Antenna Part 1

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
JBCardenas © 1982
Transmission Media and Antenna

Systems E
Sources:
Ballanis
ARRL
Com3 Lecture Notes
FValiente’s Com3 2011 presentation slides
JCardenas’ Com4/Com5 2011 presentation slides
Carr, Practical Antenna Handbook, TAB, 1989
Tomasi,
Excerpts of presentation materials,

not in MIT Lecture Notes
2015 © Jose Cardenas, v I-2
JBC © 1982~2011 Telecommunications
JBCardenas © 1982
Topic 07
Unbounded space Free Space Propagation
Radio Freq spectrum bands; channel/frequency TV/FM/DTV
band in Philippines (metro manila)
Isotropic model review of TEM
Characteristics of wave regarding:
Polarization
Attenuation
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
Interference
Scattering
Sample problems/exercises
See also: Self-study module in Com4 yahoo site.
JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 1

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
RADIO FREQUENCY BANDS

EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCY
• It is a term used to describe
radiation frequencies from 3 to
300 Hz.
• ELF is a subradio frequency.
• Submarine Applications
VERY LOW FREQUENCY
• 3-30kHz
• Radio waves at these frequencies
are very reliable for long-range
communications. Attenuation of the
ground waves is very small, and the
sky wave reflection is good.
• Radio Navigation, Aeronautical
Communications and Maritime
LOW FREQUENCY Mobile Communications
• 30kHz - 300kHz
• Attenuation of ground waves is higher than VLF. Sky absorption begins to be a
factor , especially at the higher end of this band.
• Radio Navigation, Aeronautical Communications and Maritime Mobile
Communications
JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 3
MEDIUM FREQUENCY
• 300kHz – 3MHz
• Includes the standard AM 300GHz
broadcast band in which it is Frequency Wavelength
mm Wave
possible to obtain reliable ground 0.1mm

wave coverage up to 100 miles 3THz
38GHz FWA
from the transmitting antenna. Sub mm Frequency
30GHz
• Amateur Communications 300GHz 1mm
26GHz FWA
Extremely High
Frequency:EHF 22GHz FWA
Quasi-mm
Propagating on the 30GHz 1cm

Wave
straight as similar to light Super High

Frequency:SHF 10.5GHz FWA
3GHz 10cm 10GHz
Ultra High Frequency:
Propagating on the UHF
straight as well as 300MHz 1m
Micro Wave
diffracting around Very High

mountains and building Frequency:VHF 5GHz WLAN
30MHz 10m
High Frequency:HF 3.5GHz FWA

3MHz 100m 3GHz
Reflecting at Ionosphere
Quasi -Micro Wave
and traveling to the back Medium Frequency:MF

of Earth 300kHz 1km
2.4GHz WLAN
30kHz Low Frequency:LF 10km
Propagating along with
Earth surface and go 3kHz Very Long 100km
over low mountains Frequency:VLF 1.9GHz PHS
1GHz

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Television Broadcast Band

HIGH FREQUENCY Frequency
Channel
• 3MHz – 30MHz (MHz)
• Sky wave propagation is the only reliable 2 54-60
means of communicating over long
3 60-66 Low Band
distances especially at the upper end of this
band 4 66-72
5 76-82 VHF
• Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point
Communications and Land, Maritime and 6 82-88
Aeronautical Communications 7 174-180
8 180-186
9 186-192 High Band
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY 10 192-198
11 198-204 VHF
• 30MHz – 300MHz 12 204-210
• This region includes the commercial FM
13 210-216
and VHF TV bands. Line of sight s the
14 to 83 470-890 UHF Band
principal means of communication.
• Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point 73,74 Govn.t/ Mobile
Communications and Land, Maritime and
75 NAVI (ILS/Mbeacon)
Aeronautical Communications
88-108 FM Band
108-136 Aero Comm
136-174 Mobile/Marine/Air/Land
Mobile Wireless Spectrum

ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY
• 300MHz – 3GHz
• Line of sight propagation is
possible beyond the optical
horizon due to the increasing
refraction effects on earth’s
atmosphere
• TV Broadcasting,
Radioastronomy, Aeronautical
and land mobile communications
and satellite communications.
SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY
• 3GHz – 30GHz
• Represents the upper limit of frequencies that have any practical use in radio-wave communication
using standard method of generating and transmitting signals.
• Microwave Relays, Satellite and Exploratory Communication
EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCY

• 30GHz – 300GHz
• Represents the upper limit of frequencies that have any practical use in radio-wave communication
using standard method of generating and transmitting signals.
• Microwave P2P Relays, Satellite and Exploratory Communications

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
FREE SPACE PROPAGATION

• is an idealised wave environment where
there are no other transverse
electromagnetic (TEM) wave, no gravity,
no obstructions, no atmosphere, no
celestial events, no terrestrial events, no
electrical noise, and no observers. In
short, the wave environment is free from
everything except the wave itself.
• space that does not interfere with the
normal radiation and propagation of
waves (epitome of nothingness).
• Free space implies a vacuum,
propagation through the Earth’s
atmosphere is often referred to as free
space propagation.
• A radiated TEM wave in free space is
often referred to as being in time phase
and space quadrature. This means that
the E and H fields rise and fall together
in time, but are 900 apart in space.
ISOTROPIC MODEL REVIEW OF TEM

In free space, the TEM wave is thought as emanating from a
dimensionless source. Mathematically, such a zero-dimensional source
is obviously a point source.
Moreover, the waves regarded as radiating uniformly in all direction from

this point as illustrated in Figure3. Consequently, we call such a radiation
point as isotropic source. The radiated energy of equal intensity is required
by a sphere whose surface area is given by: 4πr^2

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Electric Field
Magnetic Field
A radiated TEM wave in free space is often referred to as

being in time phase and space quadrature. This means
that the E and H fields rise and fall together in time, but are
900 apart in space.
9
The Isotropic model
In free space, the TEM wave is thought as emanating

from a dimensionless source. Mathematically, such a zero-
dimensional source is obviously a point source. Moreover,
the waves regarded as radiating uniformly in all direction
from this point. Consequently, we call such a radiation
point as isotropic source. The radiated energy of equal
intensity is required by a sphere whose surface area is
given by: 4R2
Point
Source R
10 Engr. Flordeliza Valiente


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Radio- Wave In Free Space

Radio waves propagate as TEM waves in free space.
For an isotropic source:
Point
Source R Pt 30 Pt
PD  ; E 
4R 2 R
where PD = power density (W/m2); E = electric
field intensity (V/m); Pr = total radiated power (W);
and R = distance from source (m).
Field Strength
 7
o 4 x10
Zs    120  377 
 1 9
o x10
36
E2 E2 P
E2
P   t
; 
Z 120  120
S 4R 2
30 Pt
E
12 Engr. Flordeliza Valiente R

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Attenuation
The reduction of power density with distance is

equivalent to a power loss and is commonly called
wave attenuation.
PD1
 a  10 log
PD 2

POLARIZATION
• The polarization of a plane

electromagnetic wave is simply the
orientation of the electric field vector
with respect to the surface of the
Earth.
• If the polarization remains constant, it
is described as linear polarization.
1. Horizontally Polarized
• The electric field is
propagating parallel to
the Earth’s surface.
2. Vertical Polarization
• The electric field is
propagating
perpendicular to the
Earth’s surface.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
If the polarization vector
rotates 360 as the wave
moves one wavelength
through space and the field
strength is equal at all
angles of polarization, the
wave is described as having
circular polarization
ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION
When the filed strength

varies with changes in
polarization, this is
described as elliptical
polarization
Optical Properties Of Radio Waves
• Since light waves and radio waves are part of the

electromagnetic spectrum, they behave similarly.
• Thus, radio waves can:
– refract at the boundary between two different
media
– reflect at the surface of a conductor
– diffract around the edge of an obstacle
– interfere with one and another to degrade
performance
• Propagation of radio wave in the atmosphere is
greatly influenced by the frequency of the wave.


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Reflection
• Return or change in direction of

light, sound and radio waves
striking a surface or travelling
from one medium to another.
• Occurs when an incident wave
strikes a boundary of two media
and some or all of the incident
power does not enter the
second material.
• Occurs when the reflective
surface is irregular or rough
(Diffuse reflection) Or smooth
surface (Specular Reflection)
-Semirough Surfaces- combination of diffuse and specular reflection
Refraction
 Bending of radio path wave.
 Electromagnetic refraction is actually the changing of direction of an
electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely from one medium into
another with different velocities of propagation.
 Refraction index

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Diffraction
 Modulation or redistribution of
energy within a wave front when
it passes near the edge of an
opaque object.
 the scattering or bending of
waves as it passes the edges of
an object or opening. Diffraction
is defined as the modulation or
redistribution of energy within a
wavefront when it passes near the
edge of an opaque object.
Diffraction is the phenomena that
allows light or radio waves to
propagate (peek) around corners.
Huygens principle- states that every point on a given spherical wave front can be
considered as a secondary point source of electromagnetic waves from which other
secondary waves are radiated outward.
Interference
- Occurs when two or more

electromagnetic waves combine
in such a way that system
performance is degraded.
- Radio wave interference occurs
when two or more
electromagnetic waves combine
in such a way that system
performance is degraded. It is
subject to the principle of linear
superposition of
electromagnetic waves and
occurs whenever two or more
waves simultaneously occupy
the same point in space.
- Subjected to linear position

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
JBCardenas © 1982
Topic 08
Propagation modes
Types of wave propagation: ground sky excluding space
wave
Atmospheric layers
Atmospheric conditions, description not atmospheric effects
Daily and seasonal variations
Ionization
Multi-path
Maximum usable and optimum frequencies
Skip zones (VFH)
Fading (not Fade Margin)
Exercises
Radio Wave Propagation Modes
• In every terrestrial radio system, there are three possible modes of

propagation:
– Ground-wave or surface-wave propagation
– Space-wave or direct-wave propagation
– Sky-wave propagation
• At frequencies < 2 MHz, ground wave is best.
• Sky waves are used for HF signals.
• Space waves are used for VHF and above.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Ground-Wave Propagation
Ground waves start out with the electric field being

perpendicular to the ground.
Due to the gradient density of the earth’s atmosphere
the wavefront tilts progressively.
Wavefront Direction of wave travel

Increasing
Tilt
Earth
Notes On Ground Waves
• Advantages:
– Given enough power, can circumnavigate the earth.
– Relatively unaffected by atmospheric conditions.
• Disadvantages:
– Require relatively high transmission power.
– Require large antennas since frequency is low.
– Ground losses vary considerably with terrain
• Applications: MF broadcasting; ship-to-ship and ship-

to-shore comms; radio navigation; maritime comms.


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Sky-Wave Propagation
• HF radio waves are returned from the F-layer of the ionosphere by a

form of refraction.
• The highest frequency that is returned to earth in the vertical direction
is called the critical frequency, fc.
• The highest frequency that returns to earth over a given path is called
the maximum usable frequency (MUF). Because of the general
instability of the ionosphere, the optimum working frequency (FOT) =
0.85 MUF, is used instead.
Notes on Sky wave Propagation
• Almost all HF propagation, and night

time long distance MF propagation is
by sky wave.
• Above 30MHZ, waves are more likely
to penetrate the ionosphere and
continue moving out into space. Atmospheric Layers
• Ionosphere is most dense during time

of maximum sunlight
• In general, the lower the frequency,
the more easily the signal is refracted.
• In the UHF, SHF and EHF bands, a
very small percentage of the wave’s
energy is refracted back to earth
• Under the best conditions, the
maximum distance of a single hop is
about 2000 miles


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
IONOSPHERIC LAYERS
D LAYER.— The D layer ranges from about 30 to 55 miles above the earth.
Ionization in the D layer is low because less ultraviolet light penetrates to this level.
E LAYER.— The E layer

ranges from approximately 55
to 90 miles above the earth.
The rate of ionospheric
recombination in this layer is
rather rapid after sunset,
causing it to nearly disappear
by midnight. The E layer F LAYER.— The F layer exists from about 90 to 240
permits medium-range miles above the earth. During daylight hours, the F
communications on the low- layer separates into two layers, F1 and F2. During
frequency through very high- the night, the F1 layer usually disappears, The F
frequency bands. At layer produces maximum ionization during the
frequencies above about 150 afternoon hours, but the effects of the daily cycle
MHz, radio waves pass are not as pronounced as in the D and E layers.
through the E layer. Atoms in the F layer stay ionized for a longer time
after sunset, and during maximum sunspot activity,
they can stay ionized all night long.
Amount of Ionization depends on the

following factors:
1.amount of sunlight
2.season of the year
3.sunspots
4.weather conditions
5.local terrain


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Virtual Height – is the height above Earth’s surface

from which a refracted wave appears to have been
reflected.
Skip Zone – is the zone of silence between the point
where the ground wave becomes too weak for
reception and the point where the sky wave is first
returned to earth
Skip distance - is the distance from the transmitter
to the point where the first sky wave was received

Relationship between skip zone, skip distance and ground wave

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
The amount of refraction depends on three (3) factors:
1. Density of ionized layer
31
2. Frequency of radiowave (3-30MHz)
32

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
3. Angle at which the wave enters the ionosphere
33
Formulas For Sky Waves
• From geometry (assuming

flat earth):
F-Layer
d = 2hv tan i
where hv = virtual height
i of F-layer; θ angle of
incidence
• From theory (secant law):
hv MUF = fc sec i
Earth
d

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Effects of frequency on critical angle
Critical Angle - above which the signal will not be refracted

enough to return to earth
Chordal hop propagation – refracted twice (F2), miles away
OTHER PHENOMENA THAT AFFECT

COMMUNICATIONS
SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE IONOSPHERE

Seasonal variations are the result of the earth’s revolving around the sun, because
the relative position of the sun moves from one hemisphere to the other with the
changes in seasons. Seasonal variations of the D, E, and F1 layers are directly
related to the highest angle of the sun
SUNSPOTS
One of the most notable occurrences on the surface of the sun is the appearance
and disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas known as SUNSPOTS.
Twenty-Seven Day Cycle

The number of sunspots present at any one time is constantly changing as some
disappear and new ones emerge. As the sun rotates on its own axis, these
sunspots are visible at 27-day intervals, which is the approximate period for the sun
to make one complete revolution.
Eleven-Year Cycle
Sunspots can occur unexpectedly, and the life span of individual sunspots is variable.
The ELEVEN-YEAR SUN SPOT CYCLE is a regular cycle of sunspot activity that has
a minimum and maximum level of activity that occurs every 11 years.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
IRREGULAR VARIATIONS
Irregular variations are just that, unpredictable changes in
the ionosphere that can drastically affect our ability to
communicate. The more common variations are sporadic E,
ionospheric disturbances, and ionospheric storms.
Sporadic E
Irregular cloud-like patches of unusually high ionization,
called the sporadic E, often format heights near the normal
E layer. Their exact cause is not known and their occurrence
cannot be predicted. However, sporadic E is known to vary
significantly with latitude. In the northern latitudes, it
appears to be closely related to the aurora borealis or
northern lights

Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances

Commonly known as SID, these disturbances may occur
without warning and may last for a few minutes to several
hours. When SID occurs, long-range HF communications
are almost totally blanked out. The radio operator listening
during this time will believe his or her receiver has gone
dead.
Ionospheric Storms
Ionospheric storms are caused by disturbances in the earth’s
magnetic field. They are associated with both solar eruptions
and the 27-day cycle, meaning they are related to the rotation
of the sun. The effects of ionospheric storms are a turbulent
ionosphere and very erratic sky-wave propagation.


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Weather
Wind, air temperature, and water content of the atmosphere
can combine either to extend radio communications or to
greatly attenuate wave propagation making normal
communications extremely difficult. Precipitation in the
atmosphere has its greatest effect on the higher frequency
ranges. Frequencies in the HF range and below show little
effect from this condition.
FOG.— Since fog remains suspended in the atmosphere, the
attenuation is determined by the quantity of water per unit
volume (density of the fog) and by the size of the droplets.
Attenuation because of fog has little effect on frequencies
lower than 2 gigahertz, but can cause serious attenuation by
absorption at frequencies above 2 gigahertz.

JBCardenas © 1982
Topic 09
Space waves review ground and sky
Atmospheric Effects on Propagation
Subsidence Advection Radiative Cooling
Temperature inversions
Refraction k-factor M profiles
Conduction bands evaporative ducting
Path loss, ground reflection loss and Fade margin
Review: dB dBi dBd dBq
Software aids: simulation performance design optimization
Sample problems

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
TRANSMISSION LOSSES
GROUND REFLECTION LOSS

When propagation is accomplished via multihop refraction,
RF energy is lost each time the radio wave is reflected from
the earth’s surface. The amount of energy lost depends on the
frequency of the wave, the angle of incidence, ground
irregularities, and the electrical conductivity of the point of
reflection
FREE SPACE LOSS

Normally, the major loss of energy is because of the
spreading out of the wavefront as it travels from the
transmitter. As distance increases, the area of the wavefront
spreads out, much like the beam of a flashlight.
Free-Space Path Loss
• Defined as the loss incurred by a radio

wave as it travels in a straight line through
a vacuum with no absorption or reflection
of energy from nearby objects.
• Formula:Lp (dB) = 92.4 + 20log f + 20log D
• where f = frequency of radio wave in GHz
and D = distance in km.
• If f is in MHz, replace 92.4 above by 32.4.


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Free-Space Path Loss
 4D 
2
but c
Lp    
   f
so Converting to dB
 4fD 
2
 4fD  L p dB   10 log
2
Lp    
 c   c 

 4fD 
L p dB   20 log 
 c 
Separating the constants from the variables
 4 
L p dB   20 log   20 log f  20 log D
 c 
For frequencies in MHz and distances in
kilometers,
 4 106 103
L p dB   20 log
  
8   20 log f MHz   20 log Dkm 
 3x10 

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Lp dB  32.4  20 log f MHz   20 log Dkm 

When the frequency is given in GHz and the
distance in km

When the frequency is given in GHz and the
distance in miles

RAIN.— Attenuation because of raindrops is greater than

attenuation for any other form of precipitation. Raindrop
attenuation may be caused either by absorption, where the
raindrop acts as a poor dielectric, absorbs power from the radio
wave and dissipates the power by heat loss; or by scattering.
H2O and O2

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS ON PROPAGATION

Fading
The most troublesome and frustrating problem in receiving
radio signals is variations in signal strength, most
commonly known as FADING.
Multipath Fading
MULTIPATH is simply a term used to describe the multiple
paths a radio wave may follow between transmitter and
receiver. Such propagation paths include the ground wave,
ionospheric refraction, reradiation by the ionospheric
layers, reflection from the earth’s surface or from more
than one ionospheric layer, and so on.

Multipath Transmission

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Fade Margin
• To account for changes in atmospheric conditions, multipath loss, and

terrain sensitivity, a fade margin, Fm, must be added to total system loss:
Fm (dB) = 30log d + 10log(6ABf) - 10log(1-R) -70
where d = distance (km), f = frequency (GHz), R = reliability (decimal
value), A = terrain roughness factor (0.25 to 4, for very rough to very
smooth), and B = climate factor to convert (0.125 to 0.5, for very dry to
hot and humid) or worst-month probability = 1.
• For info only: Other formulas (do not use in Com3)
Fm (dB) = 30log d + 15log(f) + 10log(5.21AB) - 10log(1-R) -60

Fm (dB) = 36log d + 8.9log(f) + 10log(K) – 14log(1+|hr-he|/d) - 10log(1-R) - C
A – roughness factor
= 4 over water or very smooth terrain
=1 over an average terrain
= 0.25 over a very rough, mountainous terrain
B – factor to convert a worst-month probability to an
annual probability
= 1 to convert an worst month probability to an
annual probability
= 0.5 for humid and hot areas
=0.25 for average inland areas
=0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
K – combined terrain and climate factor

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Space-Wave Propagation
• Travel in a straight line from the transmitting antenna to
receiving antenna.
• Space-wave propagation (also called line-of-sight LOS),
requires a path where both antennas are visible to one
another and there are no obstructions. VHF and UHF
communications typically use this path (frequencies
above 30MHz).
For long distances, earth curvature is

pronounced.
Propagation options: Line of Sight
• The radio horizon is greater than the optical

 Direct horizon by about one third due to refraction
of the atmosphere (US std k=4/3).
 Line of Sight
 NLOS w/ multi path • Reflections from a relatively smooth surface,
such as a body of water, could result in
 Reflected partial cancellation of the direct signal.
 tropo ducting
 billboards
 ionospheric refraction
 Diffracted
 knife edge
 Scattered
 Tropospheric
 Rain

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Direct Propagation
Satellite Communication and Terrestrial Radio Link
The APOGEE is the farthest distance from earth to satellite orbit.
The PERIGEE is the minimum distance.
Lowest practical orbit: 100 miles above sea level
GEO – geosynchronous earth orbit ≈ 36000
US mainland 1965: 6084

Equatorial mean 6378.137
Polar mean 6356.752 km
Keepler’s 2nd Law
Multiple Path
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
When layers of warm air form above layers of cold air, the condition known as
temperature inversion develops. This phenomenon causes conduction ducts or
channels to be formed, by sandwiching cool air either between the surface of the
earth and a layer of warm air, or between two layers of warm air. Also, large
objects, such as buildings and hills, could cause multipath distortion from many
reflections.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Evaporative Ducting
• Propagation speed of sea breeze front depends on
large scale forcing
• Sea breeze extension depends on large off shore
wind component
• Onset of sea breeze depends on solar radiation
available
• Development of sea breeze depends also on the
prevailing winds.
• Duct formation; high level elevated, lower level,
stronger elevated duct, surface duct.
• Evaporation duct gets stronger as wind speed
increases in the surface layer.
• Complex refractivity structure ranging from sub –
refractive over land to elevated ducts, surface ducts
and “nested” ducts over the sea.
TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER/DUCTING
(TROPOSCATTER)
• Is a special case of skywave propagation used for frequencies higher

than those in standard skywave propagation technique.
• Troposphere (6-10mi above the earth’s surface) is used as a reflector of
UHF signals.
• Is used when reliable long distance communication link is needed
across the deserts, mountain ranges, off shore drilling platform and
between distant islands where earth bulge is pronounced.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Space-Wave Propagation
Most terrestrial communications in the VHF or higher

frequency range use direct, line-of-sight, or
tropospheric radio waves. The approximate maximum
distance of communication is given by:
d 4  hT  hR 
where d = max. distance in km
hT = height of the TX antenna in m
hR = height of the RX antenna in m
Assumes US standard equivalent earth radius factor,
5280 statue mile radius and info only: in some
reference:
57
d  17hT  17hR
Engr. Flordeliza Valiente
 
d  2hT  2hR 
where d = max. distance in miles
hT = height of the TX antenna in ft
hR = height of the RX antenna in ft
Assumes US standard equivalent earth radius factor


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
NEC Simulation
Do the theoretical computations based on
requirements, derive geometry then
simulate using NEC to derive base-line
performance. Modify input data to
optimize design. Show performance
profiles, before and after optimization.
Then fabricate prototype using final
results, and then measure
performance.
Capture radiation plots, polar, cartesian, 3D,

Jose B. Cardenas, C.P.M. EE, ECE impedances, then translate into tables.
JBC © 198 v A2,2 Telecommunications 59
JBCardenas © 1982
Topic 10
Antenna basics (do not cover topic 11 and 12)
Near Far fields, Efficiency, gain, EIRP
Review: resonance resistive impedance as applied to antennas
Characteristics: directivity, loading, grounding
Review: Matching as applied to antennas
Antenna length; resonant/non-resonant antennas
Definitions: Beamwidth Radiation Pattern Directivity Resonant
Frequency Bandwidth Polarization
Description: single-band multi-band, broadband;
For each antenna type listed below, describe, radiation patterns,
formulas, provide sample problems
Dipole Monopole Folded Dipole, inverted V, multi-band, loop,
rhombic, spiral, bobtails, curtain, normal mode helix (rubber
ducky), etc..
Do not include reflector types, horns, slots, cones, lenses,
arrays, axial-mode helix

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Antenna
• consist of a wire or other conductor, or a collection of wires or
conductors, that converts electrical energy into electromagnetic waves
for transmission, and electromagnetic waves into electrical energy for
reception
• An antenna is a passive reciprocal device.
• It acts as a transducer to convert electrical oscillations in a transmission
line or waveguide to a propagating wave in free space and vice versa.
• It functions as an impedance matcher between a transmission line or
waveguide and free space.
• All antennas have a radiation pattern which is a plot of the field
strength or power density at various angular positions relative to the
antenna.
• Antennas can be linearly, elliptically or circularly polarized depending on
their E-field radiated.
Basic Antenna Operations
Antenna radiates
- Resonates when energy changes (vibrates) between electric and
magnetic fields
- Impedance transition where energy is launched into free space

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Antenna Parameters
• Resonant frequency
• Impedance
• Gain
• Radiation Pattern/Directivity
• Bandwidth
• Efficiency
• Polarization
• F/B ratio
• Beamwidth
• Others…..
Antenna Parameters
• Radiation Pattern
A polar diagram or graph representing field strengths or power
densities at various angular positions relative to an antenna.
• Near and Far Fields
The term near field refers to the field pattern that is close to the
antenna, and the term far field refers to the field pattern that is at great
distance.
• Antenna bandwidth
The frequency range over
which operation is satisfactory and
is generally taken between the
half-power points; the angular
separation between the two half-
power points on the major lobe of
the antenna’s plane radiation
pattern.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Antenna Impedance and Efficiency

where: Ra= antenna resistance
Za = Ra + jXa
Xa=antenna reactance
Ra = Re + Rr
An antenna has an equivalent radiation resistance, Rr
given by: Pr where P = power radiated and
Rr  r
i2 i = antenna current at feedpoint
o Antenna input impedance, Zin = Ei/Ii
o Radiation resistance is the resistance that, if it replaced the
antenna, would dissipate exactly the same amount of power
that the antenna radiates.
o Feed-point impedance Ra = 73 (of which between 68 to
70 is the radiation resistance). This is true for a simple
dipole antenna.
Antenna Efficiency
the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of

the power radiated and the power dissipated or the ratio of
the power radiated by the antenna to the total input power.
All the power supplied to the antenna is not radiated.
Antenna efficiency:
Pr Rr
 x 100  x 100
Pr  Pd Rr  R e
where Pd = power dissipated;
and Re = effective antenna resistance.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Directive Gain & Power Gain
Directive gain is the ratio of the power density radiated in a

particular direction to the power density radiated to the same
point by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are
radiating the same amount of power.
Directive gain of an antenna is given by:
PD
where PD = power density at some point
with a given antenna; PDr = power density
D
at the same point with a reference antenna. PDr
Maximum directive gain is called directivity.
Reference antenna is generally the isotropic source.

• Transmitting gain (At) – If an antenna radiates A

watts and a standard antenna radiates B watts at the
same locations, directions and conditions then the
trasmitting gain is A/B
• Receiving gain (Ar) – If an antenna receives A watts
and a standard antenna receives B watts under the
same conditions then the receiving gain is A/B
When antenna efficiency is taken into account
directive gain becomes power gain: Ap =  D.
In decibels, power gain is 10 log Ap


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
An isotropic radiator is a spherical point source. EIRP

is the equivalent power that an isotropic antenna
would have to radiate to achieve the same power
density at a given point as another antenna:
EIRP = PtGt = PinAp
where Pt = total radiated power; Pin = antenna input power; Gt
= TX antenna gain; and Ap = antenna power gain.
Therefore, the power density at a distance, R, from an

antenna is:
EIRP Pt Gt
PD  
4 R 2 4 R 2
• Power captured by the receiving

antenna with an effective area, Ae, is Pr
= PDAe. Note that Ae includes the gain
and efficiency of the antenna 2
Gr
Ae 
4
The received power is therefore given by
the equation Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr 
(4 R) 2

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Basic Antennas
• Elementary doublet is a dipole which is

infinitely thin and has length l which is vey
short compared to the wavelength
The far radiation filed of an antenna can be

computed using the aid of Maxwell,s
equation:
60lI sin 
E
R
Half-Wave Dipole
/2
Symbol
Balanced Feedline
.Simple and most widely used at f > 2 MHz.
.It’s a resonant antenna since its length is 2 x /4.
.Zin = 73  approx.; Zmax = 2500  approx. at ends
.Radiation pattern of dipole in free space has two
main lobes perpendicular to the antenna axis.
.Has a gain of about 2.15 dBi

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
v 
kc 0.95c
lD    
2 2f 2f 2f
142.5 467.4
lD  (m) lD  ( ft )
f MHz f MHz

Free-Space Radiation Pattern of Dipole
74

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Ground & Length Effects On Dipole
• Since the ground reflects radio waves, it has a

significant effect on the radiation pattern and
impedance of the half-wave dipole.
• Generally speaking, the closer the dipole is to
the ground, the more lobes will form and the
lower the radiation impedance.
• Length also has an effect on the dipole
antenna: dipoles shorter than λ/2 is capacitive
while dipoles longer than λ/2 is inductive.
Marconi/Monopole Antenna
Main characteristics:
• vertical and λ/4
• good ground plane is
required
• omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane
• 3 dBd power gain
• impedance: about 36 ohms

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Marconi/Monopole Antenna
v 
kc 0.95c
lM    
4 4f 4f 4f
71.25 233.7
lM  (m) lD  ( ft )
f MHz f MHz

Resonant Antenna
• Corresponds to a resonant line, and the dipole antenna is a good

example whose length is a multiple of quarter wavelength
• Plasma is used in some application to reduce antenna
detectability by radar; in some others sea water, Hg are used
4l
nlobes 


Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Non-resonant Antennas
• Monopole and dipole antennas are classified as resonant type since they operate
efficiently only at frequencies that make their elements close to λ/2.
• Non-resonant antennas do not use dipoles and are usually terminated with a
matching load resistor.
• They have a broader bandwidth and a radiation pattern that has only one or two
main lobes.
• No standing waves and its radiation pattern is unidirectional. Usually terminated
with a load resistor
• Examples of non-resonant antennas are long-wire antennas, vee antennas, and
rhombic antennas.
Rhombic
80

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Matching & Loading

• Antennas should be
matched to their feedline
for maximum power
transfer efficiency by using
an LC matching network.
• A simple but effective
technique for matching a
short vertical antenna to a
feedline is to increase its
electrical length by adding
an inductance at its base.
This inductance, called a
loading coil, cancels the
capacitive effect of the
antenna.
• Another method is to use Inductive Loading Capacitive Loading
capacitive loading.
Folded Dipole
• Often used - alone or with other elements - for TV and FM

broadcast receiving antennas because it has a wider
bandwidth and four times the feedpoint resistance of a
single dipole.
Spirals: Instead of leaving
the arms of the dipole
 antenna straight, they are
wrap around each other
2
resulting to a spiral. There is
also what is called the log-
periodic spiral. The
Zin = 292  circumference =λ determines
the lowest frequency; the
Feed line radius = λ/4 the highest
frequency.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
Spiral
• Spiral antennas belong to the class of "frequency independent"
antennas; those with a very large bandwidth. The fractional
Bandwidth can be as high as 30:1. This means that if the lower
frequency is 1 GHz, the antenna could still be in band at 30 GHz, and
every frequency in between.
• Spiral antennas are usually circularly polarized. The spiral
antenna's radiation pattern typically has a peak radiation direction
perpendicular to the plane of the spiral (broadside radiation). The Half-
Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is approximately 70-90 degrees.
• Spiral antennas are widely used in the defense industry for sensing
applications, where very wideband antennas that do not take up much
space are needed. Spiral antenna arrays are used in military aircraft in
the 1-18 GHz range.
• Other applications of spiral antennas include GPS, where it is
advantageous to have RHCP (right hand circularly polarized) antennas.
• We can define the arms of a spiral antenna using simple polar
coordinates and polar functions. The log-periodic spiral antenna, also
known as the equiangular spiral antenna, has each arm defined by the
polar function:
The parameters that effect the radiation of the spiral antenna include:
1. Total Length of the Spiral, or the outer radius. This determines the lowest frequency of
operation for the spiral antenna. The lowest operating frequency of the spiral antenna is
commonly approximated to occur when the wavelength is equal to the circumference of
the spiral:
2. The Flare Rate (a) - The rate at which the spiral grows with angle is the flare rate. If it is
too small, the spiral is tightly wrapped around itself. In this case, it will behave more like a
capacitor, with closely coupled conductors, giving poor radiation. If the flare rate is too
small, the spiral acts more like a dipole as it doesn't wrap around itself. A commonly used
value is a = 0.22.
3. Feed Structure - The feed must be controlled with a balun so that the spiral has balanced
currents on either arm. A commonly used balun for spiral antennas is the infinite balun.
More importantly, the feed structure determines the high end of the operating band. How
tightly you can wrap the spiral in on itself determines how small the wavelength can be
that will fit on your spiral and still maintain spiral antenna operation.
4. Number of Turns (N) - The number of turns of the spiral is also a design parameter.
Experimentally it is found that spirals with at least one-half turn up to 3 turns work well,
with 1.5 turns being a good number.

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM
JBCardenas © 1982
The highest frequency in the spiral antenna's operating

band occurs when the innermost radius of the spiral
(i.e. where the spiral starts after the feed structure)
is equal to lambda/4 (one quarter wavelength). That
is, the highest frequency can be determined from the
inner radius .
(Small) Loop Antenna

• A technically small loop, also known as a
magnetic loop, should have a circumference of
one tenth of a wavelength or less. This is
necessary to ensure a constant current
distribution round the loop. As the frequency or
the size are increased, a standing wave starts to
develop in the current, and the antenna starts to
have some of the characteristics of a folded
dipole antenna or a self-resonant loop.
Main characteristics:
Feedline
• very small dimensions, λ/10
• bidirectional
• greatest sensitivity in the
plane of the loop
• very wide bandwidth
• efficient as RX antenna with
single or multi-turn loop Quad

Antenna Part 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Antenna Part 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Com4D Intro 4/2/2015 4:39 AM

Transmission Media and Antenna

Excerpts of presentation materials,

JBC © 1982~2011 Telecommunications

JBC © 1982~2011 Telecommunications

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 1

RADIO FREQUENCY BANDS

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 3

possible to obtain reliable ground 0.1mm

Propagating on the 30GHz 1cm

straight as similar to light Super High

diffracting around Very High

High Frequency:HF 3.5GHz FWA

and traveling to the back Medium Frequency:MF

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 4

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 2

Television Broadcast Band

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 5

Mobile Wireless Spectrum

SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY

EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCY

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 6

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 3

FREE SPACE PROPAGATION

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 7

ISOTROPIC MODEL REVIEW OF TEM

Moreover, the waves regarded as radiating uniformly in all direction from

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 8

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 4

A radiated TEM wave in free space is often referred to as

The Isotropic model

In free space, the TEM wave is thought as emanating

10 Engr. Flordeliza Valiente

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 5

Radio- Wave In Free Space

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 6

The reduction of power density with distance is

13 Engr. Flordeliza Valiente

• The polarization of a plane

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 14

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 7

When the filed strength

Optical Properties Of Radio Waves

• Since light waves and radio waves are part of the

16 Engr. Flordeliza Valiente

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 8

• Return or change in direction of

-Semirough Surfaces- combination of diffuse and specular reflection

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 17

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 18

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 9

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 19

- Occurs when two or more

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 20

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 10

JBC © 1982~2011 Telecommunications

Radio Wave Propagation Modes

• In every terrestrial radio system, there are three possible modes of

JBC © 2012 ver 2 Telecommunications 22

JBCardenas, EE, ECE, A.P.P., C.P.M. 11

Ground waves start out with the electric field being

Wavefront Direction of wave travel

Notes On Ground Waves

• Applications: MF broadcasting; ship-to-ship and ship-