to good education, poor housing conditions, and lesser to no
access to health care systems.
• Filipinos have also been subject to various forms of racism, having been subjected to
three major colonizing powers (Spanish, American, and Japanese). These forms of
racism include segregated spaces, disqualification from potential work despite
qualifications, and inaccessibility of quality education.
• The question that everyone must answer in relation to racial variation is this: Are
humans really different from one another, or are our differences just skin-deep?
• Some scholars would argue that there should be BIOLOGICAL EGALITARIANISM
among humans to prevent further racism. This perspective promotes the equality
of our biological makeup despite our ancestry.
BEYOND WALLS 1.5 APPLY IT IN REAL LIFE

You are a chef in world food exhibit that has the theme “Food on the
Crossroad: Global Connections.” The exhibit aims to showcase how local cuisines
have adapted the techniques of other culinary traditions. As a delegate of the
Philippine team, you will need to select a dish that represents the fusion of local
delicacy with a foreign cuisine. You will need to produce a visual representation of
the dish and discuss the influences it accommodated to a set of judges who will
evaluate your presentation based on the content of your analysis and the clarity of
your discussion.
EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

One of the lasting issues that multicultural countries face is racism. Even the most
developed countries, such as the United States, are still haunted by this issue. Go this link to
read an article on Barack Obama, the President of United States, addressed the issue of
black oppression in his country.

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/23/us/obama-
racism-marc-maron-podcast.html?_r=0
ESSENTIAL LEARNING

All humans belong to the same species but exhibit differences in terms of
their behavior. These differences are a product of the knowledge systems that they
subscribe to. These systems are affected by various factors such as the
environment, technology, and global movements. As such, we must adhere to a
cultural relativist approach, which allows for a more accepting predisposition of the
biological and cultural differences of humans. Doing so allows for a greater sense of
emotional resilience as you encounter cross-cultural miscues.