Cities 104 (2020) 102744

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Cities
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Urbanization in Nigeria: The Onitsha experience T

Ngozika Anthonia Obi-Ani, Mathias Chukwudi Isiani
⁎

Department of History and International Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In Nigeria, many urban centers sprung up as a result of colonial administrative development and its subsequent
Sustainable urban development mining activities. A typical instance is the cities of Port Harcourt, Enugu and Kaduna which emerged as ad-
Onitsha ministrative, commercial or mining centers. Similarly, Onitsha, a budding traditional society, metamorphosed
Urbanization over time to be a commercial center in Eastern Nigeria. In lieu of this, the competition between migrant traders
Nigeria and urban centres
and indigenes intensified over land ownership and customary rights. In recent times, Onitsha faces the challenge
of inadequate spaces both for its businesses and for its residential quarters resonating communal conflicts be-
tween neighbouring communities: a consequence of urbanization pressure developed during the process of land
acquisition. Largely, this paper aims at investigating the inherent causes of rural-urban migration as well as
exploring the contributions and challenges of migrants in Onitsha. Employing qualitative and quantitative
methods of historical inquiry, this paper will attempt an analysis, using Onitsha as a case study, of differing
problems and prospects of sustainable urban development in Nigeria. Three qualitative techniques namely:
phenomenological approach, narrative approach and process tracing will be utilized for data collection, its
analysis and in the interpretation of findings. The paper will mostly investigate the contradictions inherent in
migration patterns and how these affect settler-indigene relations in the city of Onitsha, South-Eastern Nigeria.
The push-pull theoretical paradigm by Ernest Ravenstein complemented by the individual/opportunity nexus
theory advanced by Shane and Venkartaraman will be appropriated for this purpose. Basically, the crux of the
study purports that Onitsha's urban development lies currently on a tinder box as the city's lack of an urban
development plan has resulted in the emergence of illegal structures especially on water ways; a classic case
being the River Niger which may one day overflow its banks thereby birthing detrimental consequences. Against
this background, an efficient town planning committee instituted by the government should ensure adequately
that Onitsha is restored to its prior status as a plush and plum city.

1. Introduction
Global migration remains a central theme that reflects the varying
Sustainable Development Goals in Africa and beyond. Sadly, population
over explosion in urban cities which retard the growth of rural areas
constitutes one of the major consequences of migration. Generally,
urban centers are defined as centers with various economic activities
that provide basic human facilities, social services and physical devel-
opment (Jack, 2000). Urban centers are also characterized by high
population counts with the brimming populace occupying every eco-
nomic sector of the city. Onyemelukwe (1977) defines urbanization as
the agglomeration of people in relatively large numbers at a particular
spot in the earth surface. Jack (2000) also opines that urbanization aims
at meeting basic conditions for settlers such as modernization, physical
development, economic stability and the provision of heterogeneity in
occupation choices. More so, urbanization is defined as the process by
which rural communities, through sporadic growth, form cities which
by extension fosters their expansion (Joshua, 2008). In recent times, the
world's population is quickly becoming urbanized as more people prefer
to live in the cities where excellent living conditions are obtainable.
According to researchers, urban cities are magnetic in nature; attracting
lots of people for investments, infrastructural and tourist purposes. As a
matter of fact, the larger the city, the greater its power of attraction
(Ngai et al., 2016). Thus, Sadashivam and Tabassum (2016) in their
study on India identify that a close relationship exists between urba-
nization and economic growth. As a result of this interrelation, popu-
lation over explosion in urban areas occur because these facilitate the
evolution of knowledge and serve as both incubators of civilization and
engines of growth and development (Hope, 2012). In Nigeria, likewise
in Kenya, (Hope, 2012) urban centers with their infrastructural facil-
ities act as magnets that enable rural-urban migration. These cities
therefore remain focal points of examination for both public and private

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ngozika.obi-ani@unn.edu.ng (N.A. Obi-Ani), mathias.isiani@unn.edu.ng (M.C. Isiani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102744
Received 29 May 2019; Received in revised form 22 February 2020; Accepted 20 April 2020
Available online 16 May 2020
0264-2751/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
activities; and as such have become settling abodes for the teeming
populace. (Hope, 2012). Furthermore, according to Mazumdar (1987),
factors that push individuals from rural areas into cities emanate from
the pressures of living conditions in rural areas, which nearly exhaust
all margins of cultivation; thus, pushing people towards a new life
characterized by sustenance in the cities.
Onitsha as a commercial city in Nigeria continues to attract people
from different locations for settlement and this arises due to the pre-
sence of harsh economic conditions that mitigate survival in the
country. In its city, this migrational pull occurred as a result of adequate
infrastructure such as the establishment of colonial schools and good
road networks for the transportation of goods and services.
Subsequently, these infrastructures made Onitsha a business-oriented
city with a fast-paced development especially after colonial rule. As
such, Onitsha is widely known as the “Home for all” cum “No man's
land.” Overtime, this influx of people encouraged the sales of lands,
shops and open spaces which accommodated emerging business ven-
tures. This also led to the erection of illegal housing structures. As
Wang, Li, Huang, Yi, and Ren (2020) maintains, housing plays an im-
portant role in widening the urban-rural wealth gap. To this end, those
who cannot afford a decent environment seek for shelter in illegally
erected shacks. Still on the path of interrogation, Turok and Borel-
Saladin (2014) opine that urbanization is excessive and unmanageable
thereby it results to illegal land invasions, burgeoning informal settle-
ments, unprecedented housing pressures, overloaded infrastructure and
social disorder.
In the early 20th century, Onitsha was the leading administrative,
commercial, educational and cultural center in Igboland. It doubled
also as the headquarters of Onitsha Province (including Enugu) as well
as the headquarters of the Anglican and Catholic missions (Okeke,
2003). Okeke (2003) asserts that with the rise of Enugu as an admin-
istrative town, Onitsha lost its importance as an administrative center.
Therefore, in the 1950s and 1960s, government-owned institutions of
higher learning were established in Enugu and Nsukka but none was
established in Onitsha. With recourse to this, the relative importance of
Onitsha as an educational center declined. Hope (2012) further affirms
that colonizers established centers (manifested by administrative, cul-
tural, economic and recreational activities) in areas that gave them easy
access to ports and roads for the transportation of goods. Consequently,
the spatial structures of most African economies, including Kenya's,
became strongly focused on a small number of economic geographic
areas (cities). Hope (2012) also explains that it is in these cities that
newly established transport systems were concentrated; hence the
massive population drift. To this end, cities in Kenya continue to remain
the focal point of public and private activities and as such have become
the ideal settling place for the masses. In recent times, Onitsha is be-
devilled with similar challenges common with urban centers in most
developing countries. These include: environmental degradation, ac-
celerated urbanization and insufficient urban structures (Muhammed,
Sabiu, & Khalil, 2015; Sadashivam & Tabassum, 2016). In addition, bad
roads, blocked drainage, traffic jams, uncleared refuse dumps, poor
sanitary habits, foul odour and high incidence of crime inundate the
city (Okeke, 2003). In the face of all this, Onitsha still retains its re-
putation as a traders' town dominated in every way by rich, pompous
but poorly educated and culturally unsophisticated business men
(Okeke, 2003). However, the government failed to explore the full
potential of this city as an important economic hub for sustainable
economic development in the country. As regards this, this study
proffers some recommendations to curb this menace among which
2
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
include: good road networks to link surrounding communities; ad-
herence to the city's masterplan in order to curtail illegal erections of
buildings and structures and improvements in epileptic water and
electricity supply which if when tackled will foster economic develop-
ment.
Aside literatures on the food, trade and administration of Onitsha
from precolonial to the end of the Nigerian-Biafran war, researchers are
yet to study how rapid urbanization and migration into Onitsha brought
a number of problems to the city and its surrounding environs. This is
mainly attributable to the inadequacy of a master plan, unmanageable
population growth, indigene-settlers' crises, poor sanitation, lack of
water supply, increase in crime rate among other social vices. As re-
gards this, this research not only brings to the limelight the case of one
of the fastest growing cities in Eastern Nigeria and like every other city
in a developing world, urbanization in Onitsha presents its opportu-
nities and challenges. The onus however lies in the fact that the gov-
ernment ought to put structures in place to mitigate the negative out-
comes of urbanization through crime eradication and through the
dredging of River Niger. Additionally, this research observes that the
desire for Eldorado by rural dwellers has not bridged in any way the
poverty reduction gap as most migrants live in abject poverty and a
squalor unfit for human condition. As Sadashivam and Tabassum
(2016) postulate, the urbanization concept provides opportunities for
every country, irrespective of the lack of uniformity in different coun-
tries. In relation to Nigeria, the lack of good governance, increased
crime rate, farmers-herders' conflicts and insurgency amidst other social
eruptions trigger rural-urban migration. More so, the dwindling
economy has placed greater pressure on urban cities and towns like
Onitsha. The insensitivity of the government as regards urban planning
and infrastructural development has led similarly to poor sanitation
conditions which is detrimental to the health inhabitants. In Onitsha,
this non-adherence to urban planning or even a semblance of it has led
to the mushrooming of slums and ghettoes which have become
breeding grounds for miscreants and hide-outs of hardened criminals.
Besides constituting a nuisance for law-abiding citizens, these slums
obstruct a few drainage systems that have been in existence. Conse-
quently, in the near future, Onitsha will experience increased flooding
together with climate changes and its concomitant weather catastrophe
that is most likely to force the River Niger to overflow its banks. What
this brings to the fore is that this research is important in alerting town
planning authorities of the imminent danger that arises due to un-
regulated buildings and sprouting ghettoes. Again, there is the need to
conduct a holistic study of Onitsha urban development with a greater
emphasis on its unintended population upsurge, its indigene- settlers'
impasse and its communal clashes. For instance, there have been Oba-
Obosi, Umuoji-Nkpor, Ogidi-Umuoji and Onitsha-Nkwerre land dis-
putes. These clashes are incited by scenarios where as many as ten in-
dividuals with purported land documents lay claim to the same parcel
of land. This is not only preposterous but it is also dangerous as si-
tuation such as this has led to the unfortunate murder of rural clai-
mants. An informant once mentioned that her aunt lost an inheritance
to a powerful business magnet who erected a massive hotel on her land.
Lacking the wherewithal and the necessary documents to pursue her
claims in courts, she gave up (Samson, personal communication, 2020).
This kind of scenario is a recipe for chaos caused by fraudsters who
affirm that might is right. In lieu of this, our study purports that in the
21st century, a more transparent land acquisition process should be put
in place by Onitsha town planning authority to avoid the decadence of
law and order. As Onitsha expands and absorbs neighbouring
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani Cities 104 (2020) 102744

communities, estate developers should also be employed to cater for the
housing needs of urban dwellers belonging to the lower, middle and
upper classes of the society. As has been stated, the population pressure
in Onitsha suffocates its surrounding communities and it is this existing
gap that this research attempts to highlight.
Map of Onitsha and its neighbouring communities.
Source: GIS, Department of Geography, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.

3
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
2. Literature review
This paper reviews few critical literatures that explore areas of ur-
banization and Onitsha as a city. The essence of this review is to es-
tablish that a lacuna is yet to be filled in the already existing body of
knowledge.
Onyemelukwe's (1973) “Staple Food Trade in Onitsha Market”,
Mbajekwe's (1991) “Trade and Economy in Onitsha 1900-1960” and
Odukwe's (1985) “The Ozo Title in Onitsha: A Brief Historical Study”
explores the economic and cultural history of Onitsha. However, they
fail to capture the Onitsha and non-Onitsha residents' relationship and
the political squabbles that exist between these two groups especially
during the colonial period. Intelligence Reports on the Onitsha Town-
ship (ONDIST 12/1/816 AND 12/1/817) constitute a general account
of the history, customs, social and political structure of Onitsha as well
as the political rivalry between Onitsha and non-Onitsha Igbo residents
which affect the development of the town. Okeke Edward Okeke's
(2003) “A Political and Administrative History of Onitsha, 1917-1970”
examines colonial and civil war experiences of the Onitsha people. He
asserts that from 1900, a large number of traders from other parts of
Nigeria began to settle in Onitsha. The largest groups of these settlers,
apart from the non-Onitsha Igbo were Hausa, Yoruba, Nupe and Ka-
kanda. Though there were representatives of non-Igbos in colonial
Native Courts (NC), Native Administration (NA) and Township Ad-
visory Board (TAB), non- Onitsha Igbos whom the colonial government
believed were “blood brothers” of the Onitsha Igbo were not re-
presented. The non-Onitsha Igbo's exclusion in the representative
councils led to the agitation for inclusiveness in the NC, NA and TAB.
This generated political rivalry between Onitsha and non-Onitsha Igbos
that lasted through years of warring. This also created intense rivalry
between people of the same ethnic stock that has persisted till present
times.
Bosah's (1979) Groundwork of the History and Culture of Onitsha is
also a detailed work on the origins: political, economic, religious and
cultural developments of the Onitsha people. Bosah claims that in-
digenes of Onitsha migrated from Benin in the late 16th century and
established a “unified” system of government which was totally dif-
ferent from Benin's traditional government. He narrates how Onitsha
developed due to the penetration of the Church Missionary Society in
1857. As trade and commerce developed, traders and professionals
found settlement in the city. Thus, he avows that:
By and large, the commercial life of Onitsha moved apace. The big
commercial firms no doubt played an important role in the astro-
nomical growth of Onitsha into the foremost commercial center on
the Lower Niger. Giant stores for the purchase of palm kernel and
palm oil were located in the area popularly known as ogbo-manu by
the junction of the Old and New market roads, Upper New Market
Road and Old Cemetery Road.
This work though a veritable source for this paper failed to identify
how urbanization has contributed to the tussle between Onitsha and
non-Onitsha indigenes. This research will attempt to fill this gap.
Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture by A.E Afigbo
(1981) evinces that the Igbo Society had an organized democratic and
decentralized government that was interrupted by the imposition of the
British Indirect Rule system. The colonial system induced changes in
the life and culture of the people leading to increased commercial ac-
tivities in the urban centers of Igbo speaking states such as Onitsha,
Asaba, Agbor, Aba, Port Harcourt, Umuahia, Enugu among a few. By
the 19th century, Onitsha had grown as an important commercial
center and had acquired a new status of importance as the headquarters
of a Division and a Province. This contributed largely to the dense
population of the city. Unfortunately, this population growth was not
matched with the provision of adequate housing, water supply and
good hospitals.
Otoyede et al. (2015) surmises that for an urbanized city to be
4
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
guaranteed sustainable development, it needs to be inclusive, holistic
and visionary through integrated planning and transparent governance.
He further delineates that members of society in urban centers must be
carried along irrespective of their social class and economic status. To
complement this, the government must likewise monitor the city's
growth plan implementation. Bartone (1991) also notes that poverty
constitutes one of the major challenges confronting urbanization. He
explains that poverty puts pressure on people and this incites them to
engage in unsustainable practices that contribute to environmental
degradation and hazardous pollution. Likewise, Oyeleye (2013) studies
the various challenges of urbanization and urban growth in Nigeria. He
notes that migration from rural-urban areas is as a result of govern-
mental neglect of rural dwellers. He argues also that the government
needs to strengthen these polities by including the rural area in its
annual budget. He additionally identifies other challenges which in-
clude poor housing, poverty, crimes, food insecurity, unemployment,
environmental problems and climatic changes to be problems en-
countered in the course of migration. However, Ngai et al. (2016) re-
veal that urbanization is essentially a natural process where cities grow
by virtue of population explosion consequent of migration. Hence, cities
are said to grow at the expense of their surrounding rural areas. They
further avow that the process of urbanization; however, brings many
benefits such as better facilities and amenities, more jobs and business
opportunities, bigger markets and increase in developmental funds.
Nevertheless, it also produces many problems that diminish the quality
of life in human societies. These problems include: environmental
problems (pollution, micro climate, disease epidemics); shelter problem
(over-crowding, lack of affordable housing leading to proliferation of
slums and squatter settlements); crime rates, lack of health care and
economic problems (unemployment). Citing Cohen, Ujoh, Kwabe, and
Ifatimehin (2010), these state that the urbanization rate in Nigeria is
one of the fastest in the world. Their study, “Understanding Urban
Sprawl in the Federal Capital City, Abuja,” observes that the growth and
development of Urban Abuja was facilitated by the Federal govern-
ment's move of Nigeria's capital from Lagos to Abuja. They assert that
urbanization in Nigeria takes a sprawling pattern - this means an un-
planned incremental urban development, characterized by low density
mix of land uses on the urban fringe (Ujoh et al., 2010). Their findings
in relation to Abuja revealed a sporadic growth that occurred between
1991 and 2006 that was as a result of the movement of all government
ministries and extra-ministerial bodies departments and parastatals
from Lagos to Abuja. This Abuja experience best provides hindsight on
how government led policies and directives can lead to urban growth.
They surmise further that there is poor urban sustainability and that the
government is overwhelmed by poor sprawling developments that
arose due to an intense focus on Abuja alone. In sum, this study helps
the present research to understand how certain infrastructures built by
the government in Onitsha made the city an attractive pole.
“Rapid land coverages pose a great challenge to environmental
sustainability and sustainable - urban development” says Enoguanbhor,
Gollnow, Nielsen, Lakes, and Walker (2019). To them, environmental
sustainability is defined as the condition that allows human society to
meet their current needs without compromising the current and future
health of natural ecosystem. Using Geographic Information System
(GIS) and Remote Sensing techniques, these authors observe that in
Abuja, various land areas designated for nature's conservation, for in-
tensive agriculture and for animal husbandry were lost to urbanization
following the construction of modern houses. They observed that Abuja
has not equalized urbanization with proper sustainability as there is an
increase in land use ups. They conclude that if Abuja as a city is not
designed into a sustainable posture, there would be spillage into sur-
rounding areas. As with the case of Onitsha, surrounding towns often
serve as dumping or deposit sites of Abuja's excesses. This is reflected in
the surrounding towns of Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja-Kiye,
Lugbe, Kubwa, Bwari, Gwagwalada: spill over that constitute grounds
that breed poverty.
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
These are the problems of Onitsha's metropolis that is like a mile-
stone of sustainable development goals. Onitsha's urban development
appears also to have been abandoned due to individual initiatives.
Thus, haphazard, unplanned ghettoes compete side by side with areas
properly designated in the master plan. This poses health hazards,
pollution and even an expansion of persisting road networks.
Other studies examine the growth of urbanization in China where
forced relocation has triggered intra-urban migration. As Huang, He,
Tang, and Li (2020) offers, “Moving out of a deprived neighbourhood as
a result of forced relocation can be an opportunity for residents to
improve their housing condition.” The housing reform in 1998 led to
the forced relocation of urban residents on a massive scale. Some re-
sidents paid compensation which were often used to buy a new home in
an area with relatively poor location. In Nigeria, when Mallam El Rufai,
Minister of the FCT wanted to revert the capital city to its original plan,
he demolished people's houses and businesses and no compensations
were paid. Many lost their sources of livelihood, while many relocated
to rural areas. In Onitsha, illegal structures are difficult to demolish as
those affected keep bribing town planners. Again, the governments in
Nigeria, as with the case of the Abuja demolition, could not offer
compensations to victims. According to Neelmani and Saha (2014),
most people migrate to the city to seek fortune. The implication of this
mass exodus to cities includes the growth of unplanned and haphazard
cities due to an increase in industrialization. In their study, “Urbani-
zation in India: An Impact Assessment,” Neelmani and Saha (2014)
argue that in India, towns are classified into Census towns: a place with
a population of 5000 and Urban Agglomeration which is adjoining of
two and more towns due to urban outgrowths. They also observe that
the features of urbanization such as: rural push factors and lopsided
urbanization induce the growth of class 1 cities where urbanization
occurs without industrialization and strong economic base; hence the
poor quality of rural-urban migration leads to poor urbanization. These
scholars also itemized the basic problems of urbanization into the
transfer of rural poverty to urban poverty, urbanization leading to so-
cial inequalities, the problems associated with slums, housing, trans-
portation, water, air and land pollution and urban cities growing into
urban prosperity (Neelmani & Saha, 2014). This study therefore cap-
tures the Onitsha experience especially in the interpretation of the in-
creased poverty in the metropolis. At one end, Mao, Huang, Song, Zhu,
and Tan (2020) observe that the challenges of megacities are as a result
of rapid urbanization in areas where favourable resources would be
actualized. While on the other hand, the challenge of accommodating
urban growth to local eco-environmental status has led to urban land
scarcity that has affected inter-city connections. In Onitsha, the scarcity
of land has led to tussles between Onitsha and non-Onitsha indigenes
resulting in a no love-lost relationship between the groups.
In India Sadashivam and Tabassum (2016) identify the negative
impacts of urbanization demonstrated in the lack of basic facilities like
drinking water, housing, transport etc. They further reiterate that ur-
banization needs to be sustainable in two counts. First, there is the need
for all to benefit equally through social inclusion and secondly through
environmental sustainability. Wang et al. (2020) maintain that housing
also plays an important role in widening the urban-rural wealth gap.
Thus, the institutional structures between urban and rural areas in
China are the main obstacles in the process of urban-rural integration.
In Onitsha, there is this tacit prejudice from Onitsha indigenes who
derisively refer to settlers as Igbo people from hinterland (nwa onye
igbo). This is because there is this general belief among Onitsha Igbos'
that their origin can be traced to ancient Benin kingdom and this gives
them a sense superiority over other Igbo people. Thus, kingship system
exists among the Onitsha Igbo whereas the rest of the Igbos is ace-
phalous.
Furthermore, Turok and Borel-Saladin (2014) are of the view that
the complicated urbanization in South Africa are reflects the legacy of
institutionalized racism, urban exclusion and rural deprivation. Pent-up
migratory pressures are said to have been released when apartheid was
5
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
abolished, but deep social inequalities and shortages of land and
housing hampered urban integration.
In all, these studies, though not on Onitsha urban centers, are
helpful in understanding the challenges faced by residents in urban
centers. The above sources are therefore veritable literatures for un-
derstanding the discourse of rural-urban migration and its contribution
to Onitsha urban development. Nevertheless, the exponential growth of
Onitsha since the civil war ended in 1970 has not been addressed. It is
this gap in urban expansion as revealed in problems faced by migrants
and indigenes that this paper seeks to address. Employing the theory of
push-pull by Ernest Ravenstein and the theory of individual/opportu-
nity nexus by Shane and Venkataraman, the research presents a per-
spective on Onitsha as regards urbanization.
3. Theoretical framework
This research is hinged on the theory of push-pull by Ernest
Ravenstein. Ernest Ravenstein, one of the earliest migration theorist
used census from England and Wales to argue why people migrate from
one location to another. In his book, “Law of migration”, he notes that
unfavourable conditions in rural areas ‘push’ people away from their
permanent place of living to favourable conditions and ‘pull’ them in
temporary places to permanent residences as well. Some of the push
factors examined were heavy taxation, high temperature, education
opportunities, unhealthy agricultural product, flood and famine.
Contrarily, the pull factors include free movement, peaceful environ-
ment, good land, less taxes and job opportunities (Ravenstein, 1989).
Ravenstein's theory of migration reveals that Onitsha, once a tra-
ditional society, had ‘pull’ factors that attracted migrants from different
geographical locations. The circumstances leading to this settlement
might not necessarily be negative but the environs had earlier been
accelerated by the British colonial administration who provided em-
ployment opportunities, adequate educational facilities, good atmo-
sphere and booming trade and commerce (Eyeh, 2015a, 2015b) Thus,
to fully grasp Onitsha's urban experiences for migrants, the pull factor
comes must be put into perspective. The British colonial infrastructure
established in Onitsha includes schools, courts, police stations, hospitals
and churches. Specific examples include Dennis Memorial Grammar
School, established in 1925, Christ the King College 1939, St. Charles
College 1928, All Saint Cathedral church, Basilica of Holy Trinity,
Government Technical College. The Niger at Onitsha is impressively big
and the bridge is quite long with its railings so large and strong that
they can prevent even the biggest road vehicles from falling into the
river. The Onitsha Main Market is located by the River Niger. It draws
more people to Onitsha than other establishment in the town. These
opportunities have created jobs for settlers and indigenes such as clerks,
interpreters, cleaners, errand boys, school boys among others. These
workers who later established themselves through one vocational job
alerted their relatives of the good tidings in Onitsha environment.
Those who lacked the minimum educational qualifications for colonial
jobs became traders to cater for the needs and demands of the teeming
civil servants. Today, Onitsha has one of the biggest markets in West
Africa. Equally important is the push factors that forced from their
traditional occupation of farming and livestock keeping into daily wage
earners and taxable adults. The newly colonized environment had
compelled all adult males to pay tax in addition to a monetized
economy. It was only in the urban centers like Onitsha that men could
earn wages in the currency and be able to pay tax and escape the
possibility of imprisonment because of defaulting. Onitsha was also a
huge construction site with many government buildings sprouting up.
Labourers were needed and news filtered into the hinterland of op-
portunities to earn daily wages and make headway in the new location.
To elucidate further the peculiarities of Onitsha urban development,
the theory of individual/opportunity nexus theory by Shane and
Venkataraman (2000) complements Ravenstein theory of migration.
The theory avows that the availability of opportunities in every given
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani Cities 104 (2020) 102744

place accommodates and harbors any individual. This is in tandem with across the country particularly in Onitsha. I could still recollect that
Davidson (2015) citing (Davidson, 2003; Gartner, 1988; McMullen & as we strode down the streets - the Old and New Market Roads to the
Dimov, 2013; Shane & Venkataraman, 2000; Wiklund, Davidson, various locations for our monthly hobbies - carpentry, bicycle and
Audrestsch, & Karlsson, 2011) who argue that there is a growing con- watch repairing, photography, book-binding, tailoring, etc.; women
sensus that entrepreneurship is the process through which new eco- and children usually rushed out from their houses to have a glimpse
nomic activities and organizations come into existence. This theory of us and hailing us with shouts of “Umu Ogalanya1 School”
emphasizes the presence of two major approaches for a successful en- (Amucheazi, 2015).
trepreneurial innovation: Lucrative opportunities and enterprising in-
These settlers at Onitsha were at first affected by both psychological
dividuals (Eyeh, 2015a, 2015b). To broaden the scope of the theory as it
and sociological traumas arising as a result of a new environment as
affects this research, the theorist summarizes with three assumptions.
they were rejected by indigenes who subsequently viewed them as
The first assumption is that opportunities exist whether or not an in-
threats to their dominance of the town. As Khilstrom and Laffont (2019)
dividual recognizes them. The second assumption is that in en-
argue, m people with a greater preference for uncertainty prefer to be
trepreneurship, the uniqueness of the individual manifests in the ability
entrepreneurs while those with a lesser preference for uncertainty
to recognize opportunities. Lastly, it examines the entrepreneur as a risk
prefer to be wage employees.
bearer.
Onitsha accommodated people who saw themselves as capable of
In analysing the above assumptions as it is relevant to this research,
contributing to the economy by establishing cooperative and thrift so-
the Onitsha community prior to the invasion of colonial explorers into
cieties in order to ‘gain government recognition.’ In this process of the
the hinterland of Igboland was agrarian and practiced subsistence
exploitation of opportunities, individuals acquire resources.
farming (Okoye, 2019). The advent of commercialization of resources
The above theories explain the factors attracting people to Onitsha
in Igboland just like in other parts of Africa informed the inhabitants of
and how settlers maximize the opportunities inherent in the city.
the need to shift from food crop production to cash crop production viz.:
Though Onitsha, urban with no semblance of planning, sits on a tinder
oil palm and kernels production. Subsequently an administrative center
box, illegal structures erected on water ways may also cause untold
for the shipment of raw materials to the coast was implemented. Ac-
human and material loss in the future as the River Niger could overflow
cording to Nworah (2020), Niger River before Nigeria's independence
its banks due to the climate change unless remedied action is taken. It is
was a melting pot for ‘wealth’ for individuals who had left their
on this premise that the research tends to analyse the migration stra-
agrarian life and migrated to Onitsha for ‘white collar jobs.’ Job op-
tegies employed by migrants and the contributions and challenges as
portunities in Onitsha were situated in Onitsha law courts where some
that need to be explored in order to sustain Onitsha's environs.
educated migrants served as clerks; in banks where some migrants and
settlers were drivers and in markets where indigenes assisted colonial
4. Research questions
explorers in interpretation of data (Okoye, 2019). This would be as a
result of weekly or monthly salary received from the migrants which
The research questions raised by this study investigate the effects of
Ezeonyemalu (2020) opined to be far better than relying on the
urbanization on the social and economic development of Nigeria as well
agrarian economy. His position clearly reflects Shane and Venkatar-
as the roles government play in curbing rural-urban migrations and
aman's first assumption that opportunities exist whether or not an in-
indigenes-settlers tussle. Other specific questions culled from its re-
dividual recognizes them. Sadly, these opportunities were seized by
search problems include:
colonial authorities who were able to transform the subsistence farming
society to a commercial and advanced one This notion makes the point
1. What are the causes of migration?
that micro-level explanations of entrepreneurial action and outcomes
2. What are the implications of migration to urban cities?
should look beyond the individuals involved (Davidson, 2015).
3. How has the government managed migration processes to the urban
Furthermore, the ability of Europeans to identify spatial values,
city of Onitsha?
ecological variations and the topography of good areas tend also to
support the theory that everyone cannot perceive opportunities equally.
5. Research hypotheses
Some will be predisposed to identify them, whereas others will surely
be blind to them (Eyeh, 2015a, 2015b). It is therefore not surprising
1. Colonial infrastructures do not significantly influence migration in
that the notion of “entrepreneurial opportunity” has achieved a central
Onitsha.
role in the academic discourse on entrepreneurship (Busentiz,
2. Government policies do not significantly influence indigenes-set-
Plummer, Klotz, Shahzad, & Rhoads, 2014; Davidson, 2015). This fur-
tlers' relationship
ther agrees with the second assumption by the theorists on the un-
3. Developed environments do not significantly influence rural-urban
iqueness of the individual to identify opportunities.
migration
Risk bearing is another assumption the theory avows.
Entrepreneurial opportunities are seen as situations in which new
6. Research methodology, data collection and design
goods, services, raw materials, markets and organizing methods can be
introduced through the formation of new means, ends, or means-end
The study examines the growth and challenges of urban develop-
relationship (Eckhardt, 2019). The establishment of Onitsha municipal
ment in Onitsha city and recommends measures for sustaining an ex-
city and its urbanization and migration of individuals to eke out a living
cellent economic environment. The research makes use of ethnographic
was an act of risk. Settlers in the new environment had no knowledge
research design and field survey methodology by obtaining views,
about the weather or the coping strategies in the city. Some migrants
feelings, attitudes and suggestions of settlers and indigenes who per-
came for a safer environment; some came as a result of the good
manently settled in Onitsha before and after the Nigerian civil war. This
medical, technological and academic advancement in the city.
methodology goes in line with Agbegbedia's (2013) view that survey is
Amucheazi (2015) postulates that:
a means of measuring what a person knows (knowledge or informa-
By late 1940s migrants in Onitsha came as a result of the growing tion), what a person thinks (attitudes or belief), what a person likes or
technical teaching skills going on at Dennis Memorial Grammar
School (DMGS), Onitsha. He further noted that ‘those of us who 1
were students at DMGS in the 1950s’, that is, over half a century The appellation “Umu Ogalanya School” is a literary corruption of “students
in grammar” school in Igbo language and means illustrious, great, pre-emi-
ago; clearly remember the awe with which the school was held
nence.

6
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
Fig. 1. Dennis Memorial Grammar School, Onitsha (Obi-Ani & Isiani, 2018).
Fig. 2. All Saints' Cathedral Onitsha (Obi-Ani & Isiani, 2018).
dislikes (values and preferences) and how a person feels (feelings).
The data for this research were collected through primary and
secondary sources. The study area is Onitsha in present day Anambra
State, Nigeria and the primary sources are inhabitants living in the city.
It has also been sourced through an in-depth interview conducted with
twenty-five informants in order to seek their opinions on the migration
processes and rapid urbanization of the city. These individuals consist
of Onitsha indigenes, migrants' settlers, skilled and semi-skilled la-
bourers who are familiar with the research questions. The interviews
were mainly in an informal setting where the informants were free to
express themselves without intimidation, threat or the fear of being
molested. In addition, 80 questionnaires were used which were all ac-
cepted for validation.
The secondary sources of this research include published books,
unpublished project reports, thesis and dissertations, journal articles
and online materials. Data obtained were analysed using content and
descriptive techniques such as frequencies and percentages with the use
7
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) tool. The research
design used includes case study design, cross sectional design, de-
scriptive design, experimental design and survey design (Grunow,
1995; Vaus, 2002; Agbegbedia, 2013). The results of these designs were
derived from independent variables of detailed information sourced
from the masses through qualitative and quantitative techniques. The
qualitative technique explores the active participation of researchers in
the studied group. Both researchers have lived in Onitsha and partici-
pated actively. The survey design was adopted in order to reach a good
number of people living in Onitsha who voluntarily answered ques-
tions. Some people were allowed to withdraw their comments during
the interviews. The survey design used in the research is combined with
descriptive research to accommodate the nuances of views among dif-
ferent segments in the study population (Agbegbedia, 2013: 111) which
assisted the researchers in understanding the social problems and
proffer policy solutions for urbanization in Onitsha.
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
7. Pull factors
The colonial administrative development and its mining activities
spurred the development of major cities in Nigeria. These developments
are witnessed in the agricultural, economic, political and social sectors
of the country. Though the colonial infrastructure was for her im-
perialistic achievements, these infrastructures were neglected by
Nigerian leaders following the 1970s-oil boom. This era of oil wealth
was a biting economic wastefulness to the detriment of agricultural
output in the country. Thus, rural migration to urban centers to partake
in the so-called ‘national cake’ peaked.
Many informants and writers believe that Dennis Memorial
Grammar School (DMGS) Onitsha (see Fig. 1), was one of the educa-
tional institutions that attracted settlers. DMGS, a British established
school founded in 1925, by a British missionary, Archdeacon Thomas
John Dennis was the first grammar school in Eastern Nigeria. Its motto
‘Lux Fiat’ meaning ‘show the light;’ was indeed an anchorage of edu-
cational light to the Igbos in a quest for knowledge. As one of the
foremost higher schools in Eastern Nigeria, it emerged as an elite in-
stitution, sought after by well-informed parents and guardians for their
wards (Isiani interviewed). As (Achebe, 2012) notes, “the school was
very imposing, with its red earth-brick, limestone-and-wood colonial
architecture accentuated by Doric-columns, and cathedral-height roofs,
and their uniform-the dark red shirt, pants, and cap- was very im-
pressive.” Attending DMGS was and is still regarded as one of the best
things that could happen to many families in Onitsha. Graduating stu-
dents from the school were automatically given scholarships to further
their education in Britain in either applied or pure sciences as well as in
humanities. Some of the schools' graduates who were not opportune to
secure admission to further their studies in Britain established their own
private primary schools and their own technical and entrepreneurial
colleges in Onitsha (Emodi, 2018). These led to an increased migration
to Onitsha as many were eager to partake in western education.
Another strategy employed by desperate rural dwellers to settle in
Onitsha was incited by the establishment of churches. The early mis-
sionaries' in Onitsha after the 1840s Niger expedition had only one
notion of spreading the gospel of Christ for the salvation of man (Isiani,
2018a, 2018b). This spread of the gospel led to the establishment of
churches in Onitsha, first by Church Missionary Society (CMS) presently
called Anglican Communion and afterwards by Roman Catholic and
Methodist Churches. These colonial churches began to preach against
the ‘heathen’ practices of the hinterland and healed the sick dwellers
through orthodox medicines. These churches especially the CMS church
and the All Saints Cathedral Onitsha (see Fig. 2) became centers for
receiving medical assistance. Reverend (later Venerable) Henry Do-
binson and his medical team used the center to heal the sick and
Fig. 3. Onitsha Shopping Mall (Obi-Ani & Isiani, 2018).
8
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
convert indigenes to Christianity (Ibemesi, 1982). As ‘white man’ drugs
cured illnesses faster than herbal medicine, neighbouring communities
such as Ogidi, Nkpor and beyond saw the need to draw closer to the
church for proper medical care (Ogbuka, 2017). The positive effect of
these medications to the citizens led to the mapping out of hectares of
land for the construction of churches as many began to jettison their
traditional religious practices for the new religion.
These new converts in post-colonial Onitsha community without
any inhibiting laws and restriction for construction and establishment
of churches began to establish churches in every nook and cranny of
society by the dawn of the 21st century. It became a center for the
proliferation of churches. As Isiani Alexander notes:
Onitsha has no law regarding construction and opening of churches.
Streets, roads, lanes and kiosks are brimming with different chur-
ches with different names. From Machie lane where I live to
Ochanaja roundabout has 107 churches. All these came to Onitsha
because of increase in population.
Another means through which migrants settle in Onitsha and exploit
her good tidings is by exploring the availability of job opportunities and
cheap commodities. Differences in income earned across regions be-
came a determining factor in the migration decision (Bell, 1991). Co-
lonial District Officers had established capitalist trade route in Onitsha
through the construction of the River Niger bridge exporting palm oil,
kernels and importing bricks, mirrors, drugs and cloths through its
waterways (Ibemesi, 1982). This exportation and importation of goods
employed the services of errand boys who were paid stipends for car-
rying loads from the coast to its required destination. This stipend was
higher than what was obtained from agricultural sales in most rural
communities in Eastern Nigeria. This scenario continued even after the
colonial era. As Isiani Alexander opines:
I came to Onitsha on 29th May 1974 after my primary education.
Though I had passed my entrance examination to Opi High School,
Opi Nsukka but having heard of good job opportunities at Onitsha
from my uncle who had been there before the Nigeria-Biafran war, I
migrated to the city where I got employed as an errand boy at Upper
Saint John on 30th May 1974… The payment was thrice what boys
earn in farming at Opi, Nsukka.
The cheap rate of commodities in Onitsha also attracted settlers. An
informant, Nwanyi (2017) observed that Onitsha main market widely
known as the largest market in West Africa accommodated about 75%
of foreign investors and private businesses (see Fig. 3) following the
strategies of colonial sector. Goods from different parts of the world
were shipped down to Onitsha through the River Niger. European
wears, technological accessories and modern musical instruments were
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
first sold at Onitsha main market at a cheap rate to wholesalers for easy
transportation to other parts of the Eastern region (Nwanyi, 2017).
Rural dwellers transport their agricultural produce to Onitsha as the
city is a non-agricultural area. The sale of agricultural produce at
Onitsha had, to a little extent, encouraged peasant farmers to manage
the crude implements used in cultivating. Asogwa (2017), a known
vegetable trader in Onitsha affirms that:
Harvesting period was my best moment in life. I am a native of Opi
in Nsukka Local Government Area. During this period, I leave Opi at
5:30 am to arrive at Onitsha with my vegetables… I really made
huge profit as the place was not an agricultural produce environ-
ment with massive population.
In the same vein, a business migrant in Onitsha lamented that “I left
Lagos to settle in Port Harcourt because of its business opportunities. I
am comfortable in Onitsha unlike my experiences in Port Harcourt with
my family” (Okoye, 2017).
8. Findings and results
Migration to various urban centres in Nigeria has contributed im-
mensely to the growth of these cities. Mazumdar (1987) sees migration
as a response of individuals to better economic and non-economic op-
portunities and an expectation of increased economic welfare in urban
areas. Expecting better economic opportunities in these urban areas,
settlers as well as indigenes unanimously work together for the devel-
opment of the area. Thus, in sub-Saharan Africa, the phenomenology of
living arrangements is of great interest owing to the extraordinary di-
versification and complexity of traditional family patterns. Ancient
traditions and cultures have produced family forms that do not conform
to ‘western’ categories and are difficult to capture through large-scale
international surveys (Gabrielli, Paterno, & Sacco, 2018). In Onitsha,
the penetration of migrants in search of favourable conditions has
contributed positively to the development of a once traditional society
but at the same time has created accommodation difficulties.
One of the major contributions of urbanization in Onitsha is the
construction of modern high-rise buildings for housing, trade invest-
ments, church services and recreational activities especially by settlers
who have experienced development from either their earlier abode or
by visiting developed communities. For these settlers, the idea of
buying a piece of land at a cheap rate from indigenes became a target.
Lands were sold by Onitsha indigenes to migrants for as cheap as a
bottle of gin, which cost N500 naira only, and swapped or traded off
with settlers' beautiful daughters for marriages (Isiani Interviewed).
Noting the rate of land sales in Onitsha, Francis Ezeonyemalu a native
of Ekwulobia avows that:
I have three modern structures in Onitsha. The land was sold to me
at a giveaway price. I am not sure if the land is up to 3000 naira. One
of the structures accommodates seven to eight families. These fa-
milies are settlers from different rural communities like me, who
came to Onitsha to eke out a living… for instance, my first tenant
from Enugu State also bought lands at strategic places in the heart of
the town.
In line with modern trends, some churches in Onitsha began to
demolish their old structures for western-like patterns. They con-
structed schools, guest houses, industries and workplaces to accom-
modate both college leavers, visitors, migrants and university graduates
that settled in Onitsha. Migrating to Onitsha after secondary school
education often opened one's vistas to vast opportunities in trade and
investment. Through such economic and social investments, these
churches created jobs for school leavers who could have wallowed
aimlessly, without any idea on which line of business or trade to learn.
Another contributory aspect of urbanization in Onitsha is with re-
gard to cultural diversification. Onitsha became a melting pot of cul-
tures. The continuous socio-economic evolution process interacted with
9
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
cultural contexts, introducing further elements of complexity and gen-
erating original dynamics that produced a variety of changes and no-
velties (Gabrielli et al., 2018). Free movement of people from one lo-
cation to another with their entrenched belief systems often resulted in
cultural intermingling and occasional conflicts. Onitsha, one of the
centers of Igbo culture had in recent times witnessed the penetration of
different cultural practices from migrants. Though still maintaining her
ozo titled holders (wise elders) and Obi kingship system, her culture and
tradition was diluted especially through the penetration of Christianity
and western education which sadly saw the Onitsha culture as heathen
and archaic. According to Emodi (2018):
The worst thing that happened to Onitsha traditions was the coming
of early missionaries. Though I'm a Christian but Christianity af-
fected the way we performed festivals, coronation and naming
ceremonies. Everybody sees those practices as old fashioned.
The influx of migrants also affected the indigenous Onitsha kingship
system. Mostly because migrants move with their norms, values and
belief systems; as a result, culture tends to be transfused and borrowed.
As they (migrants) were not obstructed by law, they practiced their
culture freely and as well lured the society to believe in their ‘best’ form
of norms, dialects and culture. In Onitsha, cultural admixture affected
the attributes and principles of indigenous cultural practices that once
existed in precolonial and colonial period. There is this nostalgia by few
Onitsha indigenes about their culture, however that past cannot be
recreated in the face of modernity and predominant migrant popula-
tion.
Access to more educational and medical centers is also significant of
urbanization in Nigeria. In Onitsha, the construction and opening of
private and government owned schools and colleges made the en-
vironment conducive for learning and for business. Both rural and
urban migrants wanted their offspring to attend the best of schools. To
this end, individuals took advantage of inadequate provision of schools
to erect private schools to fill the gap in educational infrastructure in
the town. The constructions of these schools at first were without
government approval. However, Onitsha Municipal Council had to
approve the erection of colleges by individual entrepreneurs (Isiani
Alexander interviewed). Every institution employs the ‘best of tea-
chers,’ enriched her facilities and equipped the training ground for
children. As an ‘academic society,’ colleges in Onitsha had produced the
best graduates in Nigeria and had become a yardstick for measuring
other urban cities in Eastern Nigeria. In 2018, Regina Pacis Model
Secondary School Onitsha, a Roman Catholic owned school constructed
and won the World Technovation Challenge Competition in the United
States of America. This feat placed Onitsha as a centre of technological
innovation in the world. Dennis Memorial Grammar School, Onitsha
also produced the first Nigerian Vice-Chancellor: Late Professor
Kenneth Dike. Philip Emeagwali a product of Christ the King College,
Onitsha constructed the fastest computer in the world. Emeritus
Professor A.O.E. Animalu, a product of Dennis Memorial Grammar,
constructed an Energy and Solar controller at the University of Nigeria,
Nsukka. These are a few among the many individuals and investors that
contributed positively to reshaping the country and the world at large.
Another contributory aspect of urbanization in Onitsha is the con-
struction of intra and inter community roads by the governments,
churches and individuals. Good road networks are one of the basic
features that attract settlers to Onitsha and it became a center for the
distribution of goods and services to the final consumer. As a hub for
trade, Anambra state government under the administration of Mr. Peter
Obi and the present administration of Chief Wille Obiano constructed
all the major and minor roads in Onitsha. In assisting the government,
churches such as Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches also partook
in constructing roads especially around areas leading to their church
premises.
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani Cities 104 (2020) 102744

9. Presentation of data analysis job opportunities for them. What this evinces is that migration into an
urbanized city could possibly be as a result of infrastructures that were
This study was carried out in a bid to unveil the impacts of colonial not in existence in rural communities.
infrastructures, government policies and developed environment on The second hypotheses which states that ‘Government policies do
urbanization in Onitsha. The tables below will show an analysis of data not significantly influence indigenes-settlers’ relationship was rejected
collected. Three hypotheses were generated and tested in order to in- because the result shows that the significant level was 0.031 which
vestigate the subject of this study. The results of the study are organized is < 0.05 (0.031 < 0.05). This shows that government policies do not
in a tabular form to show the frequency derived from the responses to significantly influence indigenes –settlers' relationship in Onitsha.
questionnaires shared. Indigenes and settlers' relationship is based on a mutual understanding
with no instructions, restrictions or management from the government.
The third hypotheses which states that ‘Developed environment do not
9.1. Results significantly influence rural-urban migration’ was accepted because the
result shows that the significant level was 0.043 which is > 0.05
Table 9.1.1 (0.073 > 0.05). This result highlights that there is a relationship be-
Mean and Standard Deviation of 80 Persons Interviewed in Onitsha. tween development and migration since Onitsha's development sig-
nificantly spurred the movement of people from different rural com-
Mean Std. deviation N
munities into the city. This is consequent of opportunities in Onitsha
Colonial infrastructures 1.30 0.892 80 such as educational opportunities and health facilities that were rare in
Government policies 1.99 0.907 80 other rural areas in Nigeria.
Developed environment 1.38 1.205 80
1.50 0.928 80
9.2. Challenges of urbanization in Onitsha

From table above, it is observed that colonial policies in Onitsha
obtained a mean of 1.30 and a standard deviation of 0.892. Government
policies in Onitsha obtained a mean of 1.99 and a standard deviation of
0.907. Onitsha's environment also obtained the mean of 1.38 and a
standard deviation of 1.205. Nevertheless, the 80 persons who were
interviewed for and against migration and urbanization obtained a
mean of 1.50 and a standard deviation of 0.928. From the foregoing
analysis, a result is accepted when it is > 0.5 and is rejected when it
is < 0.5.
Before Nigeria's independence, Onitsha and non-Onitsha Igbo set-
tlers had contentions over admittance into the Onitsha Native
Administration. The council was however, reluctant in acquiescing to
their request even though the District Officer, Resident and Chief
Commissioner felt they had a compelling case. The point being made by
non-Onitsha Igbos was that they were excluded from the membership of
Onitsha Native's Administration council; on the ground that they were
of non-Onitsha origin (Okeke, 2003). However, their interest was to

Table 9.1.2
Statisical Analysis of the Data Collected from Onitsha interviews.

Colonial infrastructures Government policies Developed environment Urbanization

Colonial infrastructures Pearson Correlation 1 0.286a −0.212 −0.153

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.030 0.089 0.061
N 80 80 80 80
Government policies Pearson Correlation 0.286a 1 0.074 −0.173
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.010 0.135 0.031
N 80 80 80 80
Developed environment Pearson Correlation −0.212 0.074 1 0.057
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.089 0.815 0.073
N 80 80 80 80
Urbanization Pearson Correlation −0.153 −0.173 0.057 1
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.061 0.031 0.073
N 80 80 80 80

a
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

From table, three independent variables and one dependent variable

was tested in order to get the significant relationship between in-
habitants and urbanization in Onitsha. The above table will be dis-
cussed in the findings below.
9.1.3. Discussion of findings
Whenever the table value is less than the calculated value in sta-
tistical analysis, the hypotheses is to be rejected but when it is greater,
the hypotheses is to be accepted. Obviously, the findings of this re-
search work were upheld; as the first and third hypotheses were ac-
cepted while the second hypotheses were rejected. The first hypotheses
which states that ‘colonial infrastructures do not significantly influence
migration in Onitsha’ was accepted because the results show that the
significant level was 0.061 which is > 0.05 (0.061 > 0.05). This
shows that colonial infrastructures in Onitsha significantly influenced
migration into its city. Thus, people from different geographical zones
migrate to Onitsha because of colonial infrastructures which provided
acquire franchise in their various home towns which they hoped to use
to advance their socio-economic and political concerns. It took over five
years before Onitsha Native's Administration granted this request. This
no love-lost relationship between Onitsha and non-Onitsha Igbo re-
sidents in the city festered throughout the civil war period. Here, the
Onitsha people were stigmatized because of the activities of their
brothers like Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna, Ukpabi Asika and Nnamdi
Azikiwe. As Okeke (2003) notes:
From August 1967, the Onitsha indigenous community came under
suspicion as a people who were not loyal to the Biafran leader and
who were opposed to secession. It was alleged that Major Ifeajuna,
an indigene of Onitsha, conspired to overthrow the Biafran Head of
State Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu. Ifeajuna and co-plotters
were quickly arrested, charged and executed. Two months later,
another Onitsha man, Anthony Ukpabi Asika, a University of Ibadan

10
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
Fig. 4. Slum area in Onitsha (Obi-Ani & Isiani, 2018).
lecturer was appointed an administrator of the newly created East-
Central State by General Gowon. Mr. Asikia assumed office in Enugu
and started making anti-secessionist broadcasts. Members of both
families were harassed and abused in the streets by Biafran security
agents. It was alleged that all Onitsha elites became suspects in the
Biafran enclave. Many of them were rounded up and detained while
ordinary people of Onitsha origin were denied refuge by their
neighbours.
Other Biafrans became more hostile to Onitsha indigenes after Dr.
Nnamdi Azikiwe's so-called defection to Nigeria. Onitsha people were
publicly denounced even in the churches as saboteurs. Life was really
difficult for Onitsha indigenes during the civil war. However, it is
myopic to characterize Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe's role in Biafran fiasco as an
abandonment of the Igbos in their darkest moments. The few interna-
tional recognitions that occurred in Biafra were merely due to Azikiwe's
deft politics. When Ojukwu remained recalcitrant in the face of all odds
against the Igbos', the Igbo political messiah, Dr. Azikiwe stooped to
conquer. Anything short of Azikiwe's so-called “switching of side”
would have been tantamount to the total annihilation of the Igbo race.
Chudi Offodile (2016) has summed up Achebe's (2012) attitude towards
Azikiwe in his treatise There was a Country: A Personal History of Biafra
Fig. 5. General Hospital Onitsha (Obi-Ani & Isiani, 2018).
11
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
and in The Trouble with Nigeria (Achebe, 1983), as part of the resolution
by some Igbo intellectuals to keep the Biafran spirit alive. One had
expected Achebe to have done a post-mortem analysis of why Biafra
crumbled rather than a continuation of Biafran propaganda. It is
amazing that Ojukwu ignored two expert reports on the weak defense
position and economic consequences of secession of Biafra. The eco-
nomic prospects of Biafra were so gloomy according to Dr. Pius Okigbo
that Biafra could not survive a currency switch while the military si-
tuation by General Effiong was alarming and irredeemable. It is most
unfortunate that Dr. Azikiwe salvaged a wobbling and fumbling Biafra,
giving the end of the war a face-saving coloration that many Igbo in-
tellectuals chose to deride and antagonize unjustly.
As the civil war ended in 1970, Onitsha indigenes, within two
weeks, returned to their home town as well as non-Onitsha indigenes.
Given the harassment and discrimination against the Onitsha people
during the war, relations between the Onitsha people and non-Onitsha
Igbo was not cordial. The Onitsha people took revenge in the early
1970's. They laid claims to houses and undeveloped plots of non-
Onitsha indigenes. Those who lost their deeds during the war, were
allegedly told by their lessors (Okeke, 2003) that they had not bought
any land from them. Those whose houses were not destroyed by air
raids during the war and whose houses were occupied by Onitsha
people struggled to evict them from their buildings. However, ac-
cording to Okeke (2003), there was not much the indigenes who
wanted revenge could do because unlike the governments of the then
Rivers and South-Eastern States, the government of East-Central State
did not declare the buildings belonging to those who fled the town as
“abandoned property.” There was no locus standi for Onitsha indigenes
to appropriate the property of non-Onitsha indigenes. Nonetheless,
post- civil war Igboland created the scenario for urban migration. Many
survivors sought for new opportunities in urban centers and towns
across Igboland. Onitsha was one of such Eldorado and drew so many
war survivors who were able to recover quickly from the ravages of the
war.
As major cities continue to develop, different people from different
walks of life move into the city for greener pastures. In search of these
greener pastures, the environment is highly affected with harmful
pollution resulting from an increase in the concentration of industrial
wastes. Onitsha is currently being faced with diverse challenges as re-
gards high population, inadequate housing, poor medical facilities,
poor transportation system and environmental pollution.
Africa is a less developed continent in the world. Its demographic
situation is a direct consequence of poverty and this affects negatively
the possibilities of economic and social development (Franco-Henao,
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
Fig. 6. Nwosu Lane, Onitsha (Obi-Ani & Isiani, 2018).
Fig. 7. A grave in front of a settlers' shop at 15c Oranye Street, Onitsha (Obi-Ani & Isiani, 2018).
Rodriguez-Sumaza, Borondo-Arribas, & Muzigirwa-Muke, 2018). High
population density constitutes one of the challenges facing urban cen-
tres in Nigeria. The increase in population was as a result of pull factors
envisioned by settlers in Onitsha. Poor public transportation systems
induce affluent residents of Onitsha to acquire private cars that add to
the pollution of the environment and cause serious transportation dif-
ficulties in the city. To avoid being trapped in traffic, civil servants and
business men and women leave their houses at 5:30 am for their work
places. Other settlers who could not secure good accommodation were
crowded in ghettos and slums that dotted many parts of the city (see
Fig. 4). This challenge of high population in Onitsha also led to an in-
crease in crime rate and to insecurity characterized by armed robbery,
rape, thuggery, arson, election rigging, sex trafficking and kidnapping.
Inadequate government hospitals to care for the teeming urban poor
population living in Onitsha constitute one of the challenges that has
obstructed sustainable development in the area. In Onitsha, only one
General Hospital (see Fig. 5) located at Awka Road serves all the in-
habitants in the city. The urban poor who cannot afford to pay for
private hospitals queue from 4.am in the General Hospital to receive
medical care. Hence, the hospital is replete with doctors' abuse and
little attention to patients. The unfortunate patients who still patronize
12
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
the General hospital are regarded by doctors and nurses as paupers, the
dregs of the society, owing to their inability to pay the subsidized
hospital bill (Isiani, 2018a, 2018b). Although the city has private hos-
pitals and clinics, yet the number of occupants in Onitsha outweighs the
medical facilities. The need for hospitals and clinics to address the
health challenges of the citizens makes room for ill experienced, quack
doctors and midwives together with fake drugs to take advantage of the
already bad situation. Furthermore, Onitsha's head bridge market is
notorious for adulterated and fake drug dealers. This calls for im-
mediate construction of hospitals in Onitsha by the state government in
order to address the inadequacies of the health care system in Onitsha.
Urbanization in Onitsha has led to a total dependence on rich in-
dividuals for social necessities and on rural communities for agri-
cultural produce. As the competition in limited resources prevails, the
rich provide employment opportunities through their companies, firms,
business partnership while relying on the neighbouring rural commu-
nities: Omor, Aguleri, Omabala, Ogidi and Anam for their dietary needs
like yams, rice, tomatoes and vegetables.
Environmental pollution is another challenge confronting urban
centres in Nigeria. Environmental pollution ranges from deforestation
and refuse dumps (Mba, Ude, Ume, & Uchegbu, 2004). These
N.A. Obi-Ani and M.C. Isiani
environmental pollutions introduce health challenges in the environ-
ment. Places such as Iweka Road, Upper Iweka Road, Old Cemetery,
Oguta Road (see Fig. 6) has deteriorated due to indiscriminate refuse
dump; as there are no refuse disposal vehicles to cart away mountains
of refuse. The health hazards of such decrepit environment are better
imagined than experienced.
Land tussles between settlers and indigenes also pose another
challenge featured in Onitsha. As indigenes sell their land to migrants
with little or no regard for future prospects, the society crumbles into
incessant land disputes between settlers and indigenes desperate to
reclaim lands that belonged to their forefathers. When such actions are
found baseless in law courts, indigenes resort to burying corpses (see
Fig. 7) in settlers' shops or sitting rooms especially when such settler is a
tenant.
9.3. Sustaining an urban environment: A roadmap for sustainable
development in Onitsha
Having mentioned the existing challenges facing Onitsha's en-
vironment, this research attempts to outline some of the notable ways
through which this menace could be curtailed and possibly be eradi-
cated. By providing an adequate and enabling environment for human
resource development, and good atmospheric conditions for inhabitants
in Onitsha, the government should assume proactivity in order to avoid
pending doomsday. As such, the following recommendations should
suffice:
1. The government should make provisions for developing rural com-
munities in Nigeria as this will help curb rural-urban migrations. To
minimize the high rates of crime in Onitsha, state and local gov-
ernments should create more job opportunities for secondary school
leavers and university graduates as this will enhance human de-
velopment in the city. More so, the government should enforce laws
guiding against the dumping of refuse and other hazardous items in
open, unauthorized spaces. There is also the need to extend markets
into rural communities in Anambra State rather than situating all
articles of trade in Onitsha. Through market diversification, rural
dwellers will also have little or no attractions that will incite their
migration.
2. To control population explosion and sustainable developments in
Onitsha, the government should also create a law that guides child
birth. This can be achieved by providing room for marriage semi-
nars, outreaches and programs. To make Onitsha a sustainable en-
vironment, the government should also extend road constructions
and bridges to rural communities since this will attract competitors
especially private investors who will invest their resources in rural
communities. The government should also designate sites for ce-
meteries where Onitsha indigenes can bury their dead. This will
greatly reduce conflicts with settlers and foreclose the burial of
people in family compounds or residential areas.
3. More so, compensations should be paid to vulnerable groups such as
rural-urban migrants, low income and unemployed residents before
the demolition of their property, like in urban China (Huang et al.,
2020). In addition, the government should be proactive in ensuring
compliance with approved building plans in Onitsha. Illegal struc-
tures particularly waterways or drainages should be demolished
since Onitsha cannot afford to experience the massive demolition
that occurred in Abuja by Malam El Rufai in his bid to restore the
Abuja masterplan. Besides, with the increasing global warming and
climate change, Onitsha is susceptible to being flooded. Hence, it is
our considered view that government policies should be geared to-
wards ensuring strict compliance with approved building plans in
Onitsha. Urbanization is a sign of development and therefore should
not be restricted to few cities. The government should also create
other urban centres that will help to relieve Onitsha from its massive
population over explosion.
13
Cities 104 (2020) 102744
9.4. Summary and conclusion
Urban centres in Nigeria were provided by early colonial masters for
transporting African produce from the hinterland to the coast and much
later to Europe. These urban centres such as Onitsha, Enugu, Lagos,
Port Harcourt and Umuahia ‘developed’ during colonial rule as com-
mercial and administrative centres and have continued to attract new
influx of migrants in post-colonial Nigeria. Onitsha, once a traditional
society grew to be a commercial entity following the 1840–1841 Niger
expedition. This expedition gave immediate rise to construction of
schools, churches, health centres, post offices, banking services, courts,
inland water ways and an exponential growth of markets which saw the
massive migration of individuals from rural communities in Eastern
Nigeria and beyond. The pull infrastructure in Onitsha significantly
attracted different cultures, norms and values that positively and ne-
gatively contributed to its urbanization. Positively, it led to construc-
tion of more schools and roads, and the creation of job opportunities.
Negatively, it led to high population density, inadequate houses and
environmental pollution. To ensure a sustainable urban environment,
the government of Anambra State should create adequate hospitals and
houses; while expanding markets to rural commodities. The govern-
ment should also ensure cordial relations among satellite communities
and should discourage the illegal acquisition of lands by unscrupulous
sellers that create disharmony in host communities. If these measures
are taken, the city will positively affect the living conditions of both
settlers and Onitsha indigenes and this will aid the development of
surrounding communities.
Author/s guarantee form
I declare that all named authors have contributed sufficiently to the
work submitted and that the content of the manuscript has never been
previously published.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
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