Applied Sciences: Review of Substrate Integrated Waveguide Circuits For Beam-Forming Networks Working in X-Band

applied
sciences
Review
Review of Substrate Integrated Waveguide Circuits
for Beam-Forming Networks Working in X-Band
Giuseppe Venanzoni 1, * , Davide Mencarelli 2 , Antonio Morini 2 , Marco Farina 2 and
Francesco Prudenzano 3
1 Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università di Perugia, Via G. Duranti 93, 06123 Perugia, Italy
2 Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Informazione, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche,
60131 Ancona, Italy; d.mencarelli@univpm.it (D.M.); a.morini@univpm.it (A.M.); m.farina@univpm.it (M.F.)
3 Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica e dell’Informazione, Politecnico di Bari, Via Orabona, 70100 Bari, Italy;
francesco.prudenzano@poliba.it
* Correspondence: giuseppe.venanzoni@unipg.it

Received: 8 February 2019; Accepted: 5 March 2019; Published: 11 March 2019
Abstract: A review of substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) components designed for the use in
beam-forming networks working in X-Band is presented. The proposed devices are four-port and
six-port couplers and magic tees for the network. The devices take full advantage of the use of SIW
technology in order to reduce size, weight, and cost. The design processes of all devices are exposed,
and the experimental results of prototypes show the feasibility of these solutions.
Keywords: substrate integrated waveguides; directional couplers; antennas
1. Introduction
In recent years, substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) [1–3] technology has gained more and more
attention in the microwave community for its flexibility in the realization of microwave circuits [4].
The propagation and dispersion characteristics of SIWs are very similar to those of rectangular
waveguides so that the skills required for hollow waveguides can be used for SIWs. As a matter of
fact, many devices designed for waveguide technology can easily be built using substrate integrated
waveguides. Moreover, SIW devices are manufactured using standard printed circuit board (PCB)
procedures, making them simpler to build, lighter, and less expensive than a waveguide device built
with a standard process such as milling. The fact that SIW devices are realized using a dielectric
substrate allows for an easy integration with other planar circuits, for example based on microstrip
technology. The presence of the dielectric also allows for a shrinking of the dimensions with a scale
factor proportional to the square root of the relative dielectric permittivity.
Of course, the presence of a dielectric inside the waveguide increases the losses, depending on the
loss tangent of the material used. Losses are also affected by the relatively low height of the substrate
waveguides, which increases the conductor losses.
Dielectric losses can be reduced by using substrates with low loss tangent, though these substrates
are more expensive. Conductor losses can also be decreased by using thicker substrates, thus affecting
the size, weight, and cost of the device. These problems are mitigated for wide-band devices and
signal-level circuits, where additional losses can be compensated by the use of amplifiers.
Another drawback of SIW devices compared to standard waveguide ones is the limited power
handling resulting from the reduced height of the waveguide.
In this contribution, a review of devices designed and built for X-band applications is presented.
More specifically, the devices have been designed to be used in satellite digital video broadcast (DVB-S)
applications as an alternative to existing dish antennas. The goal is to have a series of devices that are
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003; doi:10.3390/app9051003 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19
In this contribution, a review of devices designed and built for X-band applications is
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 2 of 19
presented. More specifically, the devices have been designed to be used in satellite digital video
broadcast (DVB-S) applications as an alternative to existing dish antennas. The goal is to have a
series
thinner,of lighter,
devicesand thathave
are thinner, lighter,
less visual andcompared
impact, have less visual
to dishimpact, compared
antennas. In ordertotodish
keep antennas.
the cost Inof
order to keep the
the appliances low,cost of the appliances
particular attention mustlow, particular
be devoted attention must of
to the choice bethe
devoted to theVery
substrates. choice of the
low-cost
substrates.
FR4 substrates Veryare
low-cost FR4 substrates
not suitable for microwave are not suitable
devices, forthere
since microwave
are highdevices, since
losses and bigthere are high
uncertainties
losses
about its and big uncertainties
dielectric permittivity.about its dielectric
Other substrates, such permittivity. Other substrates, such
as Rogers RT/duroid®5870/5880, areas Rogers
very good
RT/duroid®
at microwave5870/5880,
frequencies areand
veryexhibit
good at verymicrowave frequencies
low dispersions and exhibit very
of characteristics overlow dispersions
different samples.of
characteristics over different samples. However, they are very expensive,
However, they are very expensive, and they are also not suitable for the application under examination.and they are also not
suitable
There areforsomethe application under examination.
mid-level substrates, such as theThereTaconicareRF-35,
some mid-level substrates,
used in nearly all thesuch as the
prototypes
Taconic RF-35, used in nearly all the prototypes illustrated in this review that are
illustrated in this review that are particularly suited for big antennas. They are relatively low-cost, and particularly suited
for
theybig antennas.
show Theybehavior
very good are relatively
in termslow-cost,
of theirand theyand
losses showtheir very good behavior
uniformity in terms
in electrical of their
parameters
losses and their uniformity in electrical parameters over samples.
over samples.
This situation
situation cancan
changechange in thebyfuture
in the future by of
the advent the
newadvent of new
technologies, suchtechnologies,
as metamaterials such as
[5–10],
metamaterials
that promise better[5–10], that promise
characteristics better
thanks tocharacteristics thanks to artificial materials.
artificial materials.
The
The manuscript
manuscript isisdivided
dividedasasfollows.
follows.In In Section
Section2 some
2 some fundamental
fundamental theories
theoriesabout SIWs
about are
SIWs
presented,
are presented, and in Section 3 a number of devices for beam-forming networks are illustrated. In
and in Section 3 a number of devices for beam-forming networks are illustrated. In
Section
Section 44 an array antenna
antenna for DVB-S
DVB-S application
application is is designed
designed and and measured.
measured. Finally,
Finally, inin Section
Section 55 a
new
new fabrication
fabrication process
process for empty
empty SIWsSIWs is is proposed
proposed in in order
order to to build
build devices
devices that
that are
are not
not affected
affected byby
dielectric
dielectric losses.
2. Fundamental
2. Fundamental Theory
Theory
Figure 1 shows an illustration of a substrate integrated waveguide with the main dimensions.
Figure
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Sketch
Sketch of
of aa substrate
substrate integrated
integrated waveguide
waveguide (SIW).
(SIW).
The
The propagation
propagation inside
inside aa SIW
SIW strongly
strongly resembles
resembles the the propagation
propagation inside
inside aa classical
classical hollow
hollow
waveguide
waveguide with some important differences. In fact, the propagating modes are very close to
with some important differences. In fact, the propagating modes are very close to the
the
TEn0
n0 modes
modes ofof the
thewaveguide,
waveguide, as
asthey
theyarearethe
the fundamental
fundamental mode
mode of the
of TE
the 10. Since
TE 10 . the
Since height
the of
height the
of
substrate waveguide
the substrate waveguideis very small,
is very the the
small, cutoff frequency
cutoff frequency of the TEmn
of the TEmn modes
modes with n ≥n1≥is1shifted
with is shiftedto
very high
to very frequencies
high andand
frequencies usually are not
usually aretaken into consideration.
not taken Moreover,
into consideration. the gaps
Moreover, theon the lateral
gaps on the
walls
lateralprevent the propagation
walls prevent of TM
the propagation of modes
TM modes [11,12] because
[11,12] because thethe
strong
strongradiation
radiationdoes
doesnot
not allow
allow
longitudinal
longitudinal currents.
In the literature
In the literaturethere
there
areare
some some empirical
empirical formulas
formulas that the
that relate relate
sizethe
of asize
SIWof a SIW
with with an
an equivalent,
equivalent,
or effective,or effective, waveguide
waveguide with continuous
with continuous lateral walls. lateral
One of walls. One of
the most the most commonly
commonly used is [13]:used is
[13]:
d2
W𝑊e f f ==w𝑤−− ,, (1)
(1)
0.95s
.
where ww isis the

thewidth
widthofofthe theSIW,
SIW,d dis is
thethe
diameter
diameterof of
thethe
vias, andand
vias, s is sthe
is spacing among
the spacing vias (see
among vias
Figure 1). W
(see Figure is effthe
1).eff W effective
is the width
effective width of of
a rectangular
a rectangularwaveguide
waveguidewith withthe
the same
same propagation
propagation
characteristic,
characteristic, i.e.,
i.e., same
same propagation
propagation constant
constant andand electromagnetic
electromagnetic field profile. This formula
formula allows
allows
the design of devices using and equivalent waveguide with continuous lateral walls, thus simplifying
the synthesis process.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 3 of 19
From Equation (1), the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode can be easily computed using the
following:
−1
d2

c
Fc = √ w− . (2)
2 εr 0.95s
These formulas are very accurate when:
d
< 0.2. (3)
w
Other formulas have been proposed, by using different analytical or numerical methods [14–16],
improving the accuracy over a wider range of the d/w ratio.
There are three different mechanisms that cause losses in SIW [17,18]: conductor losses, dielectric
losses, and radiation. Conductor losses depend on the metal used (usually copper), the roughness
of the metal, and the height of the SIW. The first two cannot be directly controlled by the designer
since they depend on the quality of the copper lamination of the substrate. Of course the thickness
of the metallization should be suitably chosen depending on the frequency and the skin depth. On
the other hand, the thicker the substrate is, the lower the losses are, so there is a tradeoff between the
losses and the size and weight of the final device, especially in the case of multilayer PCBs. Dielectric
losses depend only on the quality of the substrate because they are independent on the cross-section
of the waveguide. The choice of the substrate is always a tradeoff between performance and cost.
Radiation losses are caused by the scattering from noncontiguous lateral walls. Negligible radiation
losses occur when the diameter of the vias is big enough and the spacing among them is small enough.
An empirical formula can be used to set the via spacing dependent on the diameter [18]:
s
< 2.5. (4)
d
3. Components for the Beam-Forming Network

The beam-forming network (BFN) is a microwave network that processes the input signal in
order to feed an array antenna in such a way to generate a given radiation pattern. BFNs can be very
complicated, especially when the antenna elements must be fed by signals with different amplitudes
and phases. Things become much worse when the same antenna must generate different beams,
for example, with different main lobe directions. However, for the topic of antennas for DVB-S, the
elements of the array are fed by signals of the same amplitude and phase, generating a broadside main
lobe. This also maximizes the gain of the antenna. The drawback is that the side lobes are not at their
minimum level. The main elements of a BFN are dividers, four-port couplers, magic tees, and six-port
couplers. In the following, some structures are presented.
3.1. Four-Port Directional Coupler

One of the basic building blocks of a BFN is the four-port directional coupler. There
are many examples of SIW couplers made using quite expensive substrates, such as Rogers
RT/duroid®5870/5880 [19–26]. The main goal of using a Rogers RT/duroid®substrate is to reduce
as much as possible the dielectric losses. However, an antenna for a DVB-S signal is quite big, i.e.,
comparable with the size of a commonly used dish antenna, and should be low-cost. In order to
accomplish these specifications, a less expensive substrate was used for this study. In particular, the
chosen substrate was the Taconic RF-35 (εr = 3.5), which exhibits a nominal loss tangent equal to
0.002. Moreover, the higher dielectric permittivity compared to Rogers RT/duroid®substrates can be
exploited to reduce the size of the circuits.
The coupling coefficient of a directional coupler can be different depending on the application.
For example, prototypes with a coupling of 3 dB, 6 dB, and 10 dB have been realized [19]. The most
common coupler structure used for SIW realization is the Riblet coupler [27]. This device is very simple
simple since it can easily be built using a single dielectric layer. The coupler in [19] was a good
example, but it operated in K band. In [28,29], an in-depth investigation of directional couplers made
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 4 of 19
with RF-35 substrate was done. The study analyzed state-of-the-art existing devices available in the
Appl. Sci.
literature. 2019, 8, x FOR
It adapted thePEER REVIEW
results to the new substrate and improved the frequency response 4 of in
19 order
to obtain
since it can theeasily
desired coupling
be built usingcoefficient over a bandwidth
a single dielectric layer. The from coupler10.5inGHz to 12.5
[19] was GHz.example,
a good In [29], this but
simple since it can easily be built using a single dielectric layer. The coupler in [19] was a good
was done
it operated byin first
K scaling
band. In the device
[28,29], an in order
in-depth to have a
investigationTE cut-off
10 of frequency
directional
example, but it operated in K band. In [28,29], an in-depth investigation of directional couplers made at
couplers nearly
made 9 GHz,
with then,
RF-35
by changing
substratewithwas the
RF-35done. shape
Theof
substrate the
study
was waveguide
analyzed
done. The study walls in order
state-of-the-art
analyzed to improve
existing
state-of-the-art devices
existingthe matching
available
devices andliterature.
in the
available inadjust
the the It
coupling.
adapted In results
the
literature.theIt aforementioned
to thethe
adapted new study,
substrate
results eight different
andsubstrate
to the new improved couplers
andthe were
frequency
improved designedresponse
response
the frequency inusing
ordertwo different
toorder
in obtain the
desired to coupling
thicknesses obtainof the desired
thecoefficient coupling
substrate. The coefficient
overfirst groupover
a bandwidth a bandwidth
of four
from couplers
10.5 GHz fromto10.5
used GHz
a 0.5
12.5 to 12.5
mm-thick
GHz. GHz.
In [29], In [29],
wasthis
substrate,
this whereas
done by
the was
firstsecond done
scalinggroup by first
the device scaling
used in a 1.52
orderthe device
mm-thick in order
to have asubstrate. to have
TE10 cut-off a TE 10 cut-off frequency at nearly 9 GHz, then,
Forfrequency
both groups the starting
at nearly 9 GHz, point
then,wasby achanging
coupler
by changing the shape of the waveguide walls in order to improve the matching and adjust the
with straight
the shape lateral
of the walls, aswalls
waveguide the one proposed
in order in [19]. The
to improve best results
the matching andwere obtained
adjust for the second
the coupling. In the
coupling. In the aforementioned study, eight different couplers were designed using two different
group.
aforementioned study, eight different couplers were designed using two different thicknesses of the
thicknesses of the substrate. The first group of four couplers used a 0.5 mm-thick substrate, whereas
Three
substrate. prototypes
The
the second first
group were
group
used a built
of 1.52 (Figure 2)
fourmm-thick
couplers corresponding
used
substrate.a 0.5
Formm-thick to coupler
both groups substrate,#6, #7,
the starting and #8,
whereas
point theas
was described
asecond
coupler group in
the
usedarticle
awith [29].
1.52straight
mm-thick They exhibited
substrate. the
For best
both performances
groups the starting in terms
point of
was bandwidth,
a coupler
lateral walls, as the one proposed in [19]. The best results were obtained for the second withreturn
straightloss, and
lateral
coupling
walls, group. balance.
as the These results
one proposed in [19].haveThebeen
best obtained
results were by tapering
obtainedthe for shape of thegroup.
the second lateral walls of the
couplers
Three inThree
different
prototypes ways.
prototypes
werewereAs can
builtbuilt be(Figure
(Figureseen2) by the photos, the
2) corresponding
corresponding connection
totocoupler
coupler #6, #7, between
#7, and
and#8, the
#8,as devices
asdescribed
described and
in in the
articlethe
SMA article
connectors
[29]. They[29]. wasThey
exhibitedmadeexhibited
theby best the
using best
an performances
SIW-to-microstrip
performances in terms in terms of bandwidth,
transition,
of bandwidth, as the
return return
oneloss,
loss, and
proposed
and coupling in
coupling
[1,30,31].
balance. These balance.
The experimental These
results have been results have
scattering been
obtained obtained
parameters
by tapering by tapering
of thethecouplers the shape
shape of are of the lateral
shown walls
the lateral walls
in Figure of the
of the3.couplers
All the
couplers in different ways. As can be seen by the photos, the connection between the devices and the
measurements
in different ways. of Asscattering
can be seen parameters were done
by the photos, using a Keysight
the connection between the PNA E8361C
devices andwith the SMATRL
SMA connectors was made by using an SIW-to-microstrip transition, as the one proposed in
calibration.
connectors TheThe
was
[1,30,31].
results
made byshowed a low
using scattering
experimental an return loss and the
SIW-to-microstrip flatcouplers
parameters oftransition,
coupling
as are
thecoefficients
one proposed
shown
over theAll band
in Figurein3.[1,30,31].
10.7–
the The
12.7 GHz.
experimental scattering parameters of the couplers are shown
measurements of scattering parameters were done using a Keysight PNA E8361C with TRL in Figure 3. All the measurements of
scattering parameters were done using a Keysight PNA E8361C with
calibration. The results showed a low return loss and flat coupling coefficients over the band 10.7– TRL calibration. The results
showed 12.7a GHz.
low return loss and flat coupling coefficients over the band 10.7–12.7 GHz.
Figure 2.
2. Examples
FigureFigure of
of aaof
2. Examples
Examples four-port directional
a four-port
four-port directionalcoupler
directional designed
designedinin
coupler designed
coupler [29].
[29].
in (a)(a)
[29]. Coupler
Coupler
(a) Coupler #6;
#6; (b) (b)
(b) Coupler
#6;Coupler #7,
Coupler #7,
#7,
(c) (c) Coupler
Coupler #8; #8; and
and (d) (d) Photographs
Photographs ofofthe
theprototypes.
prototypes. Figures
Figures adapted
adapted from [28,29].
from [28,29].
(c) Coupler #8; and (d) Photographs of the prototypes. Figures adapted from [28,29].
Figure 3. Experimental responses for the couplers shown in Figure 2 [29]. (a) Coupler #6; (b) Coupler
#7; and (c) Coupler #8. Figures adapted from [28,29].
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Experimental
Experimental responses
responses for
for the
the couplers
couplers shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 22 [29].
[29]. (a)
(a) Coupler
Coupler #6;
#6; (b)
(b) Coupler
Coupler
#7;
#7; and
and (c)
(c) Coupler
Coupler
Another #8.
#8. Figures
approach to the adapted
Figures adapted from
from
design was [28,29].
[28,29].
used in [32]. In this case, a 3 dB directional coupler was
designed starting directly from the Riblet theory. In the coupling zone, i.e., the area where the
approach to the design was used in [32]. In
Another approach In this
this case, a 3 dB directional coupler was
designed starting
startingdirectly
directlyfrom thethe
from Riblet theory.
Riblet In the
theory. Incoupling zone, i.e.,
the coupling zone,thei.e.,
areathe
where
areathe aperture
where the
was between the two adjacent waveguides, the width of the coupler was usually lower than double
the width of a single waveguide. The reason was that, in the coupling region, only two modes (TE10
aperture was between the two adjacent waveguides, the width of the coupler was usually lower than
double the width of a single waveguide. The reason was that, in the coupling region, only two
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003
Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19 5 of 19
modes (TE10 and TE20) must be above cutoff in the passband of the device. The two modes were,
respectively, thewas
aperture even and odd
between modes
the two of the
adjacent half structure,
waveguides, obtained
the width by cutting
of the coupler the lower
was usually coupler
thanalong the
and TE20double
symmetry ) must
plane the
be width
above
A–A’ ofcutoff
a single
(Figure in waveguide.
4a). The of
the passband reason was that,The
the device. in the
twocoupling
modesregion,
were, only two
respectively, the
even andmodes odd modes(TE10 and ofTE 20) must be above cutoff in the passband of the device. The two modes were,
the half structure, obtained by cutting the coupler along the symmetry plane
respectively, the even and odd modes of the half structure, obtained by cutting the coupler along the
A–A’ (Figure 4a).
symmetry plane A–A’ (Figure 4a).
Figure 4. Four-port directional coupler. (a) Sketch of the coupler; (b) Photograph of the coupler.
Figure 4.4. Four-port
Four-portdirectional
directional coupler. (a) (a)
coupler. Sketch of the
Sketch ofcoupler; (b) Photograph
the coupler; of the coupler.
(b) Photograph Figures
of the coupler.
Figures adapted from [32].
adapted from [32].
Figures adapted from [32].
Following the Riblet theory, in order to design a 3 dB coupler, the even and odd circuits must be
Following
matched,the
Following andRiblet
the Riblet
the phasetheory,
theory, in
in order
difference order
betweento
to design
design aa 33 dB
the transmissiondB coupler,
coupler,
coefficientsthe
theineven
even and
andodd
even and odd
odd circuits
must must
circuits
cases must bebe
matched,
matched, and the phase difference between the transmission coefficients in even and odd cases must
be and
equal theto phase
90°. difference
Differently from between
the couplerthe transmission
shown in Figure coefficients
2, the connectionin even
betweenandtheodd cases
device must
be and 90 the◦ SMA connectors was themade using the transitionFigure
proposed in [33]. In this way,between
the coupler device
be equal
equal toto 90°.. Differently
Differently from
from the coupler
coupler shown shown in in Figure 2, 2, the
the connection
connection between the the device
was completely closed, thus avoiding any radiation loss due to the transitions. The final size of the
and the SMA
and the device
SMA was connectors
connectors waswas made using
made using thethetransition
transition proposed
proposed in [33]. In
in [33]. this way,
In thiswas the
way, coupler was
52 × 44 mm 2, whereas the core, without the transitions to SMA connectors, 30 ×the
44 coupler
completely
was completely closed,
mm2. Looking
thus
closed, avoiding
thus 4,
at Figure
any
avoiding
we assume
radiation
any loss
thatradiation
due
port 1 is the lossto the transitions.
dueport
input, to the The
2 is transitions.
final
the direct port,The
size
portfinal
of
3 is the
the device
size of the
was ×coupled
52 was 4452 mm 2 × 4430mm 2
device 44, whereas
×port, and port
mm 4the
2, whereas core,
is the thewithout
isolated the transitions
one.without
core, to SMA
the transitions toconnectors,
SMA connectors,was 30was × 44.
Looking at Figure
mm2. Looking Figure 54,shows
at Figure we assume
4,thewe that port
comparison
assume 1 is
between
that the
portthe1input,
is theport
simulated and2 is
input, the direct
experimental
port port, port
scattering
2 is the direct 3 is port
parameters
port, the coupled
3 is the
port, andfor
portthis4coupler.
is the Figure 6 shows
isolated one. the measured phase difference between the direct and the coupled
coupled port, and port 4 is the isolated one.
port, which should be nominally 90°. Although the designed device was quite simple, the results
Figure
Figure 55 shows
shows the
the comparison
comparison between the simulated and experimental scattering parameters
showed good performances, with between
a good return the loss
simulated
over the and
band experimental
10.5–12.7 GHz and scattering
a very good parameters
for this coupler.
for this coupler. Figure
balance ofFigure 6 shows
6 shows the
the transmission the measured
to themeasured
direct and phase
phase difference
difference
the coupled ports.between
between the direct
the direct
Performances can be and
and the
the coupled
further coupled
port, ◦ . Although the designed device was quite simple, the results
port, which
improved
which should
should be
be nominally
by either adding some
nominally 90
90°.matching
Although structures into the linedevice
the designed connectingwasthequite
SMA simple,
ports to thethe results
showed good
showed device
good core performances,
or by using a with
performances, with aa good
multi-hole good return
coupler.
returnFor loss
both over
loss the
the band
improvements,
over bandsizes,10.5–12.7 GHz
losses, and
10.5–12.7 GHz and
costs
and aa be
will very
very good
good
balance higher
of the than the proposed
transmission to solution.
the direct and the coupled ports. Performances can be further improved
balance of the transmission to the direct and the coupled ports. Performances can be further
by either adding
improved by either some matching
adding some structures
matchinginto the line connecting
structures into the linethe SMA portsthe
connecting to SMA
the deviceportscore or
to the
by using a multi-hole coupler. For both improvements, sizes, losses,
device core or by using a multi-hole coupler. For both improvements, sizes, losses, and costs will be and costs will be higher than the
proposed
higher than solution.
the proposed solution.
Figure 5. Comparison between simulated and experimental responses of the coupler in Figure 4.
(a) Reflection coefficient and isolation; (b) Transmission coefficients. Figures adapted from [32].
Figure
Appl. Sci. 2019,5.9,Comparison
1003 between simulated and experimental responses of the coupler in Figure 4. (a)6 of 19
Reflection coefficient and isolation; (b) Transmission coefficients. Figures adapted from [32].
Figure 6. Experimental
Figure 6. Experimentalphase
phase difference
difference between
between the coupled
the coupled and direct
and direct port ofport of the directional
the directional coupler
coupler
in Figurein4.Figure 4. adapted
Figures Figures adapted from [32].
from [32].
3.2. Six-Port
3.2. Six-Port Directional
Directional Coupler
Coupler
Another device
Another devicethat
thatcancaneasily be be
easily built withwith
built a single layer layer
a single SIW isSIW
the six-port directional
is the six-port coupler.
directional
Six-port directional
coupler. couplers are
Six-port directional not as common
couplers are not as as common
the four-port counterparts.
as the There are fewThere
four-port counterparts. examples
are
of such devices in the literature [34–36]. One reason is that the circuit is quite complex
few examples of such devices in the literature [34–36]. One reason is that the circuit is quite complex to design.
Moreover,
to the coupler
design. Moreover, thecan also be
coupler canrealized by combining
also be realized standard
by combining four-port
standard couplers
four-port and phase
couplers and
shiftersshifters
phase [37–42].[37–42].
However, a singlea block
However, singlesix-port couplercoupler
block six-port is moreisconvenient becausebecause
more convenient it is usually
it is
smaller and
usually it sports
smaller and ita wider
sportsband.
a widerMoreover, with the proposed
band. Moreover, with the design,
proposed thedesign,
three input portsinput
the three were
placed at one side of the device and the three output ports at the other side, which
ports were placed at one side of the device and the three output ports at the other side, which was was more useful.
moreAs opposed to four-port couplers, where the coupling coefficient can be different depending on
useful.
the application,
As opposeda tosix-port
four-portcoupler is usually
couplers, where designed to divide
the coupling the input
coefficient canpower by three.
be different This means
depending on
that application,
the the scatteringa matrix
six-portof coupler
the device is:
is usually designed to divide the input power by three. This
means that the scattering matrix of the device is:
e jϕ14 e jϕ15 e jϕ16

0 0 0
0 0 00 00 𝑒e jϕ15 𝑒1 𝑒 15
e jϕ
⎡ ⎤

1 ⎢ 0 0 0 𝑒 jϕ16 1 𝑒 ⎥
 0 0 0 e e jϕ15 e jϕ14
= 3⎢  e jϕ14 e jϕ15 e jϕ16 𝑒 0
S𝑆 = √ 0 0 0 𝑒 𝑒 ⎥,, (5)


00 00 (4)
√ ⎢𝑒  jϕ 𝑒 𝑒 jϕ 0 ⎥

⎢𝑒 e 15 1 1 𝑒 e 15 00 00 00 ⎥
⎣𝑒 e jϕ16 𝑒 e jϕ15 𝑒 e jϕ14 0 00 00 ⎦
where the phase φ25 is taken as reference. The simultaneous application of matching at all ports,
where the phase φ25 is taken as reference. The simultaneous application of matching at all ports,
reciprocity, no losses, and symmetry
reciprocity, no losses, and symmetry planes
planes gives
gives the
thefollowing
followingphase
phaserelations
relations[34,36]:
[34,36]:
(1
1 𝑒 jϕ + 𝑒 j( ϕ − ϕ ) + 𝑒j( ϕ − ϕ )

33 e 15 + e 14 15 + e 16 15 (5)
(6)
𝜑 −
ϕ −ϕ 𝜑 = = ±(
± 2𝜋/3
2π/3 )
14 16
From Equation (5), there are only two phases that can change freely.
From
For Equation
this kind of(6), there there
device, are only
wastwo
notphases
a knownthatsynthesis
can change freely. so it had to be designed
technique,
only For this kind of device,
by optimization. there was notobtained
The performances a knownforsynthesis technique,
the X-band couplerso(Figure
it had to be designed
7) were only
quite good.
by optimization. The performances obtained for the X-band coupler (Figure 7) were quite good.
Figure 8a shows the experimental reflection coefficients and the isolation among input ports.
Figure 8b shows the experimental transmission coefficients. The experimental phase difference
φ14 − φ16 satisfied Equation (6) with a deviation of +5◦ /−8◦ , as shown in Figure 9. The return loss can
be further improved by adding more steps or irises in the waveguides connecting SMA ports to the
core of the device. This approach was used, for example, in [34,35]. However, this increased the final
size of the coupler.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 7 of 19
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Photograph
Photograph of
of the
the prototype
prototype of
of the
the six-port
six-port coupler.
coupler. Figure
Figure adapted
adapted from
from [36].
[36].
Figure 8a
Figure 8a shows
shows thethe experimental
experimental reflection
reflection coefficients
coefficients and
and the
the isolation
isolation among
among input
input ports.
ports.
Figure 8b shows the experimental transmission coefficients. The experimental
Figure 8b shows the experimental transmission coefficients. The experimental phase difference phase difference
𝜙 −
𝜙 −𝜙𝜙 satisfied
satisfied Equation
Equation (5)
(5) with
with aa deviation
deviation ofof +5°/−8°,
+5°/−8°, as
as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 9.
9. The
The return
return loss
loss can
can
be further improved by adding more steps or irises in the waveguides connecting
be further improved by adding more steps or irises in the waveguides connecting SMA ports to the SMA ports to the
core of the device. This approach was used, for example, in [34,35]. However, this increased
core of the device. This approach was used, for example, in [34,35]. However, this increased the final the final
size of
size the Figure
of the Figure 7.
coupler.
coupler.7. Photograph
Photograph of
of the
the prototype
prototype of
of the
the six-port
six-port coupler.
coupler. Figure adapted from
Figure adapted from [36].
[36].
Figure 8a shows the experimental reflection coefficients and the isolation among input ports.
Figure 8b shows the experimental transmission coefficients. The experimental phase difference
𝜙 − 𝜙 satisfied Equation (5) with a deviation of +5°/−8°, as shown in Figure 9. The return loss can
be further improved by adding more steps or irises in the waveguides connecting SMA ports to the
core of the device. This approach was used, for example, in [34,35]. However, this increased the final
size of the coupler.
Figure 8.
Experimental response
response of
of the
the six-port
six-port coupler
coupler shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 7.
7. (a)
(a) Reflection
Reflection coefficients
coefficients
and isolation
and isolation among
among input
input ports;
ports; (b)
(b) Transmission
Transmission coefficients.
Transmission coefficients. Figures
coefficients. Figures adapted
Figures adapted from
adapted from [36].
from [36].
[36].
Figure 8. Experimental response of the six-port coupler shown in Figure 7. (a) Reflection coefficients
and isolation among input ports; (b) Transmission coefficients. Figures adapted from [36].
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Experimental phase
phase difference between
between the output
output signal
signal on
on port
port 44 and
and 6 when port
port 1 is fed.
fed.
Experimental phase difference
difference between the
the output signal on port 4 and 66 when
when port 11 is
is fed.
3.3. Magic
3.3. Magic Tee
Tee
The Magic
The Magic Tee Tee is,
is, in
in practice,
practice, aa directional
directional coupler
coupler with
with 33 dB
dB coupling,
coupling, where
where the
the signals
signals at
at the
the
output ports
output portsare
ports areinin
are in opposition
opposition
opposition of phase.
phase.
of phase.
of The TheThe
devicedevice canbealso
can also
device can also betoused
used
be used tothemake
maketo make the sum
sum and
the sumdifference
the and the
and the
difference
of two of
input two input
signals, so signals,
it is very so it is very
important important
for many for many
applications, applications,
for example, for
difference of two input signals, so it is very important for many applications, for example, radars example,
radars and radars
mixers.
and scattering
The
and mixers. The
mixers. The scattering
matrix matrix
of thematrix
scattering of the
ideal Magic
of the Tee
ideal
ideal Magic[43]:
follows
Magic Tee follows
Tee follows [43]:
[43]:
Figure 9. Experimental phase difference between the output signal on port 4 and 6 when port 1 is fed.
 
0 1 1 0
3.3. Magic Tee
−j   1 0 0 1 
S= √  , (7)

The Magic Tee is, in practice, a directional 2  1 coupler
0 0 with −13 dB coupling, where the signals at the
output ports are in opposition of phase. The0 device 1 −1can 0also be used to make the sum and the
difference of two input signals, so it is very important for many applications, for example, radars
where port 1The
and mixers. is the sum port
scattering and port
matrix 4 isideal
of the the difference
Magic Teeone.follows [43]:
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0 1 1 0
𝑆= 1 0 0 1 , (6)
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003
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0 1 −1 0
where port 1 is the sum port and port 4 is the difference one.
The
The standard
standard waveguide
waveguide Magic Magic TeeTee isis aa 3D
3D component,
component, being being aa combination
combination of of an
an H-plane
H-plane
junction and an E-plane junction [43]. Therefore, it cannot be easily built using
junction and an E-plane junction [43]. Therefore, it cannot be easily built using a single layer a single layer substrate.
In the literature
substrate. In thethere were there
literature three different
were three approaches to solve this to
different approaches problem. Theproblem.
solve this first oneThemade useone
first of
two different substrates [44–46], the second approach consisted of connecting
made use of two different substrates [44–46], the second approach consisted of connecting the sum the sum and difference
circuits by means
and difference of a slotline,
circuits by means andofthe third approach
a slotline, and themadethird use of a phase
approach made shifter
use oftoaadjust
phasethe phase
shifter to
of one output
adjust the phase [47,48]. In the
of one first case,
output the In
[47,48]. device
the had
first to be built
case, by attaching
the device had totogether
be built twobysubstrates,
attaching
using
togetherscrews
two for example.using
substrates, Thisscrews
made thefor device
example. moreThiscomplicated
made the deviceand expensive. However, and
more complicated the
frequency
expensive. response
However,was the usually
frequency better in terms
response wasof bandwidth
usually better and isolation,
in terms with respect
of bandwidth to single
and isolation,
layer implementations.
with respect to single layer implementations.
In
In [46],
[46], aadouble-layer
double-layermagic magicteeteewas
wasdesigned
designed starting from
starting the the
from H-plane T junction
H-plane (Figure
T junction 10a).
(Figure
This
10a).junction matched
This junction well and
matched wellcontained
and containeda small slot that
a small slotwas
thatused to connect
was used the difference
to connect port
the difference
fabricated in another board (Figure 10b). The isolation between sum and difference
port fabricated in another board (Figure 10b). The isolation between sum and difference ports was ports was enforced
by the different
enforced by the field symmetries
different when the when
field symmetries ports the
were excited.
ports wereThe two boards
excited. The two were thenwere
boards attached
then
with screws
attached with(Figure
screws11). In the11).
(Figure figure, port
In the 1 is the
figure, portsum
1 isport and port
the sum port 4and
is the
portdifference one.
4 is the difference one.
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Layers
Layers of
of the
the Magic
Magic Tee:
Tee: (a)
(a) First
First layer
layer with
with the
the H-plane
H-plane T-junction;
T-junction; (b)
(b) Second
Second layer
layer with
with
the E-plane junction.
the E-plane junction.
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Assembled double-layer Magic
Assembled double-layer Magic tee.
tee.
The final
The final size
size of
of the
the device,
device,with
withthe
thetransitions
transitionsto toSMA
SMAconnectors,
connectors,was was60 60×× 60
60 mm
mm222,, whereas
whereas
the core of the coupler without the connectors was 32 × 25 mm 222. Figure 12 shows the experimental
the core of the coupler without the connectors was 32 × 25 mm . Figure 12 shows the experimental
reflection and
reflection and transmission
transmission coefficients.
coefficients. With
With this
this simple
simple design,
design, aa return
return loss
loss of
of at
at least
least 12
12 dB
dB can
can be
be
obtained over the band 10.5 GHz–12.7 GHz. The transmission from the difference
obtained over the band 10.5 GHz–12.7 GHz. The transmission from the difference port to the output port to the output
ports (i.e.,
ports (i.e.,S24
S24
24 and S34 ) was
and S34 ) 34was affected
affected by additional
by additional losses losses dueadditional
due to the to the additional length
length of the of the
waveguide.
waveguide.
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19
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Figure 12.
12. Experimental
Experimental response
response of the
the Magic Tee
Tee prototype
prototype shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 11.
11. (a)
(a) Reflection
Reflection
Figure 12. response of
Experimental response of the Magic
Magic Tee
Tee prototype
prototype shown
shown in
in Figure 11. (a) Reflection
Figure 11. Reflection
coefficients;
coefficients; (b) Transmission coefficients.
coefficients; (b)
coefficients; (b) Transmission
(b) Transmissioncoefficients.
coefficients.
Figure
Figure 13 shows the isolation among the
among the ports.
ports. As expected, the isolation between the sum and
Figure 13
13 shows
shows the
the isolation
isolation among
among the
the ports.
ports. As
As expected,
expected, the
the isolation
isolation between
between the
the sum
sum and
and
difference (S41)
difference
difference (S41) port
(S41) port was
port was higher.
was higher.
higher.
difference (S41) port was higher.
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Experimental isolation
isolation of the
the Magic Tee
Tee prototype
prototype shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 11.
11.
Experimental isolation of
of the Magic
Magic Tee
Tee prototype
prototype shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 11.
11.
A solution
solutionbasedbasedon
onthe
thesecond
second approach is shown
shown in Figure
Figure 14.this
In this
this case, the device
device was
A solution
A solution based
based on
on the
the second approach
approach
second is
is shown
approach in
in Figure
is shown 14.
14. In
14. In
in Figure case,case,
In this the
the device
case, was
was built
the device was
builtainto
built into aaa single
single layer,
layer, and
theand the H-plane
the H-plane and E-plane
and E-plane junctions
junctions were connected
were connected
by usingbyby using aabetween
using slotline
into single
built into layer, and
single layer, H-plane
and and E-plane
the H-plane junctions
and E-plane were connected
junctions were connected by using a slotline
a slotline slotline
between
between them14b).
them (Figure 14b).
14b).
them
between them (Figure
(Figure (Figure 14b).
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(a) (b)
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Single-layer
Single-layer Magic
Magic Tee
Tee prototype.
prototype. (a)
(a) top
top view;
view; (b)
(b) bottom
bottom view.
view.
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Single-layer
Single-layer Magic
Magic Tee prototype. (a)
Tee prototype. (a) top
top view;
view; (b)
(b) bottom
bottom view.
view.
The device
The device was
was designed
designed inin two
two steps,
steps, using
using the
the same
same method
method of of the
the double-layer
double-layer magic
magic tee.
tee.
The
The device
devicewas
wasdesigned
designedinintwo steps,
two using
steps, thethe
using same method
same of the
method ofdouble-layer magicmagic
the double-layer tee. First,
tee.
First,
First, the
the H-plane
H-plane junction
junction was
was optimized
optimized with
with an
an aperture
aperture to
to make
make space
space for
for the
the slotline.
slotline. This
This
the H-plane junction was optimized with an aperture to make space for the slotline.
First, the H-plane junction was optimized with an aperture to make space for the slotline. This This aperture
aperture was
aperture was narrow
narrow enough
enough inin order
order to
to avoid
avoid any
any power
power leakage
leakage when
when thethe sum
sum port
port was
was excited.
excited.
was narrow
aperture wasenough
narrowinenough
order toinavoid
orderany powerany
to avoid leakage
powerwhen the sum
leakage whenport
the was
sumexcited.
port was Then, the
excited.
Then, the
Then, the E-plane junction
junction was connected
connected using the the slotline. This
This solution waswas simpler to to build
Then, the E-plane
E-plane junction was
was connected using using the slotline.
slotline. This solution
solution was simpler
simpler to build
build
compared to
compared to the double-layer
double-layer one, butbut had some
some drawbacks. TheThe slotline was
was not enclosed,
enclosed, so the
the
compared to thethe double-layer one,
one, but had
had some drawbacks.
drawbacks. The slotline
slotline was not
not enclosed, so so the
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 10 of 19
E-plane junction was connected using the slotline. This solution was simpler to build compared to the
Appl. Sci.
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19
double-layer one, but had some drawbacks. The slotline was not enclosed, so the device suffered from
radiation loss. Infrom
device suffered
suffered this view, we could
radiation expect
loss. In
In this more
view,losses
this view, when
we could
could the field
expect morein losses
the slotline
whenwas theexcited,
field in i.e.,
in the
the
device from radiation loss. we expect more losses when the field
when
slotlinethewasdifference
excited, port
i.e., was
when fed.
the Moreover,
difference the
portband
was was
fed. narrower
Moreover, when
the compared
band was to the
narrower double
when
slotline was excited, i.e., when the difference port was fed. Moreover, the band was narrower when
layer implementation.
compared to the
the double
doubleOnlayer
the other hand, the isolation
implementation. thewas
On the othervery good,the
hand, especially
isolationbetween
was very
verythegood,
sum
compared to layer implementation. On other hand, the isolation was good,
and difference
especially betweenports,the
because
sum and it was
and enforced
difference by field
ports, symmetry.
because The finalby size of the device was
especially between the sum
2 , whereas difference ports, because itit was
was enforced
enforced field
by field symmetry.
symmetry.
2 . Figure
The
The
70 ×
final 70
size mmof the device the
was core
70 without
× 70 mm the transitions to SMA connectors was 37 × 37 mm
2, whereas the core without the transitions to SMA connectors 15
final size of the device was 70 × 70 mm , whereas the core without the transitions to SMA connectors
2
shows
was 3737the experimental reflection and transmission coefficients
reflectionofandthe transmission
prototype. Figure 16 shows the
was ×× 37
37 mm22.. Figure
mm Figure 15 shows
15 shows the
the experimental
experimental reflection and coefficients
transmission coefficients of the
of the
isolation
prototype. among
Figure ports.
16 shows the isolation among ports.
prototype. Figure 16 shows the isolation among ports.
Figure 15.
Figure
15. Experimental response
Experimentalresponse ofofthe
responseof the single-layer
single-layer
the Magic
Magic
single-layer MagicTeeTee
Tee prototype
prototype shown
shown
prototype in Figure
in
shown Figure 14. (a)
14.
in Figure (a)
14.
Reflection
Reflection
(a) coefficients;
coefficients;
Reflection (b) Transmission
(b)(b)
coefficients; Transmission
coefficients.
coefficients.

Figure Experimental isolation of
of the single-layer
single-layer Magic Tee
Tee prototype
prototype shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 14.
14.
Figure 16.
16. Experimental isolation
isolation of the
the single-layer Magic
Magic Tee prototype shown in Figure 14.
4. Substrate
4. Substrate Integrated
Integrated Waveguide
Waveguide(SIW)
(SIW)Antennas
Antennas
The use
The use of of SIW
SIW technology
technology appears appears to to be be very
very interesting
interesting in in producing
producing low low profile,
profile, light,
light, and
and
low-costantennas.
low-cost antennas.However,
antennas. However,the
However, thedesign
the design
design of
ofof high
high
high gain,
gain,
gain, squint-less,
squint-less,
squint-less, and and
and very very
very wide
wide
wide bandband
band
SIWSIW SIW antennas
antennas
antennas can
can
can be
be quite quite
be quite challenging.
challenging.
challenging. There
ThereThere
are someare some
are some
methods methods
methods to achieve
to achieve
to achieve this, for this,
this, for example,
for example,
example, by using by using
by slot
using slot arrays
slot [49]
arrays arraysor
[49]using
[49]
by or by
or by using cavity-backed
using
cavity-backed cavity-backed patchesIn[50–53].
patches
patches [50–53]. [50–53].
most cases, In most
In most cases, the
cases,
the performances the performances
performances obtained
obtained by obtained
SIW antennasby SIW
by SIW
are
antennas
antennas
lower are lower
are
compared lower
to their compared
compared
rectangular to their
to their
waveguide rectangular
rectangular counterparts waveguide
waveguide [54–58]. counterparts
counterparts [54–58]. integrated
[54–58].
However, substrate However,
However,
waveguides are gaining waveguides
waveguides are gaining
are gaining
a lot of attention a lot of attention
a lot fabrication
for their of attentionoffor for
low their
their fabrication
fabrication
profile of low profile
of lowantennas
and low-cost and
profile andfor
low-cost
low-cost
5G applicationsantennas
antennas for
for 5G
[59,60], 5G applications
applications
where [59,60],
standard [59,60],
waveguides where
where standard
arestandard waveguides
waveguides
not practical. are
are not
In particular, not practical.
thepractical.
gain of the In
In
particular,
particular,
antenna the
is athe gain of
gain
trade-off ofsince
the antenna
the antenna
it increases is aalinearly
is trade-off
trade-off since
assince
the area itit increases
increases linearly
linearly
of the antenna as the
as the area
increases, area
while of the
of the antenna
antenna
it decreases
increases,
increases,
exponentially while
while it decreases
it decreases
with exponentially
the lengthexponentially
of the transmission with
with the the
lines length
length of the transmission
of theoftransmission
as a result losses. In this lines
lines
view, as a
as for result
a result
a given of
of
losses. In
losses.
substrate, In itthis
this view,
view,
is not for aa given
for
convenient given substrate,
substrate,
to make very big itit is
is not convenient
not
antennas convenient
because, to to make
make
above very big
very
a certain big antennas
antennas
size, because,
the gainbecause,
actually
above
above
decreases a certain
a certain size, the gain
size, the dimensions.
with increasing actually
gain actuallyOndecreasesdecreases
the other with with increasing
hand,increasing dimensions.
dimensions.
when the radiating On
slotsOn the
andthe other
theother
BFN arehand,
hand,
on
when
when
the same the radiating
thesubstrate
radiatinglayer, slots
slots theand the
andcrossing BFN
the BFNbetween are on
are on the the
them same
samemust substrate
substrate
be avoided. layer,
layer,The the crossing
theradiating between
crossing elements
between them them
must
must be
must be avoided.
avoided. The The radiating
radiating elements
elements must must be be farfar enough
enough from from the the discontinuities
discontinuities in in order
order to to
avoid asymmetries in the radiation pattern. In this view, very
avoid asymmetries in the radiation pattern. In this view, very good results can be obtained with the good results can be obtained with the
example illustrated
example illustrated in in the
the following
following [61]. [61].
Since the
Since the band
band of of the
the antenna
antenna was was in in the
the interval
interval from from 10.710.7 GHz
GHz to to 12.7
12.7 GHz,
GHz, thethe antenna
antenna mustmust
be squint-less over a very wide range of frequencies.
be squint-less over a very wide range of frequencies. This means that traveling wave antennas This means that traveling wave antennas
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 11 of 19
be far enough from the discontinuities in order to avoid asymmetries in the radiation pattern. In this
view, very
Appl. Sci. 2019,good results
8, x FOR PEERcan be obtained with the example illustrated in the following [61].
REVIEW 11 of 19
Since the band of the
Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEWantenna was in the interval from 10.7 GHz to 12.7 GHz, the antenna must
11 of be
19
squint-less over a very wide range of frequencies. This means that traveling
cannot be used, since they are affected by the variation of the squint of the main lobe as the wave antennas cannot be
used,
cannotsince
frequency they are
bechanges.
used, affected
since
Also,they by
arethe
resonating variation
affected byofthe
subarrays thevariation
made squint of of
thethe
by several main lobeelements
squint
radiating as
of the
thefrequency
main
cannotlobechanges.
be as the
used,
Also, resonating
frequency
since their changes.
band issubarrays made bysubarrays
Also, resonating
limited. several radiating
made byelements cannot be
several radiating used, since
elements cannottheir
be band
used,
is limited.
since their
The band
basic ideais limited.
to satisfy the specifications was the use of special radiating slots that offered a
The
widebandThe basic
basic idea to
idea that
response to satisfy
satisfy the
the specifications
was connectedspecifications
using a SIWwas BFN.
the use
Theof
use special
ofbasic
special radiating
radiating
brick slots that
of the antenna wasoffered
the 4 ×aa
2wideband
element response
wideband response
shown in that
thatwas
wasconnected
Figure connected
17. using
usinga aSIW
The relatively SIW BFN.
high BFN.TheThebasic
dielectricbasicbrick of of
brick
permittivity thethe
antenna
of antennawas was
the Taconic 4 ×4 2×
thethe
RF-35
element
2 elementwas
substrate shownshown in Figure
exploited 17.
in Figure The relatively
17. the
to shrink Thenetwork high
relatively dielectric permittivity
high adielectric
in such of
way that permittivity the Taconic RF-35
of the Taconic
the distance between substrate
RF-35
two adjacent
was
slots exploited
substrate
was lesswasthanto shrink
exploited the
half the network
to wavelength
shrink theinnetwork
such
(in thea free
way thatathe
in such
space),way distance
thusthat thebetween
avoiding distance two adjacent
between
the grating twoslots
lobes. was
adjacent
less
slotsthan
washalfless the
than wavelength (in the free(in
half the wavelength space), thus
the free avoiding
space), thusthe gratingthe
avoiding lobes.
grating lobes.
Figure 17. Basic 4 × 2 antenna block in SIW technology.

Figure17.
Figure 17. Basic
Basic 44 ×
× 22 antenna
antenna block
block in
in SIW
SIW technology.
technology.
In order to obtain good radiation over a very wide band, the single radiating element was
In
In order
composed order to
of twoto obtain
obtain
slots andgood
good radiation over
over aa very
radiationmetallic
a cylindrical wide
wide band,
very(Figure
post band,
17). Thethe single
thetwo
single radiating
radiating
radiating slotselement
element
were calledwas
was
composed
composed
“active” andof two slots
of “passive”.
two slots and and a cylindrical
Thea active
cylindrical metallic post
metallic post
slot resonant length(Figure
(Figure 17).
depended The two radiating
17). on the offset with respect slots were
wereto called
called
the
“active”
“active”
center of and “passive”.
andwaveguide
the “passive”. [62]. The Theactive slot resonant
passive slot was length
positioneddepended on theofoffset
at the center with respect
the waveguide. to
to the
It could the
center
center of
radiate of the
the waveguide
thanks waveguide
to the active [62].
[62]. The
slot and passive slot was
the metallic was positioned
positioned
post, since they at
at the
the center
center of
perturbed the
ofthe waveguide.
thefield
waveguide.
inside the It
It could
could
SIW.
radiate
radiate
The thanks
thanks
lengths oftoto
thethe
theactive
active
slots slot
were slotand
and the
similar, themetallic
metallic
but post,
their post,since they
since
resonant theyperturbed
frequency perturbed
was thedifferent
fieldfield
the inside the SIW.
inside
because the The
ofSIW.
the
lengths
The lengths
different ofoffset
theofslots
the were
from thesimilar,
slots were but
line their
centersimilar, butresonant
[63,64], their frequency
thusresonant
widening wasband
frequency
the different
was
with because
respectof
different tothe
because different
the of the
single
offset
radiatingfromslot.
different the The
offset center
from line
the[63,64],
position of thethus
center line
smallwidening
[63,64],
metallic the
thuspostband
waswith
wideningthenrespect
the
used to the
band single
with
enhance radiating
respect
the to the
radiation slot. The
single
from
position
radiating
both slots.ofslot.
the small metallicofpost
The position thewas small then used to
metallic enhance
post was thenthe radiation from both
used to enhance theslots.
radiation from
The
bothThe 44 ××22arrays
slots. arrayswere werethenthenconnected
connectedbybyusing usinga asingle
singlelayer
layer SIWSIW network
network inin order
order toto realize
realize a
a uniform
uniformThearray,array,
4 × 2 arrays thus generating
were then connected
thus generating a broadside
a broadside main
bymain
usinglobe.lobe.
a singleFigure
Figurelayer 18
18SIW shows
showsnetworkthe built
the builtin orderarray that
arraytothat was
realize
wasa
2 . The antenna
composed
uniform array,
composed of ××16
of 32 thus 16radiating
radiating slots.
generating slots. The final
a broadside
The finalmain
size oflobe.
size the antenna
Figure 18 was 352 ×
352
shows ×the 352built
352 mm2array. The that
antenna was
was
was designed
composed
designed of 32using
× 16aaradiating
using standardslots.
standard aa commercial
commercial simulator
The final simulator (Ansys
size of the(Ansysantenna HFSS)
was 352
HFSS) for the
for ×the352SIW
SIW network
mmnetwork and aa
2. The antenna
and
home-made
was designed
home-made software
using afor
software the external
standard part [65]. The
a commercial The latter takes
simulator
latter takes
(Ansys intoHFSS)
into account
account the
forthe radiation
theradiation
SIW network from all
from all
and thea
the
slots
slots into the
home-made
into thesoftware
free space
free space forandthethe
external
mutual part [65]. The
coupling latterthem.
among takes into account the radiation from all the
slots into the free space and the mutual coupling among them.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 18.
18. SIW
SIWarray
arrayprototype:
prototype: (a)
(a)Sketch
Sketchof
ofthe
theprototype;
prototype; (b)
(b) Photograph
Photograph of
of the
the prototype.
prototype.
Figure 18. SIW array prototype: (a) Sketch of the prototype; (b) Photograph of the prototype.
The measured radiation pattern is shown in Figure 19, while the variation of the main lobe with
The measured
frequency is shownradiation
in Figurepattern
20. Theis results
shown show
in Figure
that19,
thewhile
mainthe variation
lobe of the fixed
was almost main lobe
withwith
the
frequency is shown in Figure 20. The results show that the main lobe was almost fixed with the
frequency.
frequency.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 12 of 19
The measured radiation pattern is shown in Figure 19, while the variation of the main lobe
with frequency is shown in Figure 20. The results show that the main lobe was almost fixed with
the frequency.
Figure
Figure 19.
Figure 19. Measured
19. Measured radiation
Measured radiation pattern
pattern of
of the
the antenna
antenna shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 18
Figure 18 [61]:
18 [61]: E-plane
[61]: E-plane (blue
(blue line);
line);
H-plane (green
H-plane (green
H-plane line).
(green line).
line).
Figure
Figure 20.
Figure 20. Squint
20. Squint
Squintofof the
ofthe main
themain lobe
lobeofof
mainlobe of the
thethe antenna
antenna
antenna shown
in in
shown
shown in Figure
Figure
Figure 18
18aas
18 as as aa function
function
function of the
the frequency
offrequency
of the frequency
[61]:
[61]:
[61]: (a)
(a) E-plane;
E-plane; (b)
(b)
(a) E-plane; (b) H-plane. H-plane.
H-plane.
The
The gain
The gain of
gain of the
of the antenna
the antenna was
antenna was 25
was 25 dB
25 dB and
dB and it
and was
itit was almost
almost constant
was almost constant from
constant from 10.7
from 10.7 GHz
10.7 to
GHz to
GHz 12.7
to 12.7 GHz.
GHz. The
12.7 GHz. The
The
value was
value was
value slightly
was slightly lower
slightly lower than
lower than expected
than expected from
expected from simulations
from simulations (27
simulations (27 dB),
(27 dB), probably
dB), probably because
probably because of
because of higher
higher losses
of higher losses
losses
than
than expected
than expected in
expected in the
in the substrate.
the substrate.
substrate.
5. New
5. New Trends
Trends (Empty
New Trends (Empty SIW)
SIW)
One of
One ofthe
of the
therecent
recent
recenttrends
trends
trendsin SIW in technology
in SIW
SIW technology is the so-called
technology is
is the empty substrate
the so-called
so-called empty integrated
empty substrate waveguide
integrated
(ESIW)
waveguide or air-filled SIW [66,67]. In practice, because of the high
waveguide (ESIW) or air-filled SIW [66,67]. In practice, because of the high losses of the dielectric,
(ESIW) or air-filled SIW [66,67]. In practice, because losses
of the of
high the dielectric,
losses of the even when
dielectric,
aeven
verywhen
even expensive
when veryone
aa very was used,
expensive
expensive onethis
one wassolution
was used,
used, this created
this solution
solution an emptycreatedwaveguide
created an
an empty inside a PCB
empty waveguide
waveguide in order
inside
inside aa PCB
PCBto
reduce
in order losses
to and
reduce maintain
losses and the other
maintain characteristics
the other of SIWs.
characteristics There
in order to reduce losses and maintain the other characteristics of SIWs. There were some attempts to of were
SIWs. some
There attempts
were some to build
attemptsempty to
SIWs
buildin
build emptythe literature.
empty SIWs
SIWs in Forliterature.
in the
the example, in
literature. For[68],
For the structure
example,
example, in
in [68],
[68], was themade
the by stacking
structure
structure was
was made printed
made by boards between
by stacking
stacking printed
printed
two
boardsmetallic
boards between
between covers,twobut
two this solution
metallic
metallic covers,
covers, but wasthis
but notsolution
this advantageous
solution was
was not over
not a device made
advantageous
advantageous over
over byaa device
adevice
machined madeblock
made by
by aa
of aluminum
machined or copper. In [69], another solution was proposed.
machined block of aluminum or copper. In [69], another solution was proposed. However, a part of
block of aluminum or copper. In [69], another solution wasHowever,
proposed. a part of
However, the EM
a partfieldof
was
the inside
the EM
EM field
fielda dielectric
was
was inside
inside material,
aa dielectric so that
dielectric the dielectric
material,
material, so
so that losses
that the were not
the dielectric
dielectric negligible
losses
losses were
were not andnegligible
not the advantage
negligible and
and the of
the
the solution
advantage
advantage ofwas
of the limited. was
the solution
solution Verylimited.
was recently
limited. [70–75]
Very
Very other
recently
recently solutions
[70–75]
[70–75] other
otherhave been proposed,
solutions
solutions have
have been but
been proposed, they used
proposed, but
but
screws
they usedto close
screws theto final
closeprototype.
the final For example,
prototype. For in [71]
example, a sandwich
in [71]
they used screws to close the final prototype. For example, in [71] a sandwich of three substrates was a of three
sandwich substrates
of three was proposed,
substrates was
proposed,
where
proposed, where
where the
the middle onemiddle
the middle one
was machinedone waswasin machined
order to in
machined in order
create
order the to create
toempty the
the empty
empty waveguide.
create waveguide. The upper The
waveguide. The upper
and lower
upper
and
and lower substrates can be made of low-cost material, such as FR4, whereas the middle layer was
lower
substrates substrates
can be made can ofbe made
low-cost of low-cost
material, material,
such as FR4,such as
whereasFR4, whereas
the middle the middle
layer was layer
made of
was
made
more of
of more
madeexpensive more expensive
material material
expensive (Rogers (Rogers
(Rogers RT/duroid
materialRT/duroid 6002®).
6002®). Moreover,
6002®). Moreover,
RT/duroid the authors
Moreover, the
thedidauthors did
did not
not specify
authors specify
nothow
specifythe
how
how the
sandwichthe sandwich
of layers was
sandwich of
of layers
glued.was
layers Also,glued.
was manyAlso,
glued. many
transitions
Also, manybetweentransitions
transitions between
planar waveguides
between planar
planar(i.e.,waveguides
microstrips
waveguides (i.e.,
or
(i.e.,
microstrips
coplanar or coplanar
waveguides) waveguides)
and empty SIW and
haveempty
been
microstrips or coplanar waveguides) and empty SIW have been designed [76–81].SIW have
designed been designed
[76–81]. [76–81].
The devices
The devices
devicesobtainedobtained
obtainedby by those
bythose
those methods
methods
methods werewere
were produced
produced
produced by
by using
by using different
different
using different processes,
processes,
processes,so theyso they
so were
they
were
not
were not
not suitable
suitable for mass
suitable for mass
mass production.
forproduction. Moreover,
production. Moreover,
the use ofthe
Moreover, screws
the use
use of didscrews
of not ensure
screws did
did not the ensure
not perfect the
the perfect
ensure planarity perfectof
planarity
the device ofandthe device
increased andthe increased
size and the size
weight, and
thus weight,
weakening thus
planarity of the device and increased the size and weight, thus weakening the advantages of SIWs. weakening
the advantages the advantages
of SIWs. of SIWs.
In
In order
order to to overcome
overcome these these problems,
problems, aa solution
solution to to build
build empty
empty waveguides
waveguides embedded embedded in in aa
single dielectric layer has been presented in [82]. With this solution,
single dielectric layer has been presented in [82]. With this solution, low loss and low-cost devices low loss and low-cost devices
can
can be
be made,
made, while while maintaining
maintaining the the compatibility
compatibility with with standard
standard PCB PCB processes.
processes.
The
The waveguide
waveguide was was built
built by by using
using aa stack
stack ofof two
two substrates
substrates (Figure(Figure 21). 21). TheThe main
main substrate
substrate was was
thicker (2 mm in this case) and it was milled to build the
thicker (2 mm in this case) and it was milled to build the waveguide. Then, a layer of copper waswaveguide. Then, a layer of copper was
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 13 of 19
In order to overcome these problems, a solution to build empty waveguides embedded in a single
dielectric layer has been presented in [82]. With this solution, low loss and low-cost devices can be
made, while maintaining the compatibility with standard PCB processes.
The waveguide was built by using a stack of two substrates (Figure 21). The main substrate was
thicker Sci.(2 mm 8, xin this case) and it was milled to build the waveguide. Then, a layer of copper was
Appl.Appl.
Sci. 2019, 2019,
8, x FOR FOR
PEERPEER
REVIEWREVIEW 13 of1319of 19
deposited by using chemical deposition or electroplating, depending on the thickness needed. Of
course,
course, the the
course, the
width width
width of
of theof the
the milled
milledmilled waveguide
waveguide
waveguide depended
depended
depended on
on the
on the the thickness
thickness
thickness of
of theof the
the deposited
deposited
deposited copper
in in
copper
copper in
order
order to
toobtain
obtain the
the desired
desired cutoff
cutoff frequency.
frequency. Above
Above the
the main
main substrate
substrate
order to obtain the desired cutoff frequency. Above the main substrate a thin layer of substrate (250 aathin
thin layer
layer of
ofsubstrate
substrate (250
(250
umum um thick),
thick),
thick), metalized
metalized
metalized ononboth
on both both
sides,sides,
waswas
sides, was attached
attached
attached by
byusing
by using using aano-flow
no-flow
a no-flow prepreg.
prepreg.
prepreg. TheTheThe prepreg
prepreg
prepreg itself
waswas
itself
itself was
worked
worked
worked so as to
so assotoasopen open
to open
some some
some apertures
apertures
apertures of
of the the
of samesame
the same size
sizesize of the waveguides
of waveguides
of the the waveguides in such
in such
in such a waya way
a way to avoid
the the
to avoid
to avoid the
field
field inside
inside the
the dielectric
dielectric and
and then
then to
to reduce
reduce losses.
losses. This
This gluing
gluing process
process
field inside the dielectric and then to reduce losses. This gluing process was done at high pressure was
was done
done at
at high
high pressure
pressure
andand
and
high high
high temperature,
temperature,
temperature, andand
and ititwas
it was was exactly
the the
exactly
exactly thesame
same sameusedused
used in
inthe
in the theproduction
production
production of
ofmulti-layer
multi-layer
of multi-layer PCBs.
PCBs. It isItIt isis
PCBs.
worth
worthworth
notingnoting
noting that
thatthat the dimensions
the dimensions
the dimensions of the holes
of holes
of the the holes in the
in main
in the main
the main substrate
substrate
substrate and
andand in
in the the prepreg
in prepreg
the prepreg were
werewerechosen
chosen
chosen in
in aainsuitable
a suitable
suitable way
wayway in
inorder totocompensate
in order
order to compensate
compensate anyanyvariations
any as aasresult
variations
variations aofresult
aasresult the
of gluing
of the
the process.
gluinggluing This reduced
process.
process. ThisThis
the
reduced dielectric
reduced inside
the dielectric
the dielectric the
inside waveguides,
inside thus
the waveguides,
the waveguides, reducing
thusthus losses
reducing
reducing and improving
losses
losses and and the
improving
improving repeatability.
the repeatability.
the repeatability.
Figure
Figure
Figure 21.Stack
21. 21.
StackStack oflayers
of layers
of layers forthe
for for
the theintegrated
integrated
integrated empty
empty
empty substrate.
substrate.
substrate. FR4
FR4FR4 substrates
substrates
substrates (green),
(green),
(green), Prepreg
Prepreg
Prepreg (dark
(dark
(dark
red),
red), and
and copper
copper (orange).
(orange).
red), and copper (orange).
Since
Since thethe
Since theprepreg
prepreg
prepreg was
was wasnon-conductive,
non-conductive,
non-conductive, there
there waswas
there
was aadiscontinuity
discontinuity between
a discontinuity the
the main
between
between the
main substrate
main and
substrate
substrate
andthe
thecover.
and cover. The
Theelectrical
the cover. The
electricalcontinuity
electrical
continuity between
continuity lower
between
between lower and
lowerupper
and and
upper substrates
upper was
substrates
substrates wasthen
wasguaranteed
then then by by
using
guaranteed
guaranteed by
two rows
using twoof metalized
rows of via holes
metalized viaalong
holesthe guide,
along the similar
guide, to SIWs
similar (Figure
to SIWs
using two rows of metalized via holes along the guide, similar to SIWs (Figure 22). 22).
(Figure 22).
Figure 22. Section of the empty SIW. FR4 substrates (green), Prepreg (dark red), and copper (orange).
Figure
Looking
Figure 22.atSection
22. SectionFigure of22,
of the theitempty
empty was
SIW.SIW.
FR4 FR4
apparent substrates
that the
substrates (green),
EM
(green),field Prepreg
was(dark
Prepreg (dark
mostly red),
and and
red),inside thecopper
empty
copper (orange).
guide with
(orange).
only a minimal part inside the prepreg. Moreover, the field was not inside the dielectric of the main
LookingLooking at Figure
at Figure it22,
22,Thiswas it was apparent
apparent that the EM
thatsubstrate
the EM fieldfield was mostly inside the empty guide with
and secondary layers. means that the used was mostly
for the inside
device theaempty
can be common guide
FR4,with
which
only only a minimal part inside the prepreg. Moreover, the field was not inside the dielectric of the main
is alow
minimal part inside
cost, rigid, and easy theto prepreg.
machine. Moreover, the field was not inside the dielectric of the main
andand secondary
secondary layers.
layers. This This
means
The performances of the waveguide
means
that that
the the substrate
substrate
built by used usedthe
thisfor
for device
process
the device
were can
canabe a common
verybepromising,
common FR4,FR4,
since which
the
which
losses
is low
is low cost, cost,
rigid, rigid, and
easyeasy
andSIWs to machine.
to machine.
were lower than using very expensive substrates, such as Rogers RT/duroid®5880 or Rogers
The performances
The performances of In of
thethisthe waveguide
waveguide builtbuilt by this
by dielectric
this process
process werewere
veryvery promising,
promising, sincesince losses
the losses
RO3003™ (Figure 23). comparison, the loaded SIWs were designed so the
that the TE10
were were lower
lowerfrequency than
than SIWswas SIWs
usingusing very expensive substrates, such as Rogers RT/duroid® 5880 or Rogers
cut-off theverysameexpensive substrates,
for all samples. such asthe
Moreover, Rogers RT/duroid®
conductor losses 5880
wereor Rogers
neglected in
RO3003™
RO3003™ (Figure
(Figure 23). 23). In this
In this comparison,
comparison, the dielectric
the dielectric loaded
loaded SIWs SIWs
werewere designed
designed so that
so that the10TE10
the TE
cut-off
cut-off frequency
frequency waswasthe the
same same for samples.
for all all samples. Moreover,
Moreover, the the conductor
conductor losseslosses
werewere neglected
neglected in in
orderorder to compare
to compare onlyonly the dielectric
the dielectric losses.
losses. The The dielectric-absent
dielectric-absent SIWSIWwaswas simulated
simulated using
using a low-cost
a low-cost
material (ITEQ IT-158) with the corresponding
material (ITEQ IT-158) with the corresponding prepreg (Tuc TU-84P NF). prepreg (Tuc TU-84P NF).
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 14 of 19
Appl. to
order Sci.compare
2019, 8, x FOR
onlyPEER
the REVIEW 14 of 19
dielectric losses. The dielectric-absent SIW was simulated using a low-cost
material
Appl. (ITEQ
Sci. 2019, IT-158)
8, x FOR PEERwith the corresponding prepreg (Tuc TU-84P NF).
REVIEW 14 of 19
Figure 23. Comparison of the losses due to the dielectric in SIW structures with different substrates
and the proposed empty SIW [82]. Conductor losses are neglected.
Figure 23. Comparison
Figure 23. Comparison of
of the
the losses
losses due
due to the dielectric
to the dielectric in SIW structures
in SIW structures with
with different
different substrates
substrates
and the proposed empty SIW [82]. Conductor losses are neglected.
It has to be stressed that the use of low-cost substrates compensates for the complexity of the
Figure 23. Comparison of the losses due to the dielectric in SIW structures with different substrates
process,
It hasthus,
andbe
to the cost ofthat
thestressed
the the
proposed empty
device
SIWuse
isConductor
[82]. of
very low.
low-costlossessubstrates
are neglected.compensates for the complexity of the
Using this technology, a resonant
process, thus, the cost of the device is very low. slotted
low. array was also built (Figure 24). The antenna was
composed Itof
Using this
has20toslots,
technology, eachathat
be stressed 12.82themm
resonant
use in length
of low-cost
slotted that
array corresponded
substrates
was
was built to
compensates
also
also built a resonant
for
(Figure frequency
the complexity
(Figure 24).
24). The antennaofwas
of the 11.75
GHz. process,
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spacing theof the
slotsdevice
was is 25.64
very low.
mm, nearly λ g/2 in the dielectric-absent SIW, and the
composed of of 20
20slots,
Using this each
slots, each12.82
12.82mm
technology, a mm in in
length
resonant lengththat
slotted thatcorresponded
array corresponded
was also built to a(Figure
resonant
to 24). frequency
a resonant antennaofwas
The frequency 11.75 GHz.
of 11.75
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GHz. The
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spacing
of thefed by an SMA connector placed in the middle of the array. The experimental results
composed ofslots,
of slots
20 the slots
waseach
25.64 was
mm,
12.82 mm25.64
nearly mm,λg /2
in length nearly
that theλdielectric-absent
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incorresponded to a dielectric-absent
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were
antenna
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by an very
was
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the
nearly
25). The
themiddle
array.
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dB bandwidth
array.
experimental around
The experimental
dielectric-absent results
SIW, andwere 11.75 GHz
results
the in very
was
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very good
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was and
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with the
withhalf power
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(Figure 25).beam
placed in 15width
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25). nearly
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15array.
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The experimental
bandwidth
around 11.75 GHz showed
around results
was 11.75 that
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100 MHz the
process
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(0.85%), caninthe
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(0.85%),
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and
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beam with
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showed that the11.75
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be
was 100 MHz (0.85%), and the half power beam width was nearly 8°. These results showed that the
process
used forcan
the be used for the
fabrication fabricationcomponents.
of microwave of microwave components.
process can be used for the fabrication of microwave components.
Figure
Figure
Figure 24.
24.24. Antenna
Antenna
Antenna prototype
prototype
prototype built with
built
built the
with
with empty
the
the SIWSIW
empty
empty [82].
SIW [82].
[82].
Figure 24. Antenna prototype built with the empty SIW [82].
(a) (b)
Figure 25. Comparison between simulated and experimental results for the dielectric-absent antenna
[82]. (a) reflection(a)
coefficient; (b) radiation pattern. (b)
Figure
Figure 25. (a) between
25. Comparison
Comparison
6. Conclusions betweensimulated
simulated andand
experimental results
experimental results (b)
for the
fordielectric-absent antenna
the dielectric-absent
[82]. (a)
antenna25. reflection coefficient; (b) radiation pattern.
Figure A[82]. (a) reflection
Comparison
review of some coefficient;
between
SIW components(b) radiation
simulated designed pattern.
and experimental
for DVB-Sresults for thehas
applications dielectric-absent
been presented.antenna
The
[82]. (a) reflection
main coefficient;
goals of the proposed (b) radiation
solutions pattern.
have been the cost of the devices, which should be as low as
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
A review of some SIW components designed for DVB-S applications has been presented. The
main goals ofofthe
A review proposed
some solutions have
SIW components been the
designed for cost
DVB-Sof the devices, which
applications should
has been be as low
presented. Theas
main goals of the proposed solutions have been the cost of the devices, which should be as low as
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003 15 of 19
6. Conclusions
A review of some SIW components designed for DVB-S applications has been presented. The
main goals of the proposed solutions have been the cost of the devices, which should be as low as
possible, and the size of the devices, which should be as small as possible. The first goal has been
satisfied by using a Taconic RF-35 substrate.
Despite those constraints, the performances obtained by the synthesized devices are very good,
and some improvements to the proposed solutions have been also illustrated.
The proposed devices can be easily modified to work at other frequencies by simply shrinking or
enlarging them. As very general-purpose devices, they also can be used for other applications.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, investigation, and methodology, G.V., D.M., A.M., M.F., F.P.;
writing—original draft preparation, G.V.; writing—review and editing, D.M., A.M., M.F. and F.P.; supervision, F.P.;
project administration, F.P.; funding acquisition, A.M., M.F, F.P.
Funding: This research was funded by the Italian Ministry of University (MIUR), grant number PON01_01224 on
development of Substrate Integrated Waveguide circuits for ITC applications.
Acknowledgments: The prototypes shown in this review were built by Somacis S.p.A., Via Jesina, 60022
Castelfidardo (AN), Italy. Author would like to thank Dr. Francesco Bigelli for the realization of the empty
substrate integrated waveguide prototypes.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.
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© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Applied Sciences: Review of Substrate Integrated Waveguide Circuits For Beam-Forming Networks Working in X-Band

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Keywords: substrate integrated waveguides; directional couplers; antennas

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1003; doi:10.3390/app9051003 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

where ww isis the

3. Components for the Beam-Forming Network

3.1. Four-Port Directional Coupler

Figure 16. Experimental

Figure 17. Basic 4 × 2 antenna block in SIW technology.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19

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